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 Autonomous Mobile
Robots in Unknown
Outdoor Environments
 Autonomous Mobile
Robots in Unknown
Outdoor Environments

Xiaorui Zhu, Youngshik Kim,

Mark ­Andrew ­Minor, and Chunxin Qiu
Cover photo courtesy of Dadao, Inc.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Zhu, Xiaorui, author. | Kim, Youngshik, author. | Minor, Mark Andrew,
author. | Qiu, Chunxin, author.
Title: Autonomous mobile robots in unknown outdoor environments / Xiaorui
Zhu, Youngshik Kim, Mark Andrew Minor, Chunxin Qiu.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017037806 | ISBN 9781498740555 (hb : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Mobile robots. | Robots--Control systems.
Classification: LCC TJ211.415 .Z49 2017 | DDC 629.8/93--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017037806

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at

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Contents

Authors................................................................................................................ix

Section I INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction............................................................................................3
1.1 Outdoor Mobile Robots.....................................................................3
1.2 Overview of the Book.......................................................................11

Section II MECHANISM
2 Locomotion Mechanism........................................................................15
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................15
2.2 Compliant Design in Wheeled Mobile Robots.................................16
2.3 Compliant, Framed, Wheeled, Modular Mobile Robot....................17
2.3.1 Mechanism..........................................................................17
2.3.2 General Kinematic Model....................................................19
2.3.2.1 Steering Configurations........................................20
2.3.2.2 F  rame Coupling....................................................22
2.3.2.3 G  eneral Kinematics in Polar Coordinates.............25
2.3.3 Simplified Kinematic Models...............................................28
2.3.4 Mobility and Maneuverability.............................................31
2.3.4.1 Limiting Factors....................................................32
2.3.4.2 Performance Criteria............................................ 34
2.3.5 Generic Dynamic Model.....................................................37

Section III MOTION CONTROL

3 Cooperative Motion Control and Sensing Architecture�����������������������43
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................43
3.2 Motion Control and Sensing Strategy..............................................45
3.3 K
 inematic Motion Controller.......................................................... 46

v
vi ◾ Contents

3.4 Dynamic Motion Controller............................................................49

3.5 S ensory System.................................................................................50
4 Kinematic Motion Control....................................................................53
4.1 I ntroduction.....................................................................................53
4.2 C ontrol of Unicycle-Type Robots.....................................................55
4.2.1 K inematic Model.................................................................57
4.2.2 Path Manifold......................................................................59
4.2.3 Control Law.........................................................................61
4.2.3.1 L  yapunov-Based Control Design...........................61
4.2.3.2 D  ependence on Initial Conditions .......................70
4.2.3.3 B  oundedness by Design of k1 and k2.....................73
4.2.3.4 D  ynamic Extension..............................................75
4.2.4 Controller Implementation and Evaluation..........................76
4.2.4.1 M  ethods and Procedures.......................................76
4.2.4.2 R  esults and Discussion..........................................78
4.3 Control of Multi-Axle Robots......................................................... 90
4.3.1 K inematic Model.................................................................92
4.3.2 Control Law.........................................................................95
4.3.2.1 G  lobal Master Controller on Axle 1......................95
4.3.2.2 S lave Controllers on Axle i (i = 2,…,n)...................96
4.3.3 Steering Algorithm .............................................................97
4.3.3.1 B  asic Creeping-Like Steering Algorithm...............97
4.3.3.2 S teering Algorithm for Posture Regulation.........105
4.3.4 Controller Evaluation.........................................................108
4.3.4.1 M  ethods and Procedures.....................................108
4.3.4.2 R  esults and Discussion........................................ 113
5 Sensory System....................................................................................121
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................121
5.2 The Relative Position Sensor...........................................................125
5.2.1 Beam Model......................................................................126
5.2.2 Implementation..................................................................128
5.3 First-Tier Data Fusion.....................................................................129
5.4 Second-Tier Data Fusion................................................................134
5.4.1 Motivation for Covariance Intersection.............................134
5.4.2 Relative Measurement Stochastic Posture Error
Correction (RMSPEC)......................................................135
5.5 Static Testing of the RPS................................................................ 141
5.5.1 Methods and Procedures.................................................... 141
5.5.2 Results and Discussion.......................................................143
5.6 Testing of the RPS and Data Fusion...............................................147
 Contents ◾ vii

5.6.1 Methods and Procedures....................................................147

5.6.2 Results and Discussion.......................................................148
6 Robust Motion Control.......................................................................157
6.1 Introduction................................................................................... 157
6.2 Kinematic and Dynamic Models.................................................... 159
6.2.1 Modular Dynamic Models................................................ 159
6.2.2 Modular Kinematic Models...............................................160
6.2.3 Compliant Frame Model....................................................162
6.3 Single Axle Nonlinear Damping Control Design...........................164
6.3.1 Structural Transformation of Single-Axle Module.............164
6.3.2 Properties and Assumptions of Single-Axle Controller.......166
6.3.3 Nonlinear Damping Control Design of Single-Axle
Module..............................................................................167
6.3.4 Compliant Frame Effect on Control Design......................169
6.4 Multi-Axle Distributed Control Design.........................................170
6.5 Controller Evaluation.....................................................................171
6.5.1 Methods and Procedures....................................................171
6.5.2 Results...............................................................................173
6.5.3 Discussion.......................................................................... 174
7 Overall Evaluation..............................................................................179
7.1 Introduction...................................................................................179
7.2 Experiment Evaluation...................................................................179
7.2.1 Methods and Procedures....................................................179
7.2.2 Experimental Results and Discussion.................................180

Section IV LOCALIZATION AND MAPPING

8 Terrain-Inclination–Based Localization and Mapping.......................187
8.1 Introduction...................................................................................187
8.2 Three-Dimensional Terrain-Inclination–Based Localization..........189
8.2.1 Robot Terrain-Inclination–Model Extraction....................189
8.2.2 Particle-Filter Terrain-Inclination Localization.................. 191
8.3 Mapping.........................................................................................193
8.3.1 Data Acquisition and Point Clouds Separation..................193
8.3.1.1 Data Acquisition.................................................193
8.3.1.2 Point Clouds Separation......................................194
8.3.2 ICP-Based Mapping...........................................................196
8.4 Experimental Results and Discussion.............................................196
8.4.1 Methods and Procedures....................................................196
8.4.2 Results and Discussion.......................................................198
viii ◾ Contents

9 Cloud-Based Localization Architecture in Large-Scale

Environments......................................................................................205
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................205
9.2 Cloud-Based Outsourcing Localization Architecture.................... 208
9.2.1 Offline Phase.................................................................... 208
9.2.2 Online Phase......................................................................209
9.3 Cloud-Based Localization Algorithms............................................ 211
9.3.1 Algorithms in the Cloud.................................................... 211
9.3.1.1 RTI Model.......................................................... 211
9.3.1.2 Image Matching.................................................. 211
9.3.2 Localization Algorithm on the Robot................................ 211
9.3.2.1 Particle-Filter-Based Localization........................ 211
9.3.2.2 The Network Delay Compensation..................... 214
9.4 Experiments and Discussions.........................................................216
9.4.1 Methods and Procedures....................................................216
9.4.2 Results and Discussion....................................................... 218
References....................................................................................................231
Index�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������245
Authors

Xiaorui Zhu received BS and MS degrees from Harbin Institute of Technology,

Heilongjiang Sheng, China, in 1998 and 2000, respectively, and a PhD degree
from the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, in 2006, all in mechanical engi-
neering. She is currently a professor in the department of automation engineering
at Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), China, where she has been a faculty
member since 2007. She has also been the chief scientist and cofounder of sev-
eral high-tech companies, including DJI International, Inc., and RoboSense, Inc.,
Shenzhen, China. Her main research interests include mobile robots, unmanned
aerial vehicles, autonomous driving, and 3D modeling.

Youngshik Kim received a BS degree from Inha University, Incheon, South

Korea, in 1996, and MS and PhD degrees from the University of Utah, Salt Lake
City, Utah, in 2003 and 2008, respectively, all in mechanical engineering. He is
currently an associate professor in the department of mechanical engineering at
Hanbat National University, Daejeon, South Korea. His main research interests
include shape memory alloy actuators, bio-inspired robots, sensor fusion, motion
control, mobility, and manipulation of compliant robotic systems.

Mark Andrew Minor received a BS degree (1993) in mechanical engineering from

the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and MS (1996) and PhD degrees
(2000) in mechanical engineering from Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan. He is currently an associate professor with the department of mechanical
engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, where he has been a faculty
member since 2000. He is also an adjunct associate professor of computing with the
School of Computing, University of Utah. His research interests include the design
and control of robotic systems with emphasis on mobile robots, automated ground
vehicles, aerial robots, rehabilitative systems, and virtual reality systems.

Chunxin Qiu received a BS degree from Yanshan University, Hebei, China, in

2007, and MS and PhD degrees from Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen),
Heilongjiang Sheng, China, in 2010 and 2014, respectively, all in automation engi-
neering. He is currently the CEO of RoboSense, Inc., Shenzhen in China.

ix
INTRODUCTION I
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Outdoor Mobile Robots

In simple terms, a robot is defined as a machine with certain degrees of intelligence.
At the preliminary stages, much of the research in this area was focused on robotic
arms and manipulators. However, the rapid growth of the automobile industry
in the 1980s led to the domination of commercialized manipulators. Since then,
the manipulators have become an integral part of the automobile manufacturing
industry.
In comparison with the manipulators, mobile robotics is still a relatively young
area of research. The great deal of interest in mobile robots is because of their
mobility, typical examples of which include unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), land
rovers, and autonomous driving cars. The most basic part of a mobile robot is the
locomotion mechanism, which is quite different from the manipulator’s. There are
various types of locomotion mechanisms, and each of these poses a different level
of challenge in the control of mobile robotic systems.
Autonomy is another significant factor that determines the complexity of
mobile robot systems. Autonomy refers to the capability of the system to operate in
a real-world environment without any external interference for extended periods
of time [1]. Previously, it was believed that the final goal of mobile robots was to
achieve a full autonomy similar to living systems. But in recent years, the different
voices from robotics academia have shifted their focus to semi-autonomy, which is
considered to be the most efficient way in which a robot and a human being can
take their own advantages and share tasks. Nevertheless, the degree of autonomy is
still considered a measure of performance for a mobile robot. Readers may notice
that the mobile robots mentioned in this chapter have different levels of autonomy.
Mobile robots have to deal with different environmental conditions. The basic
difference between the manipulators and mobile robots is that the latter have to

3
4 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

interact with surrounding environments. These can vary from highly structured
scenarios to highly unstructured ones, whose terrains could be flat or uneven.
Moreover, the environment could be either a small area or a very large one. There
are different challenges associated with the system design of mobile robots, and
these challenges depend upon the working environment. Among the different
types of environments, the outdoor environments are usually the most challeng-
ing, e.g., unstructured surroundings, uneven terrains, and a large-scale exploration
area. Most things became complicated outdoors. Therefore, mobile robots working
outdoors, also called field robotics, have been an active research area for the last
decade. Although field robots can work on land, in the air, or under water, this
book mainly focuses on field robots on land.
A number of diverse applications have called for mobile robots, especially
outdoors. In many outdoor scenarios, people seek help from mobile robots either
because of tough or even dangerous working conditions or because of a demand
for long-term tedious work. Such real-world applications span from government-
driven needs (such as planetary exploration, military applications, and archeologi-
cal exploration) to industry-driven needs (such as those of forest, farming, and
mining industries) to humanistic needs (such as search and rescue).
Planetary exploration was the earliest application of outdoor mobile robots. The
typical robotic rover was Curiosity, which was launched in 2011. It was designed
for exploring Gale Crater on Mars as part of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory [2],
Figure 1.1. Curiosity had six wheels: two middle wheels went straight, and the
corner wheels were omnidirectional. Since the rover might cross rugged terrain,

Figure 1.1 Curiosity, designed for exploring Gale Crater on Mars [2].
 Introduction ◾ 5

the rocker-bogie design of the chassis was invented to allow the rover to keep all of
its wheels even on an uneven surface. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) stated that
this rocker-bogie system had reduced the motion of the main rover body by half
compared to other suspension systems. The Curiosity was also equipped with an
inertial measurement unit (IMU) to support safe traverses. Autonomy of Curiosity
was kept low because of the special circumstances of space exploration, in which
most activities, such as taking pictures, driving, and operating the instruments,
would be performed under commands from the flight team.
The forest industry is another field that always has a strong desire to embrace
mobile robotic systems. Umea University in Sweden initiated a project called
Autonomous Navigation for Forest Machines in 2002 whose long-term goal is to
develop an unmanned vehicle that transports timber from the area of felling to
the roadside, and that addresses the problems with localization and obstacle avoid-
ance in forest terrain [3]. Moreover, Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences
proposed a cleaning mobile robot for improving the growing conditions of the
remaining trees in young stands [3]. They required such mobile robots to be capa-
ble of operating independently and unattended for several hours in a dynamic
and nondeterministic environment. However, there are still many unknown
challenges in this area because a forest is a typical unstructured environment.
From the perspective of forest industry employees, mobile robots have never been
successfully employed in the forest industry. One of the most promising mobile
robots was Kelly, a harvesting machine in New Zealand in 2010 [4], Figure 1.2.
The locomotion of this system adopted lengthened tracks and could traverse on
steep terrain up to 45°.

Figure 1.2 Kelly harvesting machine [4].

6 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

Military applications have financed many research teams to create and study
mobile robots around the world. For example, DARPA Robot Challenges have
lasted a few years to encourage and support advancement of technologies and
implementations of real-world mobile robots. The BigDog is a four-legged mobile
robot that is probably the most notable outcome in the DARPA robotics program
created in 2005 [5], Figure 1.3. That is to say, it is required to traverse on a variety
of rough terrains autonomously while keeping a proper speed as a companion of
a soldier. Approximately 50 sensors were built onto BigDog to interact with the
actuators via the onboard computer in order to accomplish autonomous locomo-
tion control, self-balance control, and autonomous navigation. In 2012, the inven-
tors of BigDog claimed that the militarized Legged Squad Support System variant
of BigDog had the capability to hike over tough terrain. At the end of February
2013, Boston Dynamics released video footage of a modified BigDog with an arm
that can pick up objects and throw them. The robot relies on its legs and torso to
help power the motions of the arm [6].
Archeologists have also preferred mobile robots to assist their traditional and
tough works. Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen) developed a modular
robotic system in 2009 for recording the internal environment of the underground
ancient tombs [7], Figure 1.4. This archeological exploration robot could be assem-
bled as either a manipulator or a mobile robot in order to adapt to different situa-
tions in the exploration field. It was allowed to enter tombs through narrow digging
holes prepared by regular archeological exploration. The recorded data was used for
preservation of antiques inside the ancient tombs as well as for providing valuable

Figure 1.3 BigDog [5].

 Introduction ◾ 7

Figure 1.4 Archeological exploration robot [7].

references to the archeological survey. It was designed with low-level autonomy

because of the fragile environments inside the ancient tombs.
Search-and-rescue robots were first tested in real scenarios during the
September 11 disaster by iRobot and the University of South Florida [8]. These
mobile robots were still prone to get stuck and break in the disaster field, although
they demonstrated a certain degree of mobility in order to go into dangerous loca-
tions for humans. Many roboticists in Japan have focused on rescue robots for a few
decades because earthquakes strike more frequently in Japan than in other coun-
tries. For instance, researchers in the Tokyo Institute of Technology have designed
different types of snakelike robots to adapt to rough terrain such as Genbu or
Souryu [9], Figure 1.5. Genbu is a modular wheeled mobile robot with passive
bending joints, whereas Souryu uses tracks with active bending joints.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5 Snakelike robots [9]. (a) Genbu and (b) Souryu.
8 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is also a member of the mobile robot fam-
ily. From large, military-purpose UAVs to consumer-electronics drones, these fly-
ing robots have been adopted in a large variety of applications. In 2015, a research
project was launched for power network inspection using a robotic copter equipped
with advanced sensors [10]. Three-dimensional mapping of the ancient Great Wall
heritage using a UAV with a laser scanner was developed by the Harbin Institute
of Technology at Shenzhen in 2015 to help record and preserve the cultural
heritage [11], Figure 1.6.
The autonomous driving car is another typical field robotic system that has
attracted the attention of more and more researchers from both academia and
industry in the last decade. The DARPA Urban Challenge, initiated in 2007, is
widely known as the competition of autonomous driving cars. Boss, developed
by Carnegie Mellon University, was the first winner of this competition with a
speed of 22.53 km/h [12], Figure 1.7. Two driverless vans, developed by VisLab at
University of Parma in Italy, spent three months traveling to the World Expo of
Shanghai from Parma, Italy, an overall traveling distance of around 13,000 km [13],
Figure 1.8. Google self-driving cars have traveled over 2,400,000 km as of March,
2016, Figure 1.9 [14].
Some of the aforementioned demands have served as strong motivations to cul-
tivate research in outdoor mobile robotics for more advanced and practical appli-
cations. Therefore, different research platforms have also been built commercially
including Pioneer 3-AT by Omron Adept MobileRobots, SUMMIT XL STEEL
by Robotnik Automation, and Husky by Clearpath Robotics [15–17], Figure 1.10.
In summary, in order to design a complete outdoor mobile robot, we should
face the following challenges:

Figure 1.6 The UAV platform used to build the 3D model of the ancient Great
Wall heritage. Courtesy of Harbin Institute of Technology.
 Introduction ◾ 9

◾◾ Locomotion design to traverse rough natural terrain

◾◾ Precise automatic motion control to move to a specific location or follow a
specific path
◾◾ An increase of the level of autonomy via perception of unstructured sur-
roundings and self-localization

Figure 1.7 Boss, the autonomous vehicle that won the 2007 DARPA Urban
Challenge [12].

Figure 1.8 The VisLab autonomous vehicle [13].

10 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

Figure 1.9 The Google self-driving car [14].

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 1.10 Research platforms. (a) Pioneer 3-AT by Omron Adept MobileRobots
[16]. (b) SUMMIT XL STEEL by Robotnik Automation [17]. (c) Husky by Clearpath
Robotics [15].

Although researchers and scientists have designed various locomotion mechanisms

for mobile robots, we have to admit that the most efficient way so far is to use
wheels as the mechanism for land locomotion. Wheels can be treated as simplified
yet efficient legs, from the perspective of biology inspiration. So the authors of this
book designed a compliant, framed, wheeled, modular mobile robot (CFMMR) as
a prototype robot, Figure 1.11, which can stand for one category of outdoor mobile
robots. Meanwhile, the authors present a general approach to accomplishing precise
motion control of the robot, even on rough terrain, to achieve self-localization and
mapping of the surroundings.
 Introduction ◾ 11

Compliant frame module Yaw

Roll

Axle modules Pitch

Figure 1.11 CFMMR two-axle scout experimental configuration.

1.2 Overview of the Book

This book discusses many aspects of field robotic systems, such as mechanism
design, motion control, localization, and mapping, in which most methodolo-
gies were integrated and tested by a prototype wheeled robot, e.g., CFMMR. The
involved frameworks and algorithms for designing autonomous mobile robots in
unknown outdoor environments are expected to inspire readers to develop more
technologies in the field of robotics.
In Chapter 2, the locomotion mechanisms of outdoor mobile robots are dis-
cussed. The prototype robot of this book is also presented and analyzed in this
chapter in terms of both mobility and maneuverability. In Chapter 3, a general
cooperative control and sensing framework is presented. It defines each subsys-
tem and the corresponding requirements of a robot control system including kine-
matic motion control, dynamic motion control, and a sensory system. Chapters 4
through 7 talk about how to design these subsystems individually to satisfy the
requirements mentioned in Chapter 3. In the preceding chapters, the example of a
Compliant Framed Wheeled Modular Mobile Robot (CFMMR) provides detailed
illustration and experimental verification of related techniques. The methodologies
presented after Chapter 7 are more general to field robots. The topic of Chapter 8
is localization and mapping, which can be considered as a higher level of mobile
robotic system design. What if a field robot moves around large-scaled environ-
ments in which more data and heavier computational load are demanded? A cloud-
based architecture is discussed in Chapter 9 to handle self-localization problems
caused by long-term consistent navigation.
MECHANISM II
Chapter 2

Locomotion Mechanism

2.1 Introduction
The most important feature of a mobile robot is its locomotion. The locomotion
mechanism is the basis of development of any autonomous mobile robot system.
Whether the locomotion mechanism is simple or complex affects the ways motion
control can be designed. A balance between mechanism design and motion control
design exists to a certain degree. A simpler mechanism might need more compli-
cated control and vice versa.
When a mobile robot is working outdoors, it may encounter rough off-road
terrains or bumps on the roads. This requires that the mechanism of an outdoor
mobile robot should be designed to adapt to such nonflat terrains. A variety of
design methods have been reported in the literature about field robots, but among
these various locomotion designs, legged mechanism, tracked mechanism, and
wheeled mechanism are the most popular signs.
From the view of biological inspiration, a legged mechanism is more natural for
traversing rough and unstructured terrain because human beings and most animals
move in this way. However, a higher degree of freedom and greater mechanical
complexity are required in order to achieve movement in the real world. Tracked
mechanisms can be found in many outdoor applications such as army tanks, because
they have much larger ground contact patches and therefore have great maneuver-
ability and traction over rough and loose terrain. But it is difficult to achieve precise
locomotion control because the large amount of skidding during a turn can cause
severe and unpredictable slippage on different terrains [18]. Wheeled mechanisms
are the most favorable for mobile robots indoors because of their mechanical sim-
plicity and therefore high efficiency. But the question is, how can such advantages
be extended to field robots? Variations of these wheeled mechanisms have been
developed in the past few years for mobile robots in outdoor environments among

15
16 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

which compliant elements are one of the promising mechanisms to allow mobile
robots to adapt to rough terrain without much efficiency loss. In fact, efficiency
would dramatically decrease if a wheeled mobile robot had to move on very soft or
slippery ground. But wheeled field robots are a very broad interdisciplinary subject,
and a single book cannot cover all their technical aspects. Hence, issues caused by
soft ground are not addressed in this book.

2.2 Compliant Design in Wheeled Mobile Robots

The earliest found reference of compliant vehicles was a system proposed for plane-
tary exploration using compliant members to provide roll and pitch degrees of free-
dom (DOF) for suspension of the axles [19]. This concept was later extended [20]
to the frame of a vehicle composed of helical spring(s) with hydraulic cylinders used
to control deflection. In each of these cases, compliance was introduced for accom-
modating terrain.
Another reference in 1995 introduced compliance for accommodating position
measurement error and preventing wheel slip from occurring between indepen-
dently controlled axle units on a service robot [21]. This robot allowed relative axle
yaw that was provided by rotary joints connected to the ends of a frame with lim-
ited prismatic compliance. Other flexible robots used actuated articulated joints to
provide relative motion between axles, as in the case of the Marsokhod rover [22]
and other six-wheeled research rovers with high relative DOF [23]. These actuated
kinematic structures provided more direct control of the robot’s shape, but it was
accomplished at the expense of system complexity.
Compliant design can also be found in some snakelike mobile robots that con-
sist of a serial chain of modules [24]. Inspired by some continuum manipulators,
several active-joint articulated snakelike mobile robots have been designed [25,26]
so that the serial chain interacts with the ground to propel the robot. Many of these
have wheels on the modules for reduced friction or for establishing well-defined
kinematics. In some cases, the articulated joints are active and the wheels are pas-
sive [27], and in other cases, the wheels are active and articulation is either partially
active [28,29] or entirely passive. Active wheels provide direct control over forward
velocity and are suitable for traveling over terrain. Active joints allow direct control
over robot shape, such as for climbing over very large obstacles, but they are usu-
ally slow due to high-torque demands and limited space. Thus, passive compliant
joints have evolved for natural terrain adaptation to reduce impact loads damag-
ing to active joints and to facilitate faster travel over rugged terrain. The CFMMR
was designed as the prototype of those mobile robots with compliant design while
replacing complex and expensive mechanical joints with higher potential for failure
with simple and cost-effective compliance. The CFMMR uses passive compliance
in a similar spirit to provide independent suspension and advanced steering control
between the axles without additional hardware or actuators. The CFMMR is also
 Locomotion Mechanism ◾ 17

modular and facilitates numerous configurations and applications. The CFMMR

provides similar capability to adapt to terrain, but possesses a minimal locomotion
mechanism by which the deflection of the highly compliant frame is controlled by
coordinated actuation of the wheels. This mechanism vastly reduces the number
of components required to construct a field robotic system, reduces probability of
component failure, and allows aspects of modularity to be exploited. Next, in the
remaining sections of this chapter, we analyze system kinematics and dynamics
using an example of the CFMMR.

2.3 Compliant, Framed, Wheeled,

Modular Mobile Robot
2.3.1 Mechanism
The locomotion mechanism of the CFMMR is designed as a reconfigurable and
homogeneous modular system such that different configurations can be formed,
such as two-axle scouts, a four-axle train, and a four-axle moving platform,
Figure 2.1. Reconfigurable modular robotic systems have been of keen interest to
researchers during the last two decades, e.g., reconfigurable manipulation [30–33],
mobility [25,26,34], or combinations therein [35–40]. Such reconfigurable systems
could improve their abilities to overcome obstacles and perform more tasks using

(a)

(b)

(c)

Platform

Figure 2.1 Modular configurations. (a) Two-axle scouts, (b) four-axle train, and
(c) four-axle array/platform.
18 ◾ Autonomous Mobile Robots

a single hardware platform. Moreover, homogeneity could reduce maintenance,

increase robustness through redundancy, provide compact and ordered storage,
and increase adaptability [25,41]. The CFMMR is an example of applying these
concepts on wheeled mobile robots. Hence, various configurations of the CFMMR
allow multiple tasks to be achieved. For instance, the two-axle scout configuration
is suited to reconnaissance and exploration, whereas the multi-axle train could be
tailored to transport payloads for extended distances. The four-axle platform could
be utilized to move large objects. As we know, most field robots are required to
work in environments with limited resources, such as space exploration, military
operations, farming, forestry, and mining. Therefore, the methodology of the loco-
motion mechanism design of the CFMMR is very inspiring to the ones for resource
limited applications.
The two-axle scout is the minimum functional unit that was manufactured,
Figure 1.12. This two-axle scout uses a simple structure, i.e., compliant frame ele-
ments, to provide suspension and a highly controllable steering capability without
adding any additional hardware to the system. To be more exact, a partially compli-
ant frame could provide roll and yaw DOF between the axles. Relative roll provides
suspension capability in order to accommodate uneven terrain, and yaw allows
the axles to independently change heading for steering. Steering and maneuvering
of the system are thus accomplished via coordinated control of the differentially
steered axles. Since each axle can be steered independently, the system provides the
capability to control the shape of its frame and thus enhance maneuverability in
confined environments.
Another feature of the CFMMR is the simplicity of its mechanical design from
the perspective of design life and maintenance issues. At the most fundamental
level, the axle modules are basic, differentially steered mobile robots; they are rigid
structures providing an interface for the frame that support two independently con-
trolled wheels. Other than the wheel drive systems, there are no other moving parts
in the axle modules. The compliant frame then provides flexible coupling between
the axles to allow them to steer independently and to conform to terrain variations.
This alleviates the need for complicated linkages and associated hardware typical
of steering and suspension systems. The compliant frame thus significantly reduces
complexity and cost of the mechanical structure. Since the only moving parts of
the CFMMR are the wheel drive systems, very few components are subject to wear.
Thus, the simplicity of the CFMMR design allows straightforward reduction of
mechanical failure probability.
Since the CFMMR provides capabilities in steering, mobility, and reconfigura-
tion, modeling of the system needs to be done first to provide a basis for motion
control design in the following chapters. The compliance element allows a wide
range of steering algorithms to be applied, but it also complicates the kinematic
model appreciably and provides significant challenges to motion control algo-
rithms. To simplify the motion control task, steering constraints are established
by the ratio of the front and rear axle headings in the following sections. These
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moesten ’n prop in d’r lijf hebben; dàn barstte opgekropte woede van
vernedering los. Maar nou! koesjt! Want de ouë oom Hassel was nog
veel erger dan de piep-jonge Willem.

Alleen Hesse was loom met z’n knieën in de kuil-voren gezakt,

woelde en groef voor zich uit, zwaarstoffig, gromde naast den ander,
die ’n standje beet had over z’n zang.

—Potdorie, nou mag je nie meer drinke … hei je main ooit!..

—Hier-op-pan!.… enne ikke mó’ m’n bek houe!.… da [301]weut je

ommirs van joàre.… wee je nie?.… die Seeuw van lest hier!.… wá’
die veur hupla’s hat.… dat ’t bai hoarlie nog tienmoal erger is.… op ’t
land!.… Dá’ sullie doàr puur de groaf op d’r kop kraige.… of de
skoffel in d’r sielement.…

—Nou.… wa.… Oùww!.… jemichkrimi!.… donderjenne!!.… kromp

Hesse plots in van pijn, afbrekend z’n zin. Met z’n hand was ie, diep
en woest, op ’n steen ingegraven, die z’n nagel afgescheurd had.
Bang nog voor loerblik van Willem, bleef ie doorwerken toch, zei ie
kreunerig wat van pijn.

—Nou wa!.… bromde de andere rooier, ik seg moar dá’ die ouë
rakkert van ’n Hassel main al drie keer ’n graof noà’ main harses
mept hep!.… toe’k ’n kwetiertje te loat maffe hep!.… en sain naif.…
uit de polder.… ranselt puur s’n rooiers mi de staikvork in d’r pinse.…
aas se effe wá’ segge.… onder hoarlie.… werrik!—

Bij elk woord, rukten z’n dof-groene klauwen den grond in, kluiterden
aardbonken voor ’m uit, sprak ie afgehakt en hijgend.

—Nou, die ken veur main, sain buik verliese.… giftte Hesse, z’n
zandhand in den mond uitzuigend, waar de nagel onder ’t vleesch
losgescheurd was.
—Jesis.… wá’ jai main ’n roer-menietje bin!.… lolde de ander.…
f’rleje joar he’k main duim afhakt.… hier kaik.. mi de moker.… op de
schee.… scheeringpoaltjes.… ik hep sain d’r soo moar anplak.…
hep effe moar bloed.…

—Nou.… ik f’rrek weer van de dorst.… ik sit éé.… effetief te

broaje!.…

—F’rjenne main strot brandt m’of.… ik naim ’n urretje.. benne jullie

kerels.… wegsture.… hai ke main nie misse!..

Weer was ie opgesprongen naar z’n kruik, die blinkte bij nog niet
gerooid bed-end, slobberde gretig z’n lauwe slappe koffie.—
Zweetvet drupte ’m langs z’n rooiige gezicht, den bronzigen hals in.

Willem Hassel had geloerd, maar durfde toch niets zeggen, nou ie
zag dat de kerel ’m wel wat mans leek.—

Kees was van z’n boonen aan ’t wortelen wieden gezet. Zweetzwaar
en paf-heet ploeterde ie hurkend, met stekende lendepijn [302]van
ongewoonte. Driftiger grabbelde z’n hand tusschen ’t gewas, en
telkens brandde ie zich aan netels. Boordevol werkdrift zat ie. En
giftig, heftig, was ie op z’n neef Willem, nou ie gehoord had, hoe
bazig ie ’n stakker, die daar te druipen stond van zweet, had
afgebluft om ’n slok drinken in de hitte. Wat ’n branie! Nou dat ze’r ’n
beetje bovenop gekomme binne! Eerst toch net zoo arme skooiers
aa’s sai.… en mi gelukkies en gapperaie bai de bolle.… en
bloedsuigerwerk!.. nou leeke ’t heere.… Je sou se ’n skoffel op d’r
test sloàn.… ’n mestvork in d’r pins steke!.… die skarre!.…

Vlak voorbij ’m schoof Willem Hassel, langs greppelland.—Heerig

voelde de jonge kerel zich en tartend wou ie dat volkje ereis toonen
dat hij mocht luieren als ie wou en zij niet. ’n Kwartier bleef ie
rondkijken, zonder ’n hand uit te steken. Jaap z’n jongere broer, die
te poeren hurkte als de meest ondergeschikte rooier, lollig royale
kerel, hinderde ’t bazige doen van Willem.

—Seg, sou je je aige nie rais afprottetaire.… je stoan net soo mooi te
kaike hier.… Hee! foader!.… hai staikt t’ met gain poot uit!.…

Kees groeide van lol. Hij had Jaap wel de hand willen drukken, al
sprak ie uit gewoonte, ook al jaren niet met ’m.

—Lá’ sain s’n gangetje, zei norsch oom Hassel, wien bestig ’t
stramme van Willem beviel.

Overal rondom dorde en rotte in den warmen Junidag, verstorven

blad op bollenakkers, geel en groen-fletsig bruin, kleurfijne nazang
van loof, op tulpendood. De lucht stond strakblauw, wijd licht. Van
den Lemperweg geurde en dromde zware boomgordel, in groene
pracht. Laag kromden de takken, met bladerdos op bollengrond,
hooge boomendrom, in ’t lichtgoud geheven, stil, met nu en dan
windruisch door ’t pluimige groen-goud, zwaar-wiegelend als met
moeite, glanzen en licht verwuivend over de verre stille akkers en
werkers. Een boomhoek, teruggedoken als poort, waar lichtglans op
bladranden nog éven afzilverde, schaduwde in diep donker groen,
leek één bladerdrom, zonder zichtbaren stam, neergewolkt [303]groen
op akkergrond. Op het zalig-wijd, rustig bollenland, hurkten klein de
blauwkielen, ingebogen met kop naar de aarde, wiedend-zoekend
tusschen nog lichtend hyacintenloof, naar ziek loof. Om hen ademde
in diepe rust, de groote trillende stilte, ruischte ademhaal van het
licht over de velden. Orgelende geluidjes aeoliënd, doorzilverden ’t
hemelblauw neerregenend over de akkers, in snoertjes trillenden
zang. Verzwakte straatgeruchten van den weg af, woeien éven nog,
vaag-klankend áán. Overal gooiden de blauwkielen de
zilverbeflonkerde rooischalen voor zich uit, was er zwaar geploeter
van werkers met bestoven zakken en mandjes bollengoed, naar het
pad sjouwend op handkarren. Naar alle kanten uit, van de
zondoorstroomde akkers, kropen de wieders in fellen goudbrand,
blondden de groote stroohoeden van enkele ingehurkten uit, bòven
verdord goud-brons loof. Wat witte hoeden stipten blank in ’t licht.
Eén groepje kruipende aardwroeters, net achter de haag van ouë
Gerrit’s akkers, werkte met kleine petjes op, dat ’t zweet ze van ’t
gezicht gutste, kropen tusschen ’t groen, in hun kielkleur als blauwe
voortschuivende vlekken, die afdropen in zonnebrand. En prachtig,
over nog groenende, puntig-neergekrulde tulpbladen zeilde en
moireerde zilveren forelleglans van licht, en fijn sidder-golfde ’t loof
in áánfluisterenden windsuizel, droom-zacht, àl méér en méér; week
geruisch, rond gréép en donkere wroet, van zwart-verbronsde
werkhanden; geruisch om de lijven, in lichtgewiegel van glanzen
door ’t loof; loom gezang van de aarde, naar ’t lichtende, groeiende
leven. In hooger groen, uitgebladerd, stonden in stille aandacht de
akkersingels, met goudstof bevonkt op dwars-uitstekende blaadjes,
hier en daar gloeijend als enkel wit vuur. En langs de padkanten van
akkers, waar de karren donker wachtten, in geduldstand op lading, in
’t naakte licht, fonteinde ’t siergras in beverige straaltjes, zilveren
glansdrup tusschen den roesttint van zuringwild, sprietend zachtelijk
over den fijn-rossigen zandgrond, vervocht in ’t dampende
akkergoud. Boterbloempjes schaterden in glans, paardebloemen,
uitsterrend als zonnetjes, wielden goudkringetjes [304]rond, en in
wemeling dartelde tusschen boeketten van akkerhoorn en madelief
uit, gonzende vurige streep-glans van insekten. Telkens in ’t wilde
grasgroen donsde koekoek met z’n rose-fijn behaarde knopjes
tusschen de zilverende drup van grasbevertjes, vlekten ze open-
gegroeid, lilarood rond ’t goud van boterblom en sierwit van schitter-
blanke waterster.

En veel verder op akkergroen in het wazende lentelicht, éven

schroeiend de aarde, als voorspel van laaienden zomerbrand en
werkroes die te komen stond, kleurden òp werkers in zaaigebaar,
even ingebogen ’t lijf, in rood hemdenbaai, dat warm donker-bloedde
tegen den goudglans van groenen singelendrom.

—Die soaie nog kool en wortele, bai Rommeloar, bromde Gerrit

tegen Dirk.

’n Paar dagen later kwam ouë Gerrit op ’t land, achter zijn huis.

—Hai manne! ik hep ’n daik gras kocht.… hoho!.… ho!.… in de

polder, achter ’t fort.… jullie kenne t’met aa’s droog blaift op hoope
steke.… de moaier he’k sproke.… ’n poar doàge is ’t overend set.…

—Dan mog je hier nog wel ’n kerel stelle, Ouë.

—Nog ’n vent? en Kees dan!.… d’r blaift t’met niks of’r.… An Peters
van de Baanwaik hé’k femurge twee hoek oarbeie f’kocht.… en drie
hoek an De Gauw.… veur Duitsloànd!.… sloffies, mi en sonder
doppies.… half raip an de pluk!.…

—Nou Ouë!.… la de soete fransies veur Amsterdam!.… da lief ik!.…

dà wee je!.…

—Netuurlik, gromde de Ouë, ken ie beterder suipe.… sonder daa’k

sien!.…

Tegen den middag werd ’r ’n kwartiertje geschaft, lagen de werkers,

wellustig-vadsig uitgerekt op d’r buik, met handen onder de kin
ingehaakt, luiig-lekker, soezend in schaduw van haagjes. Lichte
dagschroeiing was afgekoeld wat, en blond glansde ’t licht over de
velden. Hommels streepten van allen kant fluweelige kleurtjes door
de lucht; zoem-zoem zongen de bijen. En brom-zwaar gonsden de
staalschittervliegen gouden [305]glanswieltjes om de nu even stille
hoofden der werkers, neerplakkend op hun zweetgezichten, dat de
loome kerels, woest met de handen om zich heen sloegen, zonder
de zoemers te raken.—
Kees had ’n dikken broodhomp met roggebrood uit z’n stukkenzak
getrokken, en gretig hapte z’n mond in ’t blanke kruim.

—Gaif main ’n bonk uit je koartesak, riep Piet naar Dirk, die juist ’n
stuk brood, dat ie te veel had, weer in z’n vuilen stukkenzak wou
wegduwen.

Kees, in wije kakensperring, hapte door, gretig. Ant had weer wat op
den reutel gekregen, nou ze zagen, dat Kees aan ’t werk was.
Goedig en rustig zat de kerel, lekker zichvoelend in de
zonkoestering, blij dat ie wat kon meenemen voor Wimpie. Zelf wist
ie niet goed waarom, maar hij voelde zich zóó bestig en tevree, nu ie
zwaar-ploeteren kon en wat verdiende, dat ie den Ouë wel wat wou
zeggen, al loerde die nog zoo stug-angstig naar ’m op.

—F’rdroaid aa’s t’met ’t gewas opskiete wil.… d’r waa’s te veul kou..
tussche.… nog gain oarbaie.… t’met half Juni!

—Watte? duwde Piet, met zwaren kouw-mond, volgepropt met

brood, er tusschen door, kaik die spersies!.… die boone hé’k ’r veur
vaif doàge in de grond douwt.… en nou kaike se puur d’r al boofe
uit.…

—He-je-me van-je-laife!.… verbaasd riep Dirk.… daa’s hoast bai!.…

—Murge moar an de Beek.… raise sette bai de boone.… kwam ouë

Gerrit door ’n greppel voortsjokkend, weer invallen,—ik mo wâ
tullepies op stelling droàge, veul te vroeg rooit.… sien nog puur
wit!.… en loa t’r wá’ tussche de oarebaie anharke.… hee?.…

Ouë Gerrit, zonder antwoord af te wachten, sjokte de greppel uit, ’t

erf op, in huis.

Vrouw Hassel zat op de punt van ’n stoel voor potdicht raampje, met
’r neus achter ’n groote blompot geranium, die vuurde tegen ’r
grauwe kop, en vochtige aardlucht uitwasemde. Geel-grauw stond ’r
rimpelig gezicht. Ze had zich weer driemaal [306]bevuild. Nou was ’t
uit. Guurt wou niet langer blijven, als de Ouë er niet Dokter Troost
bijhaalde. Nou, in ’n half jaar was ’t zóó verergerd, dat ze de heele
boel bedierf.

Dat zou ie nou moar erais doen … Nou moar weer es op stap noar
dokter. Dat die vervloekte kerel sain niet in ’t ziekefonds wou
naime.… kostte sain zoo de hoaren van z’n hoofd. En noar een aer
loopen kon ie ook niet. Want de notoaris waa’s dokters zwager, die
sain veurskoten had.… En van ’t winter most ie miskien weer bai
sain ankloppe veur mest!.… mi vaif persint? Neenet! hai sou moar
stiekum morge er op afstappe.… ’t waif vroage gaf tug niks!.…

Den volgenden dag vroeg, stond Gerrit in ’t duffe apotheekje van

dokter Troost. Vol dromde ’t ’r van ziekenfondsklantjes, armelijke
vrouwen met klierhoofdige kinders, jongetjes en mannen. De
apothekersbediende, dunharig grijs kereltje met groote bril, stond
drentelig-langzaam van gebaar, achter z’n toonbank, wat fijn te
stooten. Dof dreunde z’n stamper in den glans-prachtigen, rood-
koperen vijzel. Z’n scherpe neus, ompoeierd van rooiige sproetjes,
haakte òp, dat de reuk-gaten wijd-open holden in ’t gezicht, en nijdig
bitste gespannen z’n mond, kwaadaardig, als hield ie strak, spoelsel
tegen kiespijn-schokken in. Telkens zei ie wàt, achter z’n toonbank
uit, tot een van het ziekenfondsvolkje.

—En jij vrouw, wat jij?

—Nou.… sien uwes mehaier!.… nou.… haa’k groag dokter.… d’r

saitje.… sien uwes.… d’r saitje,.… d’r heule saitjes t’met één pain!.…
enne.…
—Seg vrouw, ik ken me tijd anders gebruike.… draal niet zoo.…
kort! wat heb je?.… bitste ie af, barscher spannend z’n mond, met
drift-stoot z’n bril bij de ooren vastdrukkend, in ongeduld-gebaar
weer grijpend naar z’n stamper. Verward en geschrikt, stotterde
tuindersvrouw er nog wat uit, duwde ’n kindje, dat laag aan ’r arm
hing, naar voren, snauwend in drift-verlegenheid tegen stumpertje,
dat ’t maar zelf zeggen moest wat ’t had. Ouë Gerrit, wrevelig, dat ’m
zoo veel volk [307]voor was, stond ingedrukt achter ’n paar breeë
vrouwenruggen, te staren naar de bruine kastjes, waarin de witte
zalfpotten rijden, blank-beglansd in hun wit steen, met hun scherpe
zwarte titeltjes. Zacht voor zich uit las een voor ’m, naampjes van de
potten af.… haperig spellend, wezenloos:

—U.… ung.… a.. a.. aci.. aci.. ci.… Bor.. Bor.. Bori.. ci!..

Gerrit hoorde ’m brommen, begreep d’r niks van.… niks. En

angstiger staarde ie òp tegen de eikenhouten zuiltjes, waar de
standflesschen, met bruine en rooie vochten ingerijd tusschen
flonkerden, op de mahoniehouten plankjes, netjes en ordelijk.—Te
jeuken begon ’t ’m. Zoo’n glad prêchtig fleschje.… tjonge.…
tjonge.… huhu!.… hu.… sou mooie woar weuse.… Moar hoe komp
je doàr bai?.… Godskristis sou faine woar weuse!.…

Eindelijk had de vrouw, voor de toonbank gedrongen, duidelijk

gemaakt wat ’t kind scheelde.—Vlug ratelde ze af, kordaat, aan ’t
end nog in bijdraai:

—’t Skoap hep sekers koors.… se kwailt puur van d’r pain in d’r
saitje.…

Assistentje stond ernstiger van z’n stamper naar ’t kind te kijken, dat
met blond krullebolletje net even boven apotheekbank uitkeek, ’t
klein bang gezichtje sip òploerend naar de glanskopering en ’t rood
vonkwerk van al kleinere stampertjes, die voor d’r neusje uitgestald
stonden, naast weegschaal.—Wasem van kruiden en
benauwingslucht van warme smerige lijven, zoog door ’t winkeltje. ’n
Jongetje achter de toonbank, op ’n trapje, verrinkelde tusschen
medicijnfleschjes ’n licht schoonmaakspel. Zoete valeriaan en
jodiumstank drong benauwend door, uit den kelder.… Stil, versuft en
beangstigd van eerbied, stond ’t fondsvolkje, glanspotjes, fleschjes
en schaaltjes te bestaren, luisterend in ontzag, naar de woord-
afhakkende stem van assistentje.

Vrouw met kindje was geholpen door den grijzen, grimmigen

bediende. Van ’t geval had ie geen zier begrepen. Zou wel wat larie
zijn. ’t Wijf wist zelf niet goed wat ’t kind scheelde. [308]Toch voelde
assistentje zich kregel, dat de dokter hem iederen morgen met dat
vieze fondsvolkje opscheepte.… Nou ja, dat heette wel, gewone
gevalletjes. Maar d’r kwamen zooveel rare zaakies bij, waar ie geen
spier van snapte.… en waar ie toch raad moest schaffen!.…

Weer was ’n dikke vrouw, kordater dan de eerste voor de toonbank

geschoven, had bediende z’n stamper neergelegd en z’n bril vaster
op de ooren gedrukt.

—Wel.… wat had jij moeder?.…

—Menaijr.… waa’k op haide hep.… is skrikkelik!.… daa’s puur moar

duisel op duisel.… en aldegoar sterretjes veur m’ooge.… ik bin d’r
puur daas van!.…

Ze had gesproken in vuur, met grove harde stem, en ’r dikke

knuisten maakten voor nijdigen wipneus van assistentje, beverig
snelle gebaartjes, om ’m haar sterre-wemeling voor te stellen.

—Soo, soo, zei strak-wijs en peinzend assistentje, zich krabbend

tusschen z’n grijze dunne haren, van z’n kruin tot in den nek, met
zwaar raspend nagelgekras.
—Soo.… soo.… ga je goed af?.…

—Nou menaijr.… mit uwes pirmissie.… nie soo aa’s ’t.…

—Soo.… soo, onderbrak ie ’r, duwend nijdig op z’n brilmontuur.

Maar door sprak de vrouw:

—Aa’s ’t.… aa’s ’t mot.… ik hep oambaie.… sien u.…

—Soo.… soo! onderbrak ie norsch, weer stuitend uitleg, steek je

tong ereis uit!—

Wijd lapte dikke vrouw ’r tong uit den mond, waarop wijs-
geheimzinnig, grijs assistentje staarde, zich telkens den bril
kwaadaardigjes op den neus vaststootend.

Zenuwachtig bleef dikke vrouw d’r mond sperren, dat ’r wangrood

schminkte van kongestie, ’n kreungeluid ’r rooie holte uitkermde,
terwijl ’r handen op de toonbank pianoden in vingerdrift.

—Soo.… soo! zachter zei assistentje.… Nou moeder.. je bin wat

volbloedig.… Als je ’n trap opgaat.… heb je ’r dan ook wel last van?
[309]

Niet goed wist ie wat anders te vragen, dan juist, dàt, wat ie dokter
zoo dikwijls had hooren zeggen. Dikke vrouw stond weer klaar, met
gretigen uitleg:

—Seg ’t uwes dà wel!.… aa’s ’k ’rof mot.… enne aa’s ’k er òp mot.…

Veur ’n waik ston’k bai de smitse.… uwes weut.… main man is
Storp.… de smit.…

—Soo.… soo! onderbrak weer assistentje, dof geluiden stampend in

vijzel, die roodkoperen gloedjes afvonkte door duffe apotheek.…
Nou.. ik zal je ’n poeiertje geve.… vier maal daags.… vanmiddag
klaar.…—En jai? vroeg ie in-één door, dikke vrouw negeerend, die
nog wat zeggen wou.

—Moar menaijr, kaa’k nie wachte.… ’n uurtje.… ikke kâ

gosonmogelik terugkomme.… ’n uur wait hier hain.…

Ze drong weer naar voren de dikke vrouw, wegduwend met

armenvet, andere patient. Nijdig keek assistentje ’r aan.

—Heb je geen oore.… van middag.… geen minuut eerder!

—Moar.… main kindere.… dan kaa’k nie weg.… twai legge d’r
siek.…

—Heb je geen oore, schreeuwde ie, bleekig van drift, dat de dikke
vrouw bedremmeld wegbukte door de achterstaanders, de deur
uitschonkerde.

—En jij, vrouw?

—De klaine hoest d’r aige deur twaie.… hai leg te rille aa’s ’n oal.…
en aile datie doen.… aile!!

—Steek je tong eris uit jonge! bitste ie kort-strak weer.

Roodharige moeder lichtte, bullig-zwaar kind, met inspanning ’n end

boven de toonbank. Als ’n gaper sperde ’t de kaken, krijschte ’r
angsthuil uit z’n vertrokken mondje, bang, dat de brilleman ’m iets
doen zou.

—Nie bang sain me-jonge.… Mehair doen je niks.… puur niks!.…

—Bà-à-ng.… bà-àng, gilde in krijsch-angst kereltje, dat zich hangen

liet, nauw wringend en trappend met z’n onderlijf naar beneden,
tegen de bank, in gesmoorde voetstooten, dat moeders gezicht
vuurrood stramde van inspanning.

—Hou je bek schreeuwleelik!.… ja vrouw, als je de jonge [310]niet stil

krijgt.… mo je maar wachte tot ’n andere keer.… En jij?.…

Weer schoof patient vóór, de roodhoofdige vrouw met den

spartelenden schreeuw-jongen, die zich vastgehaakt had aan ’r
schort, opzij duwend.

’n Donker behaarde kerel was ’t, hoog boven wijs brilgestaar van
assistentje uitkijkend.

—Joa … klonk dreig-zwaar z’n stem, ik.… ikke kom veur main waif..
an ’t end van Duinkaik.…

—Soo.… soo!.… en wá’—

—Nou.… seg.. wacht erais effetjes!.. hep jai d’r puur effe geduld
mee.… loa me rais denke.… kaike?.… wá’ hep se tog weer said.. ’t
waif?.. je ken ’t moar nie in je kop skraive!.… Ojoà! se hep puur al.…
vaif nachte pain hier.… doar.… bai d’r bui-j’k.… se hep ’n
deureloop.… saa’k moàr klesseneere hee? en uitskaie ken se nie.…
vat je?.…

—Soo!.… soo! dan sal.…

—Nou wacht erais effe!.… hep nie soo’n hoast smakwammes!

hée?.… Sien je.… nou wou’k dokter sellefers spreke.… Hep ’t waif
sait.—Z’n stem intoneerde Wierelandsch spraak-zangerig, boven
assistentjeshoofd.

—Dá’ ken nie.… Dokter is t’r nie.… Of ze mot maar zelf hier
komme.…
—Dá’ ka’ je begraipe! Se ken puur gain kippestap doen.. nee Ouë.…
se haigt in malkoar van swakkighait.… Neenet.. ik mo dokter
hebbe.…

—Soo.. soo.. nou als je d’r op staat, zal dokter late wete wanneer ie
komme kan.…

—Daa’s net.… moar.. moar gaif jai d’r nou vast ’n drankie mee.…
hée smakwammes!.… daa’s aêr krek of ’k nie weust bin.… Sai.… sai
ken kwoalik stappe.… enne.… sai loopt puur laig.… soo slap aa’s ’n
tieme is ’t waif.

Luidruchtig sloeg z’n stem door ’t kruiperig fatsoen van ’t

vrouwenvolkje, en de drukkende stilte. Achter lachten en kakelden
wat vrouwen, waar vrijer nu ’n kerel vuile grapjes verkocht. [311]

En telkens drongen anderen naar de toonbank, liet grijs klefferig

assistentje ze de tong uitsteken als ze zelf wat hadden, scheepte ie
ze af, met ’n medicijnbeloftetje.

Een vrouw, nog ’n beurt vóór ouë Gerrit, kwam aansukkelen,

mank.…

—Mehair.… nou kaa’k tòg nie mair.… da’ wachte!.…

—Soo.… soo; en wat had je?.…

—Daa’s te segge, nou bin’k al dertien doage, omme de doàg hier

hainkomme, mit.… main klaine maid.… Enne nou kaa’t skoap.… tog
nie en mair.… Se lait te haige na d’r oàsem.… D’r kail is aa’s ’n
krop.… soo.… meroakel dik! en nou deur al d’r laije!.…

—Soo.. soo!.. steek je tong d’ris uit!—Verstrooid, niet luisterend had

assistentje z’n peins-vraag gedaan, met den stamper nog in z’n
hand, woedend op de meid dat ze ’m nog geen thee kwam brengen.
—Nainet moàr! nainet moar! da’ he’k nooit nie van main laife an de
hand en had!.… drift te ’t vrouwtje verbaasd uit, ’n sleurige sleep aan
’r been gevend, dat ze laag-ingezakt aan één kant met ’r woedend
vraaggezicht ouë Gerrit kon aankijken.

—Wa’ mot ie van main tong!.… aa’s skoap thuis te krepaire lait.…
soo sout hé’k nooit-nie.…

—Soo! soo! Och! nou ja.… ik bedoel je maid.… heb je ’r tong

gezien? is ie beslage.…

—Nou aa’s ’n lairelap.… mehair.… ’t slaim stoan d’r ’n duim dik op.

—Soo! soo! gaat ze goed af?.…

—’t Mogt wá’ mehair.… ’t met de heule doàg an ’t perse.… nai.…

moar ik zou d’r dokter nog aiges-sellevers bai hebbe, sien u.…

—Soo, onderbrak assistentje weer met z’n droge korzelige stem, en

nijdiger toonklank.… maar dat gaat nie, dat weet je. Laat t’r nou nog
maar wat keere hierheen komme.… dat dokter ’r hier in de apteek
onderzoekt.… Dokter ken nie voor elke kleinigheid klaarstaan.— [312]

—Sai hierhain? moar menair.… ik swair u.… daa’t skoap insakt.…

se hep ’n hoest van ’n aisbair.… ’t is t’met ’n uur loope.… op ’t end
van Duinkaik.…

—Soo, soo, ja maar, je mot ’t toch maar probeere.…

Achter Gerrit was ’n slank blond meisje, dochter van ’n notabele uit
stedeke ingestapt, luchtig. Luid-lachend groette ze vriendinnetje op
straat, die ’r gebracht had.

—Dag Daan, familjaar klonk ’t tegen assistentje, van blond meisje in

korte rokken.
—Dag jongejuffrouw, onderdanigde ie, stem-beduusd, moet u dokter
hebbe? Dokter is an ’t ontbijt.… maar wil ’k ’m effe waarschuwe?—

—O nee Daan! dank je.… ik kom om de poeiers van grootmoe, zijn

ze klaar?

—Zeker, jongejuffrouw, zeker! Hier zijn ze.… asjeblieft!

—Best Daan, dag Daan, en wild jolig in jeugdige stemklaarheid,

sprong ze luchtig weer den winkel uit, in losse
straatjongensbewegingen, frischblond leventje.

Mank vrouwtje, nederig en scheefgezakt aan een zij, had schuchter

gezwegen en opgekeken, naar ’t blonde bakvischje. Gerrit stond
beduusd ’r na te kijken op straat, mijmerend bij zich zelf, of ie ’r wèl
of niet kende,—of ’t niet was de dochter van den rijken Zuivel, ’t
raadslid.

Mank vrouwtje stond, nòg triester in ’t gezicht, voor toonbank, half

verdrongen nu door ouë Gerrit, die wrevelig begon te worden van ’t
wachten. Maar nijdig, bang toch, brak ze los.

—Nou mehair.… Ik mò dokter hebbe!.…

—Soo.. soo!.. dus je wil nie probeere met ’t kind? Strak drukte ie z’n
bril in neusgleufje, montuur tegen z’n ooren.

—Dá’s gosonmogelik.… se lait mi de koors op ’r laif.… en ’n

hoest.… se loop mi de dood an ’t touwetje.…

—En ik heb ’r jood-ijzerstroop gegeve.… Heb je dat?..

—Seker, moar holp niks.… was niks doan d’rmai.…

—Soo, soo! nou dan sal ik dokter zegge.… mo’ je maar komme
hoore, wanneer ie komme kan.… maar je weet ’t, tachtig sent de
visite.… was anders voor de Zeekijkers ’n [313]gulde.… maar voor
jou, omdat je zoo lang in ’t fonds bent, tachtig cent.…

—Tachtig sint? zei verbleekend, mank vrouwtje … schuiner

afzakkend ’r linkerschouder naar één zij, tachtig sint mehair?.. huilde
’r stem na.… moar daa’s godgekloagd!.… m’n maa’n lait al acht
waike krom van de rimmetiek.… en wai.… wai binne tog in ’t fons.…
en dokter komp nooit-nie bai main.—Enne ik betoal tog vaiftig sinte
ieder waik.…

—Soo.… Soo!

—Enne.… veur de klaine twai sinte.…

—Soo, nou vrouw, jij bent lang van stof hoor! Maar ik heb je vooruit
gewaarschuwd.—

—Trillend ging de deurbel en smerig kereltje stapte in, bedremmeld.

—’n Sint kattedroppies!.…

—Wat, schreeuwde woedend assistentje, donder op! wordt hier niet

verkocht.—Bedremmelder en geschrokken ’t kereltje àf.—

—Moar ’t is tog godgekloagd mehair!.… doar stoan mîn f’rstand van

stil.… ikke betoal tog in dá’ fons!.… enne ikke vroag tog allainig dá’
gaine op waa’n mins se rechte hep.. en in de feregeleminte stoan
tog.… veur Wiereland en veur omstraike.… Veur wá’ betoale wai
aêrs vaiftig sinte in ’t waikie!.… aa’s.… aa’s wai nie siek binne?.…
foàder, moeder.… drie soons.… enne nog twai kinders, en ’t skoap is
an ’t uiterste mehair.… se kan.… kan puur nie mair!.. mi de dood an
’t touwetje.…
Haar stem kermde, ’r lippe beefden, onrustig joeg ’r kijk door de
apotheek, van assistentje naar Gerrit, van Gerrit naar assistentje.

Er lag schreiklaag in ’r geluid, die niet hooger-op durfde.… Maar

assistentje begon ’t gelamenteer danig te vervelen.

—Soo.… soo!.… maar ik zeg dat ’t nou genoeg is, barstte uit, z’n
nijdige stem; woede-doorschokt dreigde z’n gezicht.… Kort en
goed.… of ’t wel of nie in ’t reglement staat.… daar heb jij niks mee
noodig.… Wou je mij hier de wette [314]stelle?.… Al die buite
Wiereland woont, betaalt.. Dat weet je, dat wil dokter zoo. Dan wou
jij zeker, dat als jij naar Lemmer ging wone, dat dokter dan ook maar
van omstreke sprak hee?.… kort, en goed, ik heb je ’t gezegd.… En
nou marsch!.…

—Joa, moar mehair, schrei-klaagde weer ’r stem.

—Is ’t nou uit, donderde ie giftig, als jij nie dokke ken, kom jij met je
kind hier.… kort en goed!.…

—Moar aa’s ’t nou hailig nie loope.…

—Vort wijf! daar is ’t gat van de deur, ben jij belatafeld! En jij Hassel?
—

Mank vrouwtje stond te beven met bleek-grauw gezicht. Wat

woorden lagen te sterven op ’r lippen, van angst. Ze durfde niet
meer tegenspreken. Van alle kanten, hoorde ze achteruit, geloop
rond matglazen tuindeur, waar ’t licht, goud-groen, doorheen
glansde; zag ze de meiden, blank beboezelaard en bemutst, met
kleedjes en klopper in en uitgaan. Telkens nog dacht ze dokter zelf
even te zien, voor wien ze sidderde, maar hij kwam niet.

Zwaarder in heupsleep was ze eindelijk de apotheek uitgewaggeld,

met huilgezicht, stille biggeltranen op ’r wang, niet wetend wàt te
doen, verstompt van zorg en bangheid.

—Heb je me ooit, bromde assistentje, nog in nawoede, tegen ouë

Gerrit, zoo’n schooierswijf.… Wat ’n bedil! Ze wou natuurlijk dokter
graag voor niks hebbe, dat ’r man weer beter zuipe kan.… Nou
hunkert ze naar ’n bewijs van onvermoge.… Ze heeft zich al voor
drie weke opgegeve an de sekretarie.… Maar kà je begrijpe.… Daar
is dokter baas over … En jìj Hassel, wat jij?

Gerrit had verlegen staan luisteren, bang al, dat ie straks dokter
Troost zou zien.

—Nou Weimer, daa’s nie best mi’t waif.… mi de doàg ergert sai.…
dâ laikt puur toof’rai.… hoho!.… hoho!.. wá’ da’ mins skeelt.… hoho..
hoho.. ik wou juustemint dokter effe spreke.…

—Goed hoor, ga maar effe hier in de wachtkamer! Ik zal dokter

daadlijk zegge dat je ’r bent.— [315]

Stijfjes en onrustig was ouë Gerrit, met z’n pet in de hand, onnoodig
afslaand z’n kleeren, en lacherig-verlegen, duf-klein wachtkamertje
ingestapt. Stijf, in een hoekje bleef ie staan, strak op den
prachtmoestuin van dokter uitkijkend. ’n Paar meiden, wit-geschort,
stonden daar warm-blank, tusschen het goudgroen boomgewas te
lachen.—

Niks op z’n gemak voelde ie zich, beverig, bang dat dokter iets aan
’m zien zou van eigen gedachten aan z’n spullen en steelgenot.—Na
vijf minuutjes strak tuin-ingekijk, rinkelde ’n schelletje langs den
wand, kwam grijs hoofd van assistentje deuropening in, dat ’m
wenkte te volgen.

In angstige beklemming voelde ouë Gerrit zich door assistentje

vooruitgeduwd, de marmergang in, naar dokters kamer.
—Hassel! kondigde assistentje kloppend áán.

Dokter, in z’n ontvangvertrek achter, zat met tuinramen wijd open,

waardoor goudene schaduwkoelte aanwoei. Geurzoete stamrozen
stortten wellustdamp rond, en licht gesuizel van windgewuif,
kabbelde zoetjes tegen rooie veranda-gordijntjes aan, met zachte
zomer-blije tikjes.

Gerrit durfde bijna niet de kamer instappen, bevangen van vrees

voor rijkdom en geleerdheid, hield z’n adem in, draaide z’n petje snel
rond in de grove, vuile handen, kuchte en schraapte alsof ie ’n graat
uit de keel wou stooten.

—Zoo Hassel, ben jij daar, joviaalde zwaar-gemoedelijk dokter

Troost, van z’n stoel opveerend, naar ouë Gerrit toe; ga zitte man, ga
zitte, je wijf weer niet al te best?

Ouë Gerrit voelde zich in schemerkoelen hoek op ’n stoel

neergedrukt, door joviale groote handen van jovialen dokter Troost.
Neergeboomd, in ’t weeldevleeschvet, stond z’n zwaarlijvig lichaam
gezakt vóór Hassel. Gerrit’s neus raakte bijna hagelwit zomervest op
spanbuik van dokter Troost, als ie even voor ’m uitstapte, heen en
weer. Deftige rijkelui’s-geur ademde ’r uit dokterskleeren. Telkens
bleef ie in lichten waggelgang van vettigheid, voor Hassel staan.

Zakkerig kwalden z’n wangen, kort donker bebakkebaard, in z’n

hoofd, en zakkerig plooide z’n onderkin dubbel, op laag open-
gepunte [316]boord, loerden z’n half dichtgeknepen oogen, kleintjes-
bijziende, rond.—En joviaal, baste z’n stem, diep, welluidend:

—Allons donc! Ouë wat is t’r! vertel op!

Ouë Gerrit was door vriendschaptoon van dokter altijd overstuur. Hij
wist nooit goed, wat ie met hem voor had, en hoe ie z’n antwoord
moest aanleggen. Was ie vriendelijk terug, dan keek dokter norsch.
Bleef ie stijf, dan lachte dokter ’m uit. En nou, zoo heelemaal diep in
dat prachtige huis. Van verlegenheid trok ie zich aan de baard,
haakte ie z’n handen door z’n zilveren lokken.

—Joa.… kaik es dokter.… ’t waif laikt puur daas! se hep.… wullie

hewwe.… vier en vaif en nie.…

—Zoo-zoo, zoo-zoo, is ’t zoover!.… Allons! en verder,.. kuchte ie uit

z’n hoogen stand, strak-kippig in loer, met z’n lichte oogjes op
Hassel neerkijkend.

—Ikke hep soo.… bai main aige docht.… aa’s da’.… hoho.… aa’s
dá’ ’t waif miskien bestiges in ’n gesticht sel konne.… sai bevuilt d’r
aige.… Guurt,.… Guurt.… hoho.…

—Wat Guurt? gretig vroeg dokter!

—Guurt f’rdrait ’t langerst, wil d’r aige bereddere.… en niks.…

heulegoar niks blaift d’r meer in d’r kop.…

—Kom-kom! dat proatje van ’t gesticht is ’n bêtíse vriendje, ’n

stommigheid.… Jullie leeke, jullie zègt máár; ’t wijf mot hulp hebbe,
voila tout! En jullie kijkt misschien niet heel best naar ’r om.

—Joa,.… aa’s dokter.… aa’s dokter.…

—Ha.… ha.… ha! schaterde vettig zinlijke dokter, jullie bent me ’n

volkie, jij ouë schooier! Daar net had ’k er nog een hier van den
polder. Die had zes kwartier ver geloope,.. Ze klaagde van koorts.…
Is me daàr ook ’t landje! Allons donc!.… ça ira!.… Ik vraag of ze pijn
heeft!.. bliksems!.. ’n donders aardige meid.… met ’n fraîcheur!
prachtig!.… Ze zegt, nee.… dokter.… Nou is daar alles.. hm! hm!..
malarialand! alle duivels wat ’n streek! Ik zeg tot ’t meisje. Klee je
maar uit meid.… Ik zal je buik es onderzoeke.… [317]„Uitklaiie”.. gilt