Learning objectives

1. Be able to classify and relate noise sources with mechanical systems

2. Be able to discern effect of surfaces from flow sources
3. Learn and separate different contributions in aircraft noise
4. Learn and separate different contributions in wind turbine noise
 Introduction
What we have learned so far:

Sound is a pressure perturbation that is propagated in the form of a wave:

From Lighthill’s stress tensor we know that:

𝑇𝑖𝑗 = 𝜌𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 + (𝑝 − 𝑝∞ ) − (𝜌 − 𝜌∞ )𝑐∞ 2 𝛿𝑖𝑗 − 𝜎𝑖𝑗

Viscous stresses
Non-isentropic effects (shock waves)
Turbulence, turbulent stresses
Additionally we know that monopoles and dipoles can produce noise in the form of

• Unsteady injection of mass A siren for example

• Variable fluidynamic force An airfoil
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Noise is defined in terms of local or continuous exposure to high levels of noise. In particular:

Pain threshold: 130-140 dB

Sound pressure level above 150 dB: Acoustic Fatigue

Continuous exposure to >75 dB : Stress, hypertension

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Aircraft noise predictions:

• Steady growth rate of 2-3% per year

• From 1990 to 2015 the number of planes doubled in number

Necessary to reduce take-off and landing noise

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Aircraft noise predictions:
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
What are we aiming for:
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Easy ways to reduce noise can come from:

• Reducing the number of passengers/payload fuel

• Less engine power or speed

This makes flying less profitable and requires more fuel stops and less passengers per aircraft

Much better is to predict noise during the design phase.

In 2001 the Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE) established the following targets
for new aircraft entering service in 2020 compared to those entering service in 2000:

• reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emission by 50% per passenger per kilometer
• reduce NOx emissions by 80%
• reduce perceived noise by 50%
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources

Sources of noise in an aircraft:

• Jet noise

• Airframe noise

• Propeller noise

• Helicopter noise

• Sonic boom noise

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Airframe noise:

• Airflow interacts with all aircraft structures

• Wing and fuselage

• Landing gear
• Trailing edge flap
• Leading edge struts
• Fuselage
• Tailplanes
Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Airframe noise:

• Airflow interacts with all aircraft structures

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Airframe noise:

• Airflow interacts with all aircraft structures

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Sonic boom

Noise can be created by aircraft flying at supersonic speed. Only military aircraft can nowadays fly at
Mach>1 over the Oceans.

Supersonic flights over land are not allowed. Sonic booms propagate quite significantly with the distance.
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Propeller noise

A new concern is coming with new ducted propeller engines, prop-fans and turbo-props.

Noise is characterized by well defined harmonics, due to the rotation of the blade.

Monopoles are typically identified in the thickness noise, while dipoles are given by the variable loading.

Arrius 2B2 turboshaft

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Propeller noise

Noise is characterized by well defined harmonics, due to the rotation of the blade.
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Propeller noise

Counter rotating configurations generate higher noise sources with respect to the original
configurations due to the presence of rotor-rotor interaction.

Computation of CROR noise (Casalino 2010)

(a) Wake and vortex system
(b) nearfield noise reductions due to increased blade count in front rotor,
(c) CROR far-field noise directivity decomposition
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Jet noise

There is a considerable increase in efficiency if large

volumes are processed at considerable lower speed.

Bypass cycle allow using more air per thrust unit with net
decrease in exhaust velocity.
 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Helicopter noise

Several characteristics that are different from Aircraft:

• The rotor is aligned with the flight direction

• BVI is characteristic noise generated by the blade

interaction with the flow coming from the previous blade

• Tail Rotor Noise

• Asymmetric noise field with different blade movement

 Aircraft noise, aerodynamic sources
Helicopter noise

Complex flow aerodynamics based upon multiple

interaction between slipstream and airframe
 Wind turbine noise
Wind turbine noise is perceived as more annoying than other
noise sources:

• Swishing character and new technology effect

• Economic benefit from turbines reduces annoyance

There is no evidence of direct health effects despite the claim

of hearing loss, fatigue, vertigo etc.
 Wind turbine noise
Regulation still vary per country, and people living near turbines are protected by noise limits.
Some countries have penalty for tonality etc.
 Wind turbine noise
What is the value of a dB:

• Most modern turbines use pitch control and variable speed

• Control settings can be tailored to specific site conditions
• 1 dB noise reduction costs 2-4% annual energy production
 Wind turbine noise
Recap of airfoil self-noise mechanisms
• boundary layer separation noise
• laminar boundary layer instability noise

• separation stall noise

• turbulent boundary layer – trailing edge interaction noise

• tip noise
• trailing edge bluntness vortex shedding noise
Wind turbine noise