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The Urban Book Series
Agata Bonenberg
Cityscape in
the Era of
Information and
Communication
Technologies
Aims and Scope
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14773

Agata Bonenberg
Cityscape in the Era

of Information
and Communication
Technologies
123
Agata Bonenberg
Poznań University of Technology
Poznań
Poland
ISSN 2365-757X ISSN 2365-7588 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-69541-9 ISBN 978-3-319-69542-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69542-6
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Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Architectural Concept: Location Versus Tradition of a Design
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Mass Communication and Public Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
3.1 Elite Stage—Compact and Clear City Composition . . . . . . . . .. 38
3.2 Popularization Stage—Polycentric Composition . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
3.3 Specialization Stage in the Industrial Cities of the Twentieth
Century—Specialized System Versus Loss of Legibility
of Urban Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
3.4 Multimedia Stage of Mass Communication—Urban Spaces
of Information Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
4 Strategies for the Development of Public Spaces in the Era
of Mass Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Public Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Urban Space Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Design Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5 Cityscape: Dominant Functions and the Role in the City
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6 Designing the Living and Working Space of the Creative Class . . . 65
6.1 The Creative Process and Spatial Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
v
vi Contents
6.2 In Search for Identity: Advanced Technologies, Natural

and Historical Values in Architecture for Creative Class . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7 Architectural Landscape in Mass Media Coverage . . . . . . . . . . ... 75
7.1 Architecture as Scenography in the Mass Media Event,
Supporting Creation of Place—Brand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 75
7.2 New Stylistic Architectural Forms Based on the Creation
and Distribution of Symbols and Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 78
7.3 Place as the Subject of Fashion Created by the Media . . . . ... 85
7.4 The Perception of Architecture on Online Maps—The Fifth
Facade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 96
7.5 Media Message as an Element of Architectural Space . . . . . ... 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8 Place Brand-Building: Influencing Emotional Perception
of Urban Spaces Through Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.1 Mapping Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2 Sense of Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9 Spatial Transformations and Work-Related Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.1 Expansion: Increase in Use of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.2 Inversion: The Loss of Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.3 Intensification of Development and Transformations Within
the Existing Structure of the City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.4 Adaptation of Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.5 Reconfiguration—Kinetic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.6 Negotiation—Changes of a Functional Space Division . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10 New Urban Developments in Genoa, Milan and Trento as an
Illustration of Spatial Transformations Designed in Response to
Change in Socio-economic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
10.1 Genoa, the “Waterfront” Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.2 Milan, the “FALCK” Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.3 Trento, Project for the Post-industrial Areas of Michelin . . . . . . 149
10.4 Building an Image Based on the Relationship with the Existing
Context of the City and Development of the Social
Communication Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract The urban structure of a city and its architecture are the spatial mani-
festation of the culture of its inhabitants. Historic urban spaces provide a basis for
observation and drawing conclusions regarding the past social, economic, cultural
relations. An evolutionary order of creating new typologies of space and con-
struction technologies is emerging from the research on the history of architecture
in response to the demand and new functions. The ornament and aesthetics fol-
lowing the cultural changes of society are subject to evolutionary changes.
The urban structure of a city and its architecture are the spatial manifestation of the
culture of its inhabitants. Historic urban spaces provide a basis for observation and
drawing conclusions regarding the past social, economic, cultural relations. An
evolutionary order of creating new typologies of space and construction tech-
nologies is emerging from the research on the history of architecture in response to
the demand and new functions. The ornament and aesthetics following the cultural
changes of society are subject to evolutionary changes.
The motivation to take up the topic is the desire of referring the relations between
the community and the built environment, so perfectly studied and described in
many historical examples, to the present day conditions. Interest in issues of
directionality and purpose in designing architecture of the “here and now”, realized
in practice when working with the architect Renzo Piano, prompted the author to
search for sources of contemporary concepts of spatial design. This common source
is the basic factor shaping the contemporary culture—a wide access to information.
The main goal of this work is, therefore, to determine the influence of the
contemporary media (means of mass communications) on the trends shaping the
architectural space. This influence can be seen on many levels: from changes in
settlement preferences, due to changes in the formula of employment, to the
question of the mass media promoting trends in stylistics, triggering the need for
mass customization of working and living space. It is important to emphasize the
applicative value of the research and cited solutions verified with the experience of
the author, acquired while working in architectural offices in Germany, Australia,
Scotland and Poland. An important experience that has shaped the views of the
author on the discussed topics was the collaboration with the Architectural
Association School of Architecture in London (AA) and participation in the
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

A. Bonenberg, Cityscape in the Era of Information and Communication
Technologies, The Urban Book Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69542-6_1
2 1 Introduction
seminar on social media at Harvard University in Cambridge, USA. At each of the

mentioned stages of work, it proved important to take into consideration the
changes to which the community is subject through the new media. The teaching
positions at Politecnico di Milano and Poznan Univesity of Technology gave the
author the opportunity to research and study the subject in the didactic process.
Information technology plays an important role among the contemporary mass
media. Building of an information society is one of the objectives of a social policy
in Poland and the European Union. A historical report “Europe and the Global
Information Society—Recommendations to the European Council” elaborated in
1994 by the Bangemann’s Commission,1 pointed directions and proposed rules for
the organization of the European information society. It describes the opportunities
arising from the possibilities of economic development while warning against
omissions in this sphere. Omissions and lack of computerization will result in
underdevelopment and marginalization of some regions of the country, and its
residents can face a technological exclusion, disastrous on a common, competitive
job market: The first countries to enter the information society will gain the most
benefit. They will set the agenda for all those, who will follow in their footsteps.3
Poland entered the nineties as a pre-information society. In the strategy of the
country development, on the basis of the material produced during the works of the
First Congress of Polish Information Technology in Poznan in 1994, it was deter-
mined that one of the main factors of economic development should be precisely
computerization. Cultural transformation caused by the universal access to media
using the latest information and communication technologies are not without effect
on the architectural space and built environment. According to leading sociologists,
urban planners and architects, technological and social changes involve spatial
changes. They will cover planning at the regional level, city level as well as
architectural design, to the designs of interior furnishings. The thematic selection
allowed to expose trends which, according to the author, have the most important
impact on the image of the contemporary spatial reality subject to the influence of
media. It was important to synthesize the issues to be able to see a coherent logic of
the projects implemented today in the field of architecture and urbanism.
From the ancient times, the public spaces in cities served to exchange infor-
mation—they were designed to promote the flow of information process and the
need for social interaction was one of the factors shaping the spatial planning of the
urban structures. An important issue raised in the paper is the impact of media
coverage on the clarity of the functional structure in the city scale in conjunction
with the risk of generating a space devoid of identity.
Reflections on the media, architecture and their relationship to space are initiated
by the author by defining the meaning that she desires to associate to these notions.
This is a difficult task because of the ambiguity of the semantic scope of the
1
The Commission deliberating under the supervision of Martin Bangemann, the commissioner of
the European Union in the years 1993–1999, responsible for the development of telecommuni-
cations and information technology—the main promoter of the concept of “information society” in
Europe.
1 Introduction 3
categories. They involve different scales, different fields of human activity. Over the
centuries, this range was subject to changes. In the colloquial sense, architecture is
the art of shaping the space, the science of designing and implementing buildings
and their equipment. It also includes designing of a settlement network, cities, towns,
villages, settlements and adapting the landscape to human needs. Such a wide scope
of understanding of architecture is probably the most similar to the definition coined
by Vitruvius, who wrote that it is an extremely extensive “branch of knowledge”
which covers “information from various sciences”. Here, he pointed out the tech-
nical expertise, geometry, drawing skills, optics, arithmetic, astronomy, philosophy,
law, knowledge of natural sciences. According to Vitruvius, the architect should be
familiar with sculpture, painting, music, master the art of grammar and rhetoric.
The term “media” has a much shorter history. According to the “Oxford English
Dictionary”—it came into circulation in the twenties of the twentieth century. This
does not mean that the knowledge of communication had not existed much earlier.
In ancient Greece and Rome, the art of persuasion, rhetoric and grammar skills were
considered to be the basis of education. In the Middle Ages, rhetoric with dialectic
and grammar formed a trivium of liberal arts (Grant 1996). The art of rhetoric
enjoyed a high reputation in the Renaissance (Lichański 2000). In the eighteenth
century, rhetoric still played a significant role, with the emphasis put on the style of
speech, filled with complex figures of speech, having more reference to emotion
than the logic of conveyed message. During this time was developed the term
“public opinion”, and in the early nineteenth century, the press—a new medium
shaping the views—started to play an important role in politics, culture and social
life. The twentieth century greatly expanded the use of the press as a means of
shaping the public opinion. The outbreak of the First World War directed media
attention to a propaganda, involving the intellectual and emotional persuasion
aimed at shaping certain behaviours and attitudes of individuals and communities.
Chomsky (2002) ascribes the effectiveness of propaganda to the support of the
public authorities and the educated elite and the impossibility of real criticism
against the content of propaganda. According to the author, it is mostly achieved
through censorship, conspiracy of silence in the media or joint action of publishers.
In 1944, for the first time appeared the term of “cultural industry”. Horkheimer and
Adorno (1979) used this term in reference to cultural goods produced in order to make
a profit. They pointed out that the aim of their development is not to create aesthetic
values but profit, and methods of producing cultural goods are no different from
industrial production. Therefore, the mass-produced newspapers, books, recordings,
films require adequate manufacturing and distribution strategies tailored to the target
group of customers. They aptly noted that the commercialization of culture led to a
“commodity fetishism”, which is manifested by the fact that a work of art has for a
mass audience only the value he or she paid for its purchase (Horkheimer 1979).
Media are linked to mass communication. In this perspective, the concept of
social communication has been developed by Lévi-Strauss (1993), who drew
attention to the phenomenon of social exchange of information, the importance of
myth and symbol in the shaping of a social identity (Lévi-Strauss 1993). The myth
and symbol as part of mass communication are the carrier of social values; it shapes
4 1 Introduction
certain behaviours and relationships with the environment (May 1997). The time-
less role of myth, symbol and ritual present in mass communication is perceived by
Musioł (2012). Luhmann (2007) extended the concept of mass communication with
a theory of self-creating, autopoietic systems. These systems are capable of
self-recreating allowing the survival and expansion in the process of social com-
munication. Some of these systems may disappear as a result of evolution, others—
modify their content (Skąpska 2007).
In connection with such a broad scope of the concept of media and communi-
cation, we can ask what is not covered by the issues associated with the media. The
approach presented in the study mainly includes ways to deliver and impart
information and ideas, form opinions and tastes by the architecture. The scope of
analyses includes phenomena associated with the impact of media on architecture,
among which are painting, drawing, photography but what also plays an important
role is the Internet and modern techniques of multimedia presentations using digital
techniques classified as the new media.
Developing the approach of Lévi-Strauss, architecture can be regarded as a
carrier of cultural experiences, which is characterized by three important properties.
First of all, architecture as a medium creates an environment that reflects our
culture and social experience.
Secondly, architecture is not only meant to meet the most basic needs: protection
against climatic conditions, storage of gained food, etc., but it allows us to create
ourselves. This allows us to confront the immediate needs with the cultural record.
This record is the source of our experience relating to both the specific space
(environment), as well as to our ideas about the space. Such an idea we can encode
in the form of a building. The building may thus reflect our aspirations, yearnings,
whims. In this sense, architecture is not only synonymous with utility, but it also
recreates a cultural code and creates reality according to our ideas (imaginary
desires). It records our dreams, ambitions, desires. As a result, architecture as a
means of social communication enriches not only a space, but also a human.
Thirdly, architecture is inherited. It is the place of our education; we have been
facing it since our childhood in a direct form and in mass media (stories, cartoons,
movies, etc., which take place against the background of some architectural
scenography). No architect creates architecture from scratch by himself or herself, like
we do not create any language from scratch. Growing up in a particular linguistic
tradition, we learn a language code. This does not mean that we cannot develop the
language, introduce new concepts, build new phrases and metaphors. But all of these
we are doing in a specific linguistic tradition. The same is true of architecture. Just
because someone fights one style, and promotes the other, regardless of their cre-
ativity, he or she still uses the same language of architecture as a medium of social
communication. Some architectural styles, like some languages, die. Some are
struggling for their identity. Others, through the exchange of information in a glob-
alized media reality, become universal. It applies to English language, its geographical
(territorial) coverage and its ability to penetrate into other languages, to the same
extent as to the “international” style in architecture. In any case, both the language and
the architecture are the medium that serves as a means of mass communication.
1 Introduction 5
Architecture involves encoding (recording) the experience of its creator but also
finding answers to social needs. Architecture cannot exist in complete isolation
from a broadly comprehended environment, that is, from the social environment
and the spatial context. The space formed by architecture is a reflection of our
history and our present. Using its proper media, it informs about the people who
inhabit the area. It allows us to recognize their tastes, the level of culture, eco-
nomical condition, wealth, habits. It plays the role of media through which we can
learn about the surrounding reality.
Interestingly, architecture, like other media, is heavily dependent on political
systems. So it was in the distant past, it is also in the recent times. It shall be enough to
recall Bauhaus with its modernity, Soviet communism with its socialist realism
Mussolini’s fascism, National Socialism architecturally interpreted by Albert Speer.
In today’s reality, the ideology has been replaced by the market. Architecture, like
other media, is dependent on the market. To a large extent, it acts as a spatial icon—a
kind of medium aimed at attracting capital, it becomes a kind of a spatial brand. Thus,
the main research issues of this paper are urban spaces and architecture subject to
change under the influence of new mass media. It is the result of a new way of
communicating of a society and of new needs arising from it. This applies, at different
levels, to places that already exist, are currently reconstructed or built from scratch.
The scientific papers devoted to the discussed topic include many scientific
disciplines. This particularly applies to the problems of mass communication, which
is the subject of media studies—a relatively new discipline including a broad
spectrum of political, economic and cultural issues, associated with the impact of
mass communication on the various fields of human activity. In addition to media
studies, we can enumerate a number of other disciplines relating to this subject:
cultural anthropology, proxemics, social environmental psychology, political sci-
ence, cultural studies.
Briggs and Burke (2010) in the paper “Social history of media” apply a genetic
method, searching for the relevant causal relationships based on analysis of his-
torical texts. Manovich (2011) complements this method with systematics, which
defines the basic concepts of new media. Nierenberg (2001) applies the systemic
approach to media management with elements of descriptive prediction—predicting
of how the media development trends will evolve in future. A similar
evolutionary-narrative method is used by Celiński (2010). Noteworthy are elements
of the critique of cultural studies in relation to the evolution of media technologies
and communication connotations.
Few works in the field of architecture, in principle, do not go beyond these
methods; they are complemented with a richer pictorial narrative (reproductions,
photographs, sketches). A representative example is the work of Mitchell (1996).
The author to a large extent refers to these research methods. She uses elements
of comparative analysis, criticism of literature, diagnosis of causal relationships
resulting from the dynamics of the analysed processes. However, she complements
these elements with the method of research by design (Biggs and Buchler 2008).
This method involves the use of design and artistic practice in order to acquire
knowledge. It is based on an occasional experiment in the form of design and
6 1 Introduction
architectural drawing. The scientific conclusions lead to systematizing generaliza-

tions resulting from the analysis of representative case studies. In this perspective,
an important research tool is copyright architectural drawings and designs made by
the author in the studio Renzo Piano and AA in London. The reputation of these
companies–institutions determines the representativeness of the selected examples.
The proposed methodology is based on the contextual processing of knowledge.
This approach allows the logical fragmentation of the observed dependencies and
allows the systematics of the issues included in the distinguished focus groups:
1. Architecture in the age of social communication: location, mobility, architects,
architectural education.
2. Cities as an area of mass communication.
3. Social communication versus a city structure.
4. City development strategy in the age of mass communication.
5. Architecture of the information society: the dominant functions and the role in
the city structure.
6. Designing personalized space in the context of access to information and
communication technologies.
7. Impact of media on architecture.
8. Media release as a part of the architectural space.
9. New language of architecture in the age of social media.
The methodology uses a sequence of relationships between the knowledge
discovery and data mining. The rules included in a summary of each chapter make a
contextual series of patterns defining the heterogeneous research field.
This research method allows for the integration of large amounts of distributed
data belonging to many (seemingly remote) disciplines, such as cultural studies,
proxemics, psychology, architecture, theory of architectural design. As a result, the
contextual recognition of relationships between media, space and architecture in a
dynamically changing environment is characterized by a high degree of credibility.
In relation to the issue of social interaction, an architectural space plays an
important role as a place for meeting people, exchanging ideas, information. The
communications revolution, which took place at the time of dissemination of
information and communication technology, has changed the way of organizing the
data flow and social interaction. The emergence of a competitive space for swapping
images, information, an alternative space for “meetings” and the mass media impact
cannot remain without effect on the spatial expression of human life environment. In
this work, the author will discuss the most important examples of the relationship
occurring between the real and virtual space and a forecast of their cultural and
functional consequences. The theoretical basis of the observation and research
conducted by the author is the ideas referring to the space of flows by Manuel
Castells contained in his work “The Rise of the Network Society” (1999) and the
views expressed by John Thackara in “In the Bubble; Designing in the Complex
World” (2006). Theoretical works systematize knowledge on the impact of infor-
mation on society and confirm the observations that the universal access to it is one
1 Introduction 7
of the most characteristic features of our times, and it is a fundamental element of

culture formation. Under this influence, architecture is changing in the sphere of
concepts, in the field of design and at the construction stage. The perception and
communicative functions of architecture have been significantly transformed.
The theoretical basis of the work is construed upon publications of sociologists
and economists who have been depicting a “society of the future” for several
decades. The below publications describe the changes of society, and their authors
treat the occurring spatial changes in terms of the secondary consequence of the
described state of affairs. Their considerations are, however, the basis for the claim
that the appropriate shaping of space can help in the creation of the information
society. The authors of the particularly inspiring works include:
Toffler (1980) who called the projected transformation as the “third wave”—in
comparison with the first wave, which was a civilizational transition to the agri-
cultural system, and the “second wave”, brought by the industrial revolution. The
picture of a society of the future outlined by Toffler in 1980 has not become
outdated, and we can still treat it as one of the most important opinions on forming
a society of the future. The author depicts possible extensive cultural, social and
economic changes: changes in the family, pluralism, employment, education sys-
tem, the end of national states, new forms of corporations. Graham (1995) per-
ceived and described the similarities between a real space and a digitalized world,
whereas Jeremy Rifkin defines the coming era as the “age of access” claiming that
the most important value is the possibility to use, access to information and goods.
Several authors, however, include information on the expected impact on the
surrounding space: Elżbieta Wysocka in her published work “The Impact of the
Information Society on the Spatial Planning” took up the studies on the impact of
the development of information technology on the development of geographic
regions. The theme of the impact of the development of information technology on
a city scale was undertaken by subsequent authors.
In 1995, William Mitchell published a now classic book “The City of Bits”, in
which he compared the actual urban spaces and places in cyberspace. According to
his concept, virtual and real spaces overlap each other—and they will be able to
interweave, replace and support one another. According to Mitchell, the impact of
information technology will be an important factor in the urban design. This new
form is called “E-topia” (Mitchell 1996).
In Poland, this topic was addressed by Anna Palej in the book “Cities of
Information Civilization. Looking for a balance between the physical world and the
virtual world” (2003) and by Jan Słyk in “Sources of Information Architecture” (2012).
Castells (1999) dedicated one chapter of “Network Society” to influence of the
“space of flows”, that is, among other things, the development of information
technology on the phenomena associated with the evolution of architecture. In the
chapter “The Architecture of the End of History”, he defines spatial phenomena in
the following way: “manifestation of the dominant interests takes place around the
world, and across cultures, the uprooting of experience, history and specific culture
as the background of meaning is leading to the generalization of ahistorical,
8 1 Introduction
acultural architecture”. Castells only points out that topic—in relation to the real-
ization by Steven Holl. Nonetheless, he does not develop it into a broader discourse.
Rem Koolhas talks about adapting architecture to delocation. He sees Lille
Grand Palais Convention Centre as the expression of the “space of flows”.
In contrast, John Thackara in “In the Bubble: Designing for a Complex World”
pays attention to both the architecture and the creation of innovative solutions in
designing utilitarian objects (design).
In summary, the above-mentioned authors agree on the principles of changes in
information and communication technologies that affect the spatial environment.
They underline the changed role of education, the model of space and work in a
unified space.
References
Biggs, M., & Buchler, D. (2008). Eight criteria for practice-based research in the creative and
cultural industries. ADCHE, 7(1), 5–18.
Bonenberg, A. (2013). Media, przestrzeń, architektura. Transformacje przestrzeni społeczeństwa
informacyjnego. Poznań, Wydawnictwo Wydział Architektury Politechniki Poznańskiej.
Briggs, A., & Burke, P. (2010). Społeczna historia mediów. Tłumaczenie z angielskiego Jakub
Jedliński. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Castells, M. (1999). The rise of the network society. Oxford MA: Blackwell.
Celiński, P. (2010). Interfejsy: Cyfrowe technologie w komunikowaniu. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.
Chomsky, N. (2002). Media control the spectacular achievements of propaganda. NY: Seven
Stories Press.
Graham, S. (1995). Cities, nations and communications in the global era: urban telecommuni-
cations policies in France and Britain. European Planning Studies, 3(3), 357–380.
Grant E. (1996). Średniowieczne podstawy nauki nowożytnej, Warszawa 1996. [Original title: The
Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages] Grant E., Średniowieczne podstawy nauki
nowożytnej, [Original title: The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages]
Translated by T. Szafrański, Prószyński i S-ka. Warsaw.
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (1979). Dialectic of enlightenment. London: Verso.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1993). Spojrzenie z oddali, Warsaw.
Lichański, J. Z. (2000). Retoryka. Od renesansu do współczesności—tradycja i innowacja. DiG.
Warsaw.
Luhmann, N. (2007). Systemy społeczne: Zarys ogólnej teorii. Tłumaczenie z niemieckiego M.
Kaczmarczyk. Kraków: Zakład wydawniczy Nomos.
Manovich, L. (2011). Język nowych mediów. Tłumaczenie z angielskiego P. Cypriański.
Warszawa: Oficyna Wydawnicza Łośgraf.
May, R. (1997). Błaganie o mit, [Original title: The cry for myth] Zysk i s-ka, Poznań.
Mitchell, W. (1996). City of bits: Space, place and the infobahn (p. 48). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Musioł, S. (2012). Symbol, mit, rytuał w komunikacji marketingowej, Lingua ac Communitas.
(Vol. 22, pp. 169–180) (ISSN 1230-3143)
Nierenberg, B. (2001). Zarządzanie mediami: Ujęcie systemowe. Kraków: Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Skąpska, G. (2007). Niklas Luhmann i teoria systemów społecznych, w: Systemy społeczne. Zarys
ogólnej teorii. Tłumaczenie z niemieckiego M.Kaczmarczyk. Kraków: Zakład wydawniczy
Nomos.
Thackara, J. (2006). In the bubble: designing in a complex world. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Toffler, A. (1980). The Third Wave. Toronto: New York: London: Bantam Books.
Chapter 2
Architectural Concept: Location Versus
Tradition of a Design Philosophy
Abstract In globalized world, the geographical location of the buildings is loosing

its impact on architecture, as places are loosing their identity. What instead begins
to play an important role is an origin of the design concept behind architecture. It is
largely determined by the creative individuality of a designer, which, in turn, is
never a completely independent—self-induced feature. What should be pointed out
here is the crucial role of architectural education. In the globalized architecture,
academic tradition is behind the actions of the creator: design philosophy, under-
standing and interpreting the design process, sensitivity, ethics.
Defining the territorial framework in the research is commonly justified by the

belief that the location of the building is the primary factor influencing the char-
acteristics of its architecture. This issue is closely connected with the theme of the
spatial context—understood as the direct environment of the building and the
cultural context of its creation. Contemporary architecture is subject to currents of
the global flow of information, becoming part of Castells’ “space of flows” (Castells
2007a, b). Its formal features are decreasingly dependant on tradition, spatial and
geographic context, and they are increasingly imprinted with global media patterns
and design trends. In the description of architecture, which is global in its nature,
numerous examples of which are cited by the author of this work, in addition to the
geographical coverage of the developed content, one should also pay attention to:
1. mobility of architects,
2. internationalization of the creative environment,
3. internationalization of the architectural education.
Adaptation of architecture to the surrounding conditions over the centuries has
had various causes and consequences. Traditionally, they included availability of
technology, materials, climatic conditions, cultural context. Modernity has brought
mastering of technologies allowing to build similar forms in various conditions,
unification and globalization of the market of materials, making the builders
independent from resources of the specific location. Since the nineteenth century
the discourse on architecture and spatial context has been expanded by the doctrines

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69542-6_2
10 2 Architectural Concept: Location Versus Tradition of a Design …
of conservation issues, which implied a conscious adjustment, contextualization of

newly designed objects. Not all theorists and practitioners continue this approach.
At the same time, in the centre of this discussion is the creator—the architect and
his personal relationship with the place. The question is what the project is better
defined by—the tradition of architectural thought, philosophy from which the
creator is derived or the place—locus—is the most appropriate.
Determination of the geographical boundaries in the research on architecture is
considered to be a fundamental issue. It is often understood as equivalent with
giving information about the identity of the place, tradition, culture of creation and
implementation of urban or architectural design. This approach is indeed true when
dealing with issues of historical architecture. The place defined the availability of
materials, materials defined the building technology, which in turn affected the
applied architectural detail. Historical architecture was obviously subject to a
stylistic evolution and international influences—the locations were, however, so
much separated from each other that the influence progressed relatively slowly.
Over the years the patterns that came from afar were changing, mixing with the
native stylistic solutions. And these objects, inscribed in the landscape and fabric of
the city, were studied by the first students of the architecture courses and schools in
the past centuries. Drawing on existing models formed the basis of research
methodology associated with the beginnings of the architectural education. The
study was based on the analysis of objects in an authentic context during European
journeys underlying the architectural education. Sketches of construction forms and
details made by the then students survived, inter alia, in sketchbooks and docu-
mentation preserved till now. A perfect example is a prominent Scottish architect
from the Art Nouveau era, Charles Rennie Macintosh (Robertson 2002). A careful
study of observation of context and coupling of architecture with the surrounding
space in the case of his works arouse admiration—they explain the criterion of a
place and cultural context as a basis for discussion about the quality of historical
architecture.
Today, however, the increasing number of realizations elude to be classified by
location. Historically, the creator of the work was usually associated by his or her
origin with the community which decided to erect an architectural object. In the
case of architects—visitors from foreign countries, the country of conducting
investment was at least a temporary place of residence of the creator—so he was no
stranger to the social environment. Culture, language, traditional places influenced
the authors, encouraging them to borrowing and creative use of local motifs. The
need for the use of local building materials, the use of the services of local
craftsmen in the construction process—led to the mixing of technologies for
erecting of buildings. Spatial concepts and decorative motifs could be imported—
for example, a wonderful renaissance of Cracow—despite the Italian roots—it had
also native features. Nineteenth-century architects working in Cracow, who finished
schools in Vienna and Munich, also imported styles processing them, however, in
their own way—and under the influence of the local culture. For these reasons,
defining a territorial framework for objects of great historical architecture provided
information on a wide cultural context of the work.
2 Architectural Concept: Location Versus Tradition of a Design … 11
Today, the range of activities of creators has been significantly extended.

Restrictions for beginning works on the project no longer lie in the geographical
distances, they were substantially limited by the widespread use of information and
communication technologies (ICT), and the availability and generalization of air
transport. Locations of new design projects are of secondary importance, also due to
the tradition of contracting local architects1 to carry out some design work and
supervision. The flow of duties and commands does not need a hierarchical order—it
is more like a collaboration of entities involved in a common process of realization.
This solution is more natural since architectural offices have always had the problem
of coordination of many industries—the institution of local architects is another link.
The possibility of quick displacement limits the impact of culture of the location
on the Creator, and, unfortunately, it also reduces his or her knowledge of that place.
An architect evaluates the characteristics of the surrounding area from the point of
view of the visitor—tourist. Interpretations of the local architecture, which are often
the element around which the marketing framework of a new investment is built, may
prove to be shallow and borrowings—superficial. This is the case, in the opinion of
the author, of the international airport in Beijing, designed by Norman Foster. The
motif of the red columns visible in pictures, dominant in the external composition of
the solid and in its interior along with a symmetrical system are present, among
others, in the architecture of the Forbidden City. Formal quotes, the use of symbolism
of colours, are very direct and obvious. They are based on a simple processing of the
formal characteristics of the most popular monuments in China.
Similar situations occur frequently and result from expectations of consumers of
architecture. The latter are interested in the simultaneous stressing the identity and
culture of the place and in belonging to an elite global network of business, eco-
nomic connections, whose style is synonymous with modernity and progress. These
objectives are not always moving in one direction. They embody the contrast
occurring between what is global and local. An investor with public capital is
usually eager to highlight the references to the past and tradition because it is
required by the culture and the local community, big business is looking for ref-
erences to global design and universal themes. Nonetheless, both the authorities of
bigger and smaller towns think that having a building bearing the name of a
well-known creator of world architecture opens the door to an exclusive club of big
cities—it is an indicator of belonging to the “great world”—which stands in
opposition to the sense of familiarity and identity of the place (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).
An important element in determining the nature of the global market architecture
is a multiculturalism of creative environments. As in other areas, the custom of
employing a multi-national project team serves to prepare for operations in foreign
markets. The basic requirement is knowledge of the specificity associated with
conducting business in other countries and cultures. Employment of people speaking
the language of the place for the project realization, people with knowledge of the
legal regulations, cultural specificity is increasingly becoming a necessity—like
1
Local architects—Architectural office located in the project realization site.
Fig. 2.1 Buildings designed by the architectural office Steven Holl Architects: linked Hybrid
apartment (Beijing, China, 2009), Simmons Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(Cambridge, USA, 1999–2002). In these projects strikes the similarity of spatial solutions, formal
solutions and architectural details. Photo A. Bonenberg
employment of specialists to perform specific tasks. Impact of the creative envi-

ronment on the result of the design work is significant. In the international team of
designers occurs the exchange of experiences, both professional and philosophical
ones. Both elements affect the applied spatial solutions. Shaping of meeting places,
interaction space, working space, residence depends principally on traditions, culture
and beliefs. In the project teams we deal with merging and imposition of frequently
very different ideas. The privacy issue or family model are variously perceived in
diverse places—and these factors influence the development of residential space. The
business culture is also different—hence the different schemes of working space. The
author experienced these differences working in the office Renzo Piano in Genoa, in
an international creative environment (Figs. 2.3 and 2.4). Apart from having to
choose concepts that were satisfactory to a designer, there was the dispute of the
geographical diversity of implementation and issues relating to local climate and
local legislation. The objective of establishment of international project teams in was:
Fig. 2.2 Simmons Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA. Photo A.
Bonenberg
1. obtaining the adequate statement of skills: professional, language competence.

2. assignment of roles in which the specific qualifications are useful,
3. ensuring and facilitating the possibility of proper communication in the team—
including the linguistic dimension; employees should be able to speak a com-
mon language and should be encouraged to a permanent use of it on the group
forum. Lack of such solution reduces the efficiency of the group.
A large-scale professional mobility of architects is confirmed by statistical data
contained in the atlas of architecture by Phaidon.2 Data on global relationships
between architects and implementations indicate a particularly high proportion of
architectural offices located in Europe in shaping the face of a world architecture.
Out of 653 cited authors, 323 operate on the Old Continent, at the same time, out of
2
“The Phaidon Atlas of twenty first Century World Architecture” page 10. The statistics in this
publication can be considered reliable because of the comprehensive scope of the subject elabo-
ration. Accurate, because the book is the quintessence of world architecture.
Table 2.1 Expansiveness of architectural offices

Europe 323 design offices • 154 intercontinental projects
Asia (a large dominance of Japan) 113 design offices • 33 intercontinental projects
North America 97 design offices • 37 intercontinental projects
Oceania 43 design offices • 4 intercontinental projects
South America 52 design offices • 3 intercontinental projects
Africa 25 design offices • 3 intercontinental projects
Source “The Phaidon Atlas of Twenty First Century World Architecture”, page 10
233 researched intercontinental projects, as many as 154 were implemented by the

European offices (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 shows that Europe is unrivalled in terms of influence through export of
design concepts, the subsequent places are occupied by Japan and North America.
Fig. 2.3 The architectural office Renzo Piano Building Workshop: facade, teamwork space on the
lowest terrace of the office. The glass facade and sliding wood panels used for exhibition of prints and
drawings which enables discussion of the project in a broad group of people. Photo A. Bonenberg
Fig. 2.4 Renzo Piano Building Workshop, model workshop. The construction of mock-ups is an
essential design tool of Renzo Piano. Photo A. Bonenberg
In the situation when the location of the project has been losing its importance,
what begins to play a more important role is an origin of the design concept. It is
largely determined by the creative individuality of a designer. This, in turn, is never a
completely independent—self-induced feature. What should be pointed out here is
the crucial role of architectural education. In the global architecture, tradition has the
greater importance than a geographic location, since tradition is behind the actions of
the creator: understanding the design process, sensitivity, ethics, sensitivity to
context. What has a significant impact on the quality of the international architecture
in the era of the dominance of Western culture are precisely universities—schools of
architecture. In the study conducted among the students of the Faculty of
Architecture of the Technical University of Poznan 98%3 of respondents indicated a
strong influence of the “master”—teacher on the effects of their own, individual
creativity. According to the author tracing and examination of the “creative thought”
3
A statistical survey was conducted on a sample of 430 students in two age groups—in the second
year and fourth year of study during the summer semester 2011.
gives us a better idea of the circumstances and philosophy behind the creation of a
work of architecture than the use of a geographical key. University centres, through
the selection of staff, international cast of professors, elaboration of the adequate,
up-to-date and modern curriculum of the taught subjects and implementation of the
educational process, bear part of the responsibility for the quality of the designed
space and globalization of the stylistic trends (Bonenberg 2013). Their basic duty is
to shape a responsible attitude in relation to:
1. past: heritage of the spatial context,
2. present: concept, philosophy, available technologies, adequacy of material
solutions,
3. future: adoption of issues of variability in architecture.
An important feature of European and American architectural education centres
are mutual contacts and cooperation. It can be said that the process of architecture
globalization begins at the stage of education of a student. A student who participates
in the universal international exchange programs—for example (Erasmus4).
A student taught by professors cooperating with other centres—conducting joint
scientific works and research. These trends affect the unification of a scholastic
culture—a globalization which is later visible in the architectural realizations.
Approximation of teaching methods, level of qualifications is a positive phe-
nomenon. It greatly supports and facilitates the international flow of ideas and skills.
A degree of internationalization of education centres is one of the important
criteria for assessing the quality of teaching.5 Centres offering a high level of
education receive international students. Their presence and further professional
path widens the impact of the academic centre on the further practical and theo-
retical development of disciplines—it provides a broad impact on an international
scale and raises the prestige of the University. The language issue is also one of the
reasons why the culture (including architectural culture) of Anglo-Saxon countries
is very influential.
One of the oldest and most famous schools of architecture is the Architectural
Association in London. Graduates of this school with an unusual program and a
flexible approach to knowledge include, among others, Rem Kolhaas, Zaha Hadid,
Peter Cook, Peter Wilson and Julia Boles-Wilson. Analyzing achievements of those
few outstanding personalities of a contemporary architecture we can realize a wide
intellectual range of the academic community—teachers and students.6 The author
had the opportunity to participate in the evaluation of teaching methods of
4
In the international student exchange of Erasmus Programme (European Community Action
Scheme for the Mobility of University Students) has been taking part generations of students since
1994 (Socrates programme), there have been conducted ongoing activities aimed at integration and
cooperation within the European Community.
5
The criterion used as one of the six in the University Academic Ranking of 2011, source:
“Rzeczpospolita” (the Polish newspaper).
6
Both Rem Kolhaas and Zaha Hadid, after obtaining diplomas, were academic teachers at the
Architectural Association School of Architecture in London.
Fig. 2.5 Globalization in the architectural education: towards new designing forms and
technologies. The inner courtyard of the London Architectural Association School of
Architecture with a parametrically designed cloud installation spread out over the terrace
Architectural Association, where a very individual approach to students is applied.

Systematics and distribution of courses are characterized by arrangement in blocks
compared with the most European centres.7 The unusual curriculum promotes the
formation of avant-garde projects—with use of advanced computational methods
being the primary design tool (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6).
7
A coherent system for dividing courses was developed in Europe on the basis of ECTS points,
Architectural Association, School of Architecture in London does not belong to that system.
Fig. 2.6 The annual exhibition (summer show) of the recognized London School of Architecture
Bartlett. Photo A. Bonenberg
The statistical data relating to the architectural education in Europe show the
disparities in the amount of students of architecture being formed and the number of
practicing creators. It seems that this condition causes an asymmetry in the avail-
ability of architectural services and encourages to a professional migration. These
disparities are significant in Europe. At the moment, the state with the highest
number of students of architecture in Europe is Italy. A characteristic feature of the
Italian architectural education is the emphasis on design theory and its ex cathedra
relationship to the history.8 It seems, however, that the north-European approach
8
Diagnosis based on the long-term cooperation with the Dipartimento di author Progettazione dell
Architettura, Politecnico di Milano.
Table 2.2 Disparities in the amount of students of architecture being formed and the number of
practicing architects in Europe
ITALY 97,200 students of 194 practicing architects/100,000
architecture inhabitants
SPAIN 21,200 students of 93.9 practicing architects/100,000
PORTUGAL 9300 students of 120 practicing architects/100,000
(…) (…) (…)
POLAND 6,700 students of 35.3 practicing architects/100,000
(…) (…) (…)
LICHTENSTEIN 120 students of architecture 261.6 practicing architects/100,000
inhabitants
ESTONIA 105 students of architecture 54.1 practicing architects/100,000
inhabitants
ICELAND 36 students of architecture 112.5 practicing architects/100,000
inhabitants
Source “The Phaidon Atlas of twenty first Century World Architecture” page 227
brings better results in the architectural education, and it can be described as hands
on experience, or a practical verification of an obtained knowledge (Table 2.2).
The role of universities is important in the information society. Hirst (1995) in
the article “Education and the Production of New Ideas” draws attention to the
phenomenon of loss by universities of a monopoly on the transmission of infor-
mation. There have been created many competing branches of economic activity
devoted to this task: training courses, specialized consulting, education in the form
of multimedia communication. Schools, which have traditionally played the role of
information transmission—are facing the necessity of a partial redefinition of their
role in the information society. Their opportunity is the fact that mass media do not
create knowledge—they only recycle it and provide information Universities,
including architectural ones, should take the role of a producer of knowledge.
Critical thinking, objectivity of research, innovation—herein lie the possibilities of
academic centres. What has turned out important is the development of theoretical
research, prototyping—creating knowledge and verifying the results. At the same
time, their role as a transmitter of encyclopaedic information and images is
decreasing. Images of the global architecture we can see in many sources: with the
eyes of thousands of users of architectural blogs, resources of Picasa Albums (great
pictures), finally, from a bird’s eye view in Google Earth. Such information can be
the basis of the space analysis, but the knowledge drawn from them is superficial.
A student basing only on that knowledge has a tendency to create aesthetic clichés,
duplicate formal and material solutions. The architectural education should be
focused on creating innovative, insightful solutions. Designs, in some of its part,
should look to the future, teaching to young architects options of adaptation,
response to the real needs of users.
Fig. 2.7 DRL 10 Pavilion, Bedford Square, Architectural Association School of Architecture,
London. An example of a digitally generated small architecture: a spectacular shape and
experimental building material. One cannot receive it only as an exercise—a form of the object is
very conducive to social behaviours, meetings during lunch breaks. The pavilion is a landmark in
the cityscape. Drawing A. Bonenberg
So, if it is not the matter of connection with the place that can provide infor-
mation about the philosophy, culture of creation, identity and tradition behind the
work belonging to the “global architecture”—what, therefore, can?
Under the conditions of the above-mentioned high mobility of students, creators
of architecture and activity of architectural offices, we know much more about the
architectural work observing the tradition of a creative philosophy than analyzing
its geographical placement, its location. A contemporary architecture has become
less dependent on the place of origin both in terms of available technologies as well
as materials and concepts. Globalization in architecture is a consequence not only of
interpenetrating global stylistic trends, but also of mobility and multiculturalness of
the environment of creators. The environment whose roots date back to the
European and North American traditions of architectural education (Fig. 2.7).
References 21
References
Bonenberg, A. (2013). Media, przestrzeń, architektura. Transformacje przestrzeni społeczeństwa

informacyjnego. Poznań, Wydawnictwo Wydział Architektury Politechniki Poznańskiej.
Castells, M., 2007. Społeczeństwo sieci, [Original title: The Rise of the Network Society], 412.
Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Castells, M., 2007. Społeczeństwo sieci, [Original title: The Rise of the Network Society]
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw. 412 a. 412.
Robertson, P. (2002). Charles Rennie Mackintosh Architectural Sketches. Glasgow: Campsie
Litho Ltd.
Hirst, P., 1995. Education and the production of New Ideas. AA Files 29, London.
Chapter 3
Mass Communication and Public Space
Abstract Traditionally, urban public spaces integrated inhabitants of a city. It

provided the setting for the “space of access to information”, and this characteristic
was often expressed in the architecture with elements of visual information:
inscriptions, sculptural detail of the “communicative” role. Symbolism of hierarchy
was expressed by the dominants of sacral and secular buildings. As mass com-
munication takes over, the fact of “detachment” of communication from a real
space becomes a fact, and it remains not without consequences on the space.
Standing in the centre of the Roman Capitol, at the end of the Via Sacra, a visitor to
the city will be in front of the ancient Rostry platform. A place of great importance,
the heart of the Roman Republic, the heart of the empire, from which new decisions
of governments and news spread to the entire ancient world, which occupied the
most important place in the composition of the Forum Romanum. In fact, the
seriousness of the place and function has been exposed, highlighted with prows of
captured ships—both Via Sacra and Rostra grown to a symbol—the heart of the
ancient empire.
The spaces of streets and squares in cities since the beginning of recorded history
of settlement were delineated in order to create a public space—the space of social
integration (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2). The primary role, task and cause of the existence of
the common areas in the city are the need to create an urban community—in order to
improve the political organization of inhabitants (Kostof 1992a, b). The binder of the
community is a shared access to information, a possibility of easy communication of
it and taking action in response to it. Building and maintaining relationships between
the residents is the primary factor that allows for the spatial, economic, political and
cultural development of the city centre. Without the integration of a community,
there would not be a chance of working as a collective, and the arise of complex
social relations so characteristic for modernity would be impossible. To this day, the
projects of revitalization of cities, districts and centres are primarily associated with
the creation or restoration of the local community associated with the place.
In the historical times, access to information was interpersonal, direct and
contributed to the preservation of one of the basic human traits—a man as a social

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69542-6_3
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costituite da Silla in colonie per un ammontare di centoventimila
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accettarono la dura legge; ma non così che piegassero ad accordare
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Sventuratamente al comando di essi aveva il dittatore preposto il
proprio nipote Publio Silla, uomo rotto ad eccessi e ribalderie, il qual
facevasi scudo d’impunità l’essere a Lucio Cornelio congiunto, e in
luogo di reprimere la prepotenza e gli abusi dei coloni, li fomentava
del proprio esempio.
Qui dovrei collocare, per seguire il corso cronologico degli
avvenimenti, l’insurrezione degli schiavi che aprì la seconda Guerra
Servile, capitanata dal gladiatore Spartaco già di nostra conoscenza;
ma risparmio ritessere la storia de’ primi suoi combattimenti pugnati
contro le romane legioni al Vesuvio, perchè nel primo Capitolo di
questo libro già ne toccai. Altrove ho pur narrato di lui più
lungamente [41]: qui basti dire che, battuti fra Pompei e il Vesuvio due
pretori, si recò nella Gallia, poi forzato a rientrare, sconfisse i due
consoli Lucio Gellio e Cornelio Lentulo, finchè, nella battaglia, presso
il Silaro, Licinio Crasso lui sconfisse alla sua volta ed uccise, così
imponendo veramente fine a quella guerra, che aveva fatto paventar
Roma, alle cui porte erasi quasi il trace gladiatore condotto;
quantunque Cneo Pompeo, distruggendo nella Lucania i cinquemila
gladiatori superstiti, osasse scrivere al Senato: «Crasso ha sconfitto
gli schiavi, io la ribellione estinta.»
Ma nuovo e grave pericolo sorse poco tempo dopo alla salute della
Romana Republica nella congiura di Lucio Sergio Catilina, la quale
doveva scoppiare il primo giorno dell’anno 691 di Roma, ma che
quel giorno abortì; lo che per altro non tolse che l’autore principale di
essa spudoratamente si presentasse ne’ comizi per chiedere il
consolato. Respinto, lavorò indefesso alla congiura, nella quale
seppe collo ingegno e colle arti trascinare più di venti personaggi
senatorii ed equestri. Publio Silla, il tiranno de’ Pompejani, ed
Autronio Peto, che avevano agognato al consolato, ed anzi designati
già consoli, accusati d’àmbito, n’erano stati condannati, tenevansi,
per comune avviso, nelle trame consenzienti [42].
Trovavasi essere console Marco Tullio Cicerone, l’oratore, il quale a
mezzo di Quinto Curio, — tramutato da congiurato in delatore,
quando da Fulvia, donna di nascita egregia ma di non egregi
costumi, fu alla sua volta denunziato, — venuto ordinatamente in
chiaro di tutto ed avendo in mano le fila dell’intera cospirazione, la
rivelava in Senato, investendo Catilina medesimo con quell’arringa
che rimase celebre ed è popolare tuttavia. Non è del mio còmpito
rifar la storia di quel gravissimo avvenimento, con sì eleganti ma non
sempre veridiche pagine dettata da Sallustio; basti si sappia che la
battaglia, impegnata con un coraggio che fu detto degno di miglior
causa da Catilina contro i soldati del console Antonio, fosse da lui
perduta ed ei medesimamente restasse sul campo, insieme a
diecimila congiurati, trucidato.
Nè a quella congiura soltanto il capo de’ coloni pompejani, Publio
Silla, aveva preso parte, ma prima ben anco ad altra, essendo
consoli in quel tempo Lucio Tullio e Marco Lepido, e della quale
aveva dovuto rispondere avanti il Senato, contro l’accusa datagli da
Lucio Torquato. Difeso dall’oratore Ortensio, n’era stato purgato.
Tratto in giudizio una seconda volta, sulla accusa ancora dello
stesso Lucio Torquato, d’avere, cioè, avuto parte nella cospirazione
catilinaria, ei venne pure imputato d’aver cercato di indurre in essa
anche i Pompejani, e d’avere tra questi e i coloni suscitate discordie,
alimentati rancori.
Infatti i coloni da lui capitanati, una volta stabiliti in Pompei, non
contenti delle migliori terre, pretesero anche il diritto appellato
Ambulationis e l’altro detto Suffragii, cioè di poter passeggiare nello
stadio, nell’anfiteatro, nel ginnasio, nel portico ed in altri luoghi
publici e di poter convenire nelle assemblee per dar voto nelle
elezioni. Per questi due diritti, che i Pompeiani negavano
d’accordare, seguì un fiero dissidio tra coloni e cittadini, che fu
scambiato per una publica rivolta avente attinenza per avventura,
come si pretese, coi moti catilinarj. Cajo Crispo Sallustio nella sua
storia punto non esitò a collocarlo col fratello Sergio nel novero de’
congiurati. Deferita la causa al Senato, venne Publio Silla revocato,
e poichè si vide da gravissimo pericolo minacciato, in ragione altresì
de’ suoi cattivi precedenti, la propria difesa affidò all’eloquenza di
Marco Tullio Cicerone.
Parve strano e non vero che quegli il quale era stato lo scopritore ed
il punitore della congiura di Catilina, avesse poi a perorare per altro
de’ più tristi, che se ne dicea, nel generale sentimento, partecipe;
anzi Lucio Torquato accusatore, quantunque amico a Cicerone,
avendogliene mosso publicamente biasimo, egli a scagionarsene
impiegò buona parte della sua orazione, adducendo per lo appunto
che il fatto di essere egli stato acerrimo persecutore di quella
cospirazione, difendendo fra gli accusati il solo Publio Silla, dovesse
a tutti esser prova ch’ei lo tenesse per innocente, di lui nulla avendo,
durante il proprio consolato, scoperto che gli concedesse diritto a
ritenerlo colpevole.
Trovai scrittori i quali pensarono che Cicerone assunta avesse la
difesa di Publio Silla onde ingraziarsene lo zio dittatore e per timore
di lui; ma essi accontentandosi dell’intitolazione dell’arringa, non la
badarono troppo pel sottile, nè la lessero tampoco; perocchè dalla
medesima sia chiaramente manifesto come Lucio Cornelio Silla
fosse già morto all’epoca ch’essa fu recitata, se vi si tratta come
l’accusatore Torquato avesse altresì opposto: che P. Silla
comperasse i gladiatori sotto pretesto di fare l’appresto degli
spettacoli, i quali Fausto figliuolo del dittatore Lucio Cornelio Silla,
dovea dare in ordine al testamento del padre per solennizzarne i
funerali; ma che veramente venissero comperati per dar mano alla
congiura [43]. Vuolsi dunque ritenere che tutt’altre ragioni lo
inducessero ad assumere un tale officio.
Ecco il brano dell’arringa che riguarda in ispecialità i Pompejani e
che alla meglio reco nel nostro idioma [44].
«Già quello poi che si mette innanzi, essere stati i Pompejani eccitati
a questa congiura e ad entrare in questa nefanda impresa, di qual
modo possa stare, non io valgo a comprendere. E che? sembra a te,
o Torquato, abbiano i Pompejani veramente congiurato? Chi mai
ebbe a dir questo? o qual minima sospicione fu mai di siffatta cosa?
Li disgiunse, egli dice, da’ coloni, acciò con questo dissidio, suscitata
la dissensione, potesse recare la città alle sue mani e i Pompejani
infrenare. Ma innanzi tratto, ogni differenza de’ Pompejani e de’
Coloni è deferita a’ patroni [45], poichè sia da molti anni agitata e
pendente; poscia è per guisa la cosa cognita a’ patroni che in nulla
sia Silla dissenziente dalle opinioni degli altri; e da ultimo i coloni
stessi vanno convinti non essere stati i Pompejani più che essi
medesimi da Silla molestati. La qual cosa, o giudici, potete
argomentare da questa frequenza di coloni, tutti onestissimi uomini, i
quali sono qui presenti in penosa aspettazione, perchè se questo
patrono, vindice e custode di loro colonia, non poterono essi avere in
ogni circostanza e ad ogni aggravio incolume, in questo frangente
almeno, nel quale addolorato giace, desiderano sia per voi reso
sicuro e conservato.
«Con eguale ansia assistono qui del pari i Pompejani, che da quelli
pur si chiamano in colpa, e che per tal guisa dissentirono da’ brogli e
da’ suffragi co’ coloni, da convenire in tutto con lui circa il bene
comune. Ma neppure mi sembra doversi passare sotto silenzio il
merito, che da lui questa colonia essendo stata dedotta, ed avendo
l’autorità della republica distratto da’ possessi de’ Pompeiani quanto
dar si doveva a’ coloni; nondimeno ad entrambe le parti è così caro
e giocondo, che non appaja aver gli uni molestato, ma e questi e
quelli costituiti.»
La ciceroniana arringa, alla quale s’era pur fatto intervenire un
fanciulletto di Silla, a intendimento di muovere a compassione i
giudici, fu coronata di buon successo e Publio Silla assolto: ciò
venendoci attestato da Cicerone medesimo nell’epistola terza del
libro terzo a Quinto fratello suo, con quanto gusto de’ poveri
Pompejani, lo giudichi il lettore.
Fu per avventura in benemerenza di questo fatto e con denaro de’
coloni, che al grande oratore venne in Pompei eretta nel foro a
cagione di somma onoranza una statua.
Devesi contuttociò ritenere che siffatto procedimento contro di Silla
riuscisse ad alcun bene per essi, se i coloni militari dovettero
acconciarsi a stabilirsi fuori della città, nella parte occidentale. Si
costruirono essi a tal uopo un sobborgo che fu denominato Pagus
Felix, ancora in memoria ed onore di Lucio Cornelio Silla da sè
stesso soprannominatosi felice, fondatore della colonia Pompejana.
Ninnio Mulo, valorosissimo capitano ed assai dentro nelle grazie di
Silla perchè già militato avea sotto il di lui celebre parente L.
Cornelio, fu deputato al comando della colonia, beneficio insperato
raccolto dal giudizio promosso contro il primo capitano e patrono
Publio Silla.
La Colonia Veneria continuò ad essere per tal modo retta anche
dopo e nelle iscrizioni rinvenute negli scavi e del tempo di Augusto
— tre lustri circa avanti Cristo — la si trova disciplinata in guisa da
vedervi patroni e clienti. Questo diritto di clientela [46] del resto non
era già circoscritto alle sole persone; le colonie, le città deditizie o
conquistate, le nazioni alleate e i re barbari seguitarono l’esempio
degli individui, eleggendosi i loro patroni nell’Urbe. Cicerone lo era
dei Campani, Fabio Sanga degli Allobrogi, Catone dell’Isola di Cipro
e del reame di Cappadocia, Marcello della Sicilia, ed io più sopra
notai di Publio Silla essere stato altro de’ primi patroni di Pompei: a’
giorni di Augusto, ci apprendono le dette iscrizioni, che nel novero di
essi pur fosse Marco Olconio Rufo figlio di Marco, decemviro in
questa città, incaricato per la quinta volta di rendere la giustizia,
tribuno dei soldati nominato dal popolo, personaggio al quale i
Pompejani avevano rizzato una statua nel foro in ricambio di
publiche liberalità e sopratutto d’aver eretto un tribunale presso
l’Ecatonstylon, il gran teatro, una cripta e il muro laterale del tempio
di Venere Fisica, onde formare l’ambulatorio nel portico dell’Agora
antica.
Si sa che i facoltosi romani avessero più d’una villa ed esse a
seconda delle stagioni abitassero: Plinio il giovane nelle sue lettere
ci fa sapere come ne avesse in Toscana, Romagna e Lombardia e
ne lasciò minute e interessanti descrizioni [47]. Ne apprende eziandio
il medesimo Plinio di Silio Italico, che possedesse in uno stesso
luogo più ville e, per lo soverchio amor delle nuove, ponesse in non
cale le vecchie [48]. Pur Cicerone ne aveva più d’una, anzi l’abate
Chaupy gliene noverò fino a ventiquattro, desumendolo da’ suoi
scritti e sarebbesi perfino a cagion di esse, come ne scrisse ad
Attico (Ep. I, lib. 2), fortemente indebitato, malgrado ch’egli dovesse
essere ben ricco. Perocchè tutto che onest’uomo e persecutore dei
depredatori, nel solo governo di Cilicia pose da banda due milioni e
dugentomila sesterzi, vantandosi d’aver ciò fatto legalmente. Io non
rammenterò delle sue ville che le più note, e sono due, e lo
apprendiamo dalle stesse opere sue [49], l’una era quella di Tuscolo,
l’altra quella di Pompei, la quale già m’avvenne di più addietro
ricordare e i cui ruderi può il visitatore vedere tuttavia nella via delle
Tombe; se pure nella scienza che qui egli avesse una villa, non si è
di troppo affrettati a riconoscerla in questa casa, che da lui nelle
Guide si intitola ed è a’ visitatori come sua designata.
Oggi codesta casa, che si vuole dell’immortale Oratore, non è più
riconoscibile, a causa che pel cattivo metodo che si teneva in
addietro negli scavi, essa venne ricolma di terra, a risparmio della
spesa del trasporto. Fu nondimeno da essa che vennero tolte le
pitture de’ Centauri e de’ Fauni danzatori di corda, le quali
presentano per l’arte tutto quello che di bello, ideale e di poetica
fantasia è lecito d’immaginare. Furono pure rinvenuti in essa due
superbi mosaici, rappresentanti scene comiche del più delicato e
squisito lavoro, della mano di Dioscoride di Samo, che vi appose il
proprio nome.
Or fu in questa casa di campagna che Cesare Ottaviano, onorato
poscia dall’adulazione col nome di Augusto [50], essendo ancora
Triumviro, venne a visitar Cicerone ed officiarlo onde averne la
protezione contro di Antonio nella lotta fra essi impegnata a
disputarsi la successione di Cesare, e nel comune intento di
spegnere l’aristocrazia, non a vantaggio certamente della
democrazia, la quale non ebbe di poi altro frutto dal suo trionfo che
di conoscere cui dovesse obbedire.
Piantata da lui l’autorità imperiale sopra il popolo romano, incominciò
la serie dei Cesari che dominarono l’orbe romano.
Fu Augusto che inviò a Pompei una nuova colonia di Veterani, e
come quella mandatavi da Silla avesse mutato il nome alla città
sostituendovi quello di Colonia Veneria Cornelia; il sobborgo che la
nuova fondò venne appellato Pagus Augustus Felix Suburbanus,
che è forse il luogo stesso nel quale sorge la casa di Marco Arrio
Diomede e stanno le tombe della famiglia Arria, della Istacidia, di
Nevoleja Tyche e d’altri. Già fin dal momento che Roma avea
cercato di mandar coloni a Pompei e questa ne li aveva rifiutati, le
erano state guaste le mura, che dipoi aveva cercato di riparare,
come ancor se ne vedono traccie; ma sotto Augusto sparvero affatto
le lunghe cortine di queste mura, per modo che privati edificj
poterono sorgere sull’area loro, e la città, spoglia affatto di difesa
allora, si confuse colla colonia. Di ciò fa fede una iscrizione trovata
nel teatro.
Tiberio Claudio, fratello di Germanico e zio di Caligola, prima che i
Pretoriani lo acclamassero, alla morte di quest’ultimo, imperatore e il
confermassero i soldati, il popolo, i gladiatori e i marinaj, malgrado la
sua imbecillità, — onde era stato il trastullo del nipote e la madre
stessa solesse dire: bestia come il mio Claudio, — ebbe a
soggiornare alcun tempo a Pompei, dove gli moriva il figliuolo Druso,
avuto da quella rinomatissima impudica che fu Messalina Valeria sua
moglie, affogato da un frutto che aveva inghiottito.
Succedutogli nell’impero Nerone, accadde nell’anno 59 dell’era
volgare un fatto nella città di Pompei, che fra i poco numerosi eventi
di questa città che ne meritarono il ricordo, prima che ne seguisse la
catastrofe, vuole essere memorato, come pur ne tenne conto Cajo
Cornelio Tacito nel quattordicesimo libro degli Annali con queste
parole che riferisco dalla traduzione del Davanzati:
«In questo tempo, di piccola contesa tra i Nocerini e i Pompejani
uscì molto sangue nella festa degli accoltellanti che faceva Livinejo
Regolo, raso, come dissi, dal Senato. Imperocchè dalle insolenze
castellane vennero alle villanie, a’ sassi, all’armi; e vinse la plebe
pompejana, che aveva la festa in casa. Molti Nocerini furon portati in
Roma feriti o storpiati o morti, e pianti da’ lor padri e figliuoli. Il
principe rimise la causa al Senato; esso a’ consoli: e ritornò a’ padri,
i quali vietarono a’ Pompejani tal festa per dieci anni; disfecero lor
compagnie fatte fuor di legge e sbandirono Livinejo e gli altri primi
rissanti» [51]. Il qual fatto è pur menzionato da una caricatura politica,
accompagnata da un’ironica iscrizione, state rinvenute negli scavi
sulle mura esterne della via di Mercurio, iscrizione che suona così:
Campani, victoria una cum Nucerinis periistis;
cioè: Campani, una vittoria sui Nocerini vi ha distrutti.

È in questo tempo che l’imperatore mandò in Pompei come suo
flamine perpetuo Valente, figlio di Decio Lucrezio Valente, di cui
avverrà di citare più innanzi l’epigrafe, nella quale, a’ cinque delle
calende d’aprile (28 marzo), avvisa una caccia nello anfiteatro.
È lo stesso severo storico che nel medesimo libro in cui racconta la
colluttazione de’ Pompejani e Nocerini, narrando della morte data da
Nerone alla madre Agrippina a Baja, mentre constata che quel
mostro alfine conobbe la grande scelleratezza fatta ch’ei l’ebbe, e
come nella notte che seguì il matricidio rimanesse affisato e mutolo,
si rizzasse spaventato e sbalordito e «perchè i luoghi non si metton
la maschera come gli uomini», non potesse veder quel mare e que’
siti. A vituperio delle città campane, lasciò poi ricordato ch’esse
dell’orribile misfatto mostrassero con sagrifici e ambascerie
allegrezza: vigliacca adulazione ripetuta in Roma, quando
rassicurato che non gli si dava carico di quella morte, ritornatovi
frammezzo alle ovazioni, ascese a render grazie agli dei in
Campidoglio.
Ma più funesto e grave avvenimento toccò a Pompei nell’anno 63
sotto l’imperio dello stesso Nerone, consoli essendo Memmio
Regolo e Virginio Rufo, ed è con la narrazione di esso che porrò fine
a questo Capitolo, e che fu precursore dell’altro onde si chiuse
l’esistenza e la storia della sfortunata città.
L’imperatore, stordito il mondo delle sue crudeltà ed uccisioni,
incendiata Roma, persino accompagnandone il crepitante sfascio co’
suoni della cetra, s’era preso della libidine di rivaleggiare co’ migliori
artisti da teatro e citaredi. Trovatasi egli ne’ primi di febbrajo di
quell’anno in Neapoli ed attendeva in teatro a cantare, quando un
terribile terremoto squassò quella vulcanica terra. Avvertito Cesare
dell’evento, non volle abbandonare la scena se prima non ebbe
compiuto il trillo di un suo canto favorito.
E la terra traballava sotto i suoi piedi!
Uscito egli appena dal teatro l’edificio intero crollava.
Quanto durasse il terremoto, quanta ruina cagionasse a Neapoli, ma
più ancora ad Ercolano e Pompei, ci lasciò ricordato Seneca nel
seguente passo:
«Pompei, celebre città della Campania, intorno alla quale la riva di
Sorrento e di Stabia da una parte e quella d’Ercolano dall’altra
formano col loro incurvamento un golfo ridente, è stata rovinata, ed i
contigui luoghi molto maltrattati da un tremuoto accaduto nel verno,
vale a dire in una stagione che i nostri antenati credevano esente da
pericoli di tal sorta. Fu a’ cinque di febbrajo, sotto il consolato di
Regolo e di Virginio, che la Campania (la quale era stata sempre
minacciata, ma almeno senza alcun danno e sol travagliata dal
timore fino a quel momento) venne con grande strage devastata da
questa violenta scossa della terra. Una parte della città d’Ercolano è
stata distrutta, e ciò che ne rimane non è ancora sicuro. La colonia di
Nuceria fu, se non rovesciata, certo malconcia. Neapoli ha sofferto
delle perdite piuttosto particolari che publiche e lievemente fu tocca
da questo gravissimo flagello. Molte case di campagna risentirono
della scossa senza effetto. Si aggiunge che delle statue furono
spezzate e che dopo di questo avvenimento funesto si videro errare
pe’ campi persone prive di conoscenza e di sensi» [52].
I Pompejani salvatisi dalla rovinata città, l’abbandonarono e non vi
fecero la più parte ritorno che qualche anno dopo, ponendosi allora a
riedificarla o restaurarla, a seconda del bisogno, presto dimentichi
della patita sciagura e spensierati che rinnovar si potesse
nell’avvenire; e però tutti intenti a decorarla coll’arti belle, a
rallegrarla di festosi conviti, a inebriarla di spettacoli e ringiovanirla di
vita più gagliarda che mai.
Mensa Ponderaria. — Fig. I. B. E. Misure per gli Aridi. — A. C. D. F. G. H.
I. Misure pei liquidi. — Fig. II. Spaccato della fig. I. — Fig. III. Extra misura.
— Questa tavola è tolta al N. 15 del giornale degli Scavi, Nuova Serie.
Vol. I. Cap. IV.
CAPITOLO IV.
Storia.
PERIODO SECONDO
Leggi, Monete, Offici e Costume.
Il Municipio — Ordini cittadini — Decurioni, Duumviri,

Quinquennale, Edili, Questore. — Il flamine Valente —
Sollecitazioni elettorali — I cavalieri — Gli augustali —
Condizioni fatte alle Colonie — Il Bisellium — Dogane in
Pompei — Pesi e Misure — Monete — La Hausse e la
Baisse — Posta — Invenzione della Posta — I portalettere
romani — Lingua parlata in Pompei — Lingua scritta —
Papiri — Modo di scrivere — Codicilli e Pugillares —
Lusso in Pompei — Il leone di Marco Aurelio — Schiavi —
Schiavi agricoltori — Vini pompejani — Camangiari
rinvenuti negli scavi — Il Garo o caviale liquido pompeiano
— Malati mandati a Pompei.
Quando l’Allighieri, tratta occasione dalle accoglienze oneste e liete

fatte nel Purgatorio da Sordello a Virgilio per ciò solo che il
riconobbe della sua terra, si fa a rimproverare l’Italia di sue civili
discordie ed ironicamente poi si gitta sulla sua Fiorenza, quasi costei
presumesse essere di condizione diversa da quella infelice e di tutti i
popoli d’Italia e prorompe quindi nel rampognarne la mobilità de’
provvedimenti, così si esprime:
Quante volte del tempo che rimembre,

Leggi, monete, offici e costume
Hai tu mutato e rinnovato membre [53].
Nel secondo verso di questo terzetto compendia l’immortale poeta

tutto quanto ha tratto al viver civile; ond’io pur intendendo di versare
intorno a ciò per Pompei in questo Capitolo, spiccai quel Verso per
mettervelo in fronte e, a non guastarlo, non vi tolsi le monete, di cui
veramente non ho ragioni ad occuparmi qui a lungo, perocchè
Pompei non ne contasse di speciali, ma tenesse quelle che avean
corso in Roma, essendo diritto particolare prima de’ consoli, quindi
dell’imperatore il batter moneta d’oro e d’argento, e del Senato il
battere quella di rame; sebbene a talune colonie e città venisse
conservato il privilegio di monete particolari.
Ho già toccato di Pompei passato dallo stato autonomo originario a
regolarsi con que’ diritti che erano inerenti a’ municipj romani. Dopo
la Guerra Sociale era ciò avvenuto, e Mario vi aveva d’assai
contribuito: Pompei, come gli altri paesi entrati nella lega latina,
avendo ottenuta la romana cittadinanza e perciò divenuta, nel vero
senso del diritto latino e italico, municipio [54], reggevasi con leggi
proprie e proprj comizj modellati per altro alla foggia romana. In virtù
di che, il pompejano, membro della propria indipendente comunità,
non cessò di essere cittadino romano, così appunto avverandosi
quella sentenza di Cicerone che ho già ricordata, che a’ municipj
competessero due patrie, l’una di natura, di diritto l’altra.
Si sa che i municipj optimo jure, come pare dovesse essere Pompei,
avessero tutti i diritti e gli obblighi dei cittadini romani, mentre gli altri
non godeano del suffragio, come i prischi plebei, e come
persuadono le iscrizioni rinvenute lungo le vie sulle muraglie delle
case a grandi lettere in color rosso o nero; come se i diciotto secoli
trascorsi non fossero stati che diciotto giorni, nei quali i devoti, i
riconoscenti per ricevuti favori, i parassiti e i liberali sollecitavano il
publico a pro’ de’ loro proprj candidati. Così praticavasi largheggiar
di elogi a’ cittadini che si volevano eleggere, e biasimo a’ più
sconosciuti od immeritevoli di alto ufficio, come farebbesi suppergiù
a’ dì nostri nell’occasioni delle elezioni amministrative e politiche.
V’era pur anche questo di buono nei municipj d’Italia e delle
provincie, che vi restasse più integra la dignità ed autorità che non in
Roma; perocchè quivi ben potesse l’imperatore compiervi atti di
arbitrio e violenza; ma essendo il carattere della politica romana di
non fondarsi soltanto sull’esercito, nella polizia e di tutto
regolamentare; ne conseguitava che a’ municipj venisse conservata
quella vita, che più nell’Urbe non si riscontrava, e rispettata ne fosse
l’indipendenza, e la legge municipale andasse immune da’ capricci
del principe e dalle sottigliezze de’ giusperiti.
Pompei dunque, come municipium, che aveva, cioè, ricevuto il
munus, o prerogativa speciale dei diritti di romana cittadinanza,
teneva la costituzione pari a quella di Roma, la quale divideva i suoi
abitanti in tre ordini: il senato, i cavalieri e il popolo. Perocchè nei
municipj ed anche in Pompei vi fossero i Sexviri Augustales, ossiano
sacerdoti in onore di Augusto, il cui collegio costituiva un ordine
distinto fra il popolo e i Decurioni, e teneva luogo de’ cavalieri
romani. Più sotto riferirò qualche lapide, in cui di tale dignità è fatta
menzione.
Questi sacerdoti, come Tacito attesta, vennero prima in numero di
ventuno istituiti da Tiberio, aumentati poi di quattro, pel culto di
Augusto divinizzato. Presto anche alle colonie e a’ municipii vennero
allo stesso fine estesi i collegi degli Augustali, ne’ quali i primi sei
nominati si dicevano sexviri augustales e si nominavano dai
decurioni. Quindi crebbero d’assai e si divisero in collegi di giovani e
di seniori, a’ quali i seviri erano preposti. Fu disputato se l’augustalità
fosse una magistratura; ma Noriso, in una sua dissertazione su d’un
Cenotafio pisano respinse trionfalmente una tale opinione.
L’ordine dei Decurioni vi formava la curia, la quale corrispondeva al
Senato dell’Urbe e componevasi di cento. Nelle cose più importanti
tuttavia dovevano intendersela col popolo; dal che venne l’ordo
populusque delle lapidi che pur si trovarono in Pompei. Plinio, nella
epistola XIX del primo libro, ci avvisa che per essere ammessi a
quest’ordine fosse mestieri possedere un patrimonio di centomila
sesterzi, che equivarrebbero a ventimila lire d’Italia. Ai consoli
equivalevano i duumviri con giurisdizione in certe cause; e come
fossero la primaria magistratura, nelle colonie, aveano il privilegio
de’ fasci, ma non potevano usarli fuori del loro territorio, a seconda
del principio di diritto extra territorium jusdicentis impune non
paretur. Di essi ritornerò a dire nel capitolo del Foro e della Basilica.
V’erano il quinquennale, o censore, il tribuno, il difensore, gli edili, gli
attuarj, ed erano queste le varie cariche colle quali internamente si
amministravano a loro piacimento. V’era inoltre il pretore, il questore
gerente del reddito publico, il patrono della città, il maestro dei
sobborghi e dei trivii, e vie via altre cariche minori.
Nelle iscrizioni pompeiane sovente si fa cenno ai maggiori
magistrati, ed anzi una, che appare fatta publica di quel Valente che
fu creato Flamine perpetuo da Nerone, ci rende edotti della presenza
di questa dignità imperiale in Pompei e di certa importante autorità a
lui conferita, se egli in essa iscrizione avvisa una caccia
nell’anfiteatro, nel quale verrebbero distesi i velarii:
VALENTIS . FLAMINIS . NERONIS . AVG .
F . PERPETVI .
D . LVCRET . I . VALENTIS . FILII
Y . K . K . APRIL . VENATIO . ET . VELA. ERVNT
P . COLONIA
Queste due ultime parole, che significano Pompejana Colonia,

appajono apposte dopo e da altra mano.
In altra è rammentato l’edile Marcellino, cui si raccomandano
legnajuoli e carrettieri:
MARCELLINVM . ÆDILEM . LIGNAR I . ET . PLOSTAR I . ROGANT
I lavoratori delle Saline si raccomandano in altra a Marco Cerrinio

Edile:
M . CERRINIVM . ÆD. SALINIENSES . ROG .
I facchini pregano Aulo Vezio in questa:

A . VETTIVM . ÆD . SACAR I . ROG .
Gli orefici l’edile Cajo Cuspio Pansa:
C . CVSPIVM . PANSAM . ÆD . AVRIFICES . VNIVERSI . ROG .
e Celio Cajo prega lo stesso edile, e Sergio Infanzione prega Popidio

secondo edile, giovani probi degni della Republica, acciò esserne
favoriti:
C . CVSPIVM . PANSAM . ÆD . OR .
CÆlIVS . CAIVS .
JVVENES . PROBOS . DIGNOS . R . P . O . V . F .
SER . INFANTIO .
Una tale epigrafe constata la notizia che si ha dalla storia che due
fossero nella città gli edili. Così appellati dalla sopraintendenza agli
edificj (a cura ædium), avean particolare cura degli edificj della città,
templi, bagni, basiliche, teatri, acquidotti e simili, e in difetto di
censori, anche delle case private. Esercitavano una specie di polizia
su’ mercanti, sulle taverne, sui pesi e misure, sulle rappresentazioni
teatrali, ecc.
I fruttajuoli, Pomarii, si raccomandano coll’usata formola rogant a
Giulio Sabino edile e gli stessi in altra iscrizione all’edile Marco
Cerrinio.
Cajo Giulio Polibio vien detto duumviro in una iscrizione a cui manca
il nome di chi prega e il verbo:
C . JVLIVM . POLIBIVM . DVVMVIRUM .
Son pure ricordati edili un Marcello ed un Albucio in questa:

MARCELLVM . ÆDILEM . ET . ALBVCIVM . ORAT .
I Venerei salutano in quest’altra il giudice duumviro Paquio:

PAQVIO . DVVMVIR . I . D . VENEREI .
La carica di quinquennale, così detti da’ cinque anni che durava la

loro carica ed avevano autorità di censori, è testimoniata
dall’iscrizione ad Aulo Vejo, figlio di Marco, duumviro di giustizia, per
la seconda volta quinquennale, tribuno de’ soldati eletto dal popolo:
A . VEJO . M . F . II . VIR . I . D .
ITER . QVIN . TRIB .
MILIT . AB . POPVL . EX . D . D .
E così altre molte iscrizioni publiche ricordano nomi e dignità e

attestano ad un tempo della consuetudine pompejana, divisa pure
da altre città dell’impero romano, di così i clienti raccomandarsi a’
magistrati.
L’ordine de’ Cavalieri veniva, in Roma, subito dopo quello de’
Senatori, ed era il più distinto. Per entrare in esso occorreva un
patrimonio di quattrocentomila sesterzj, equivalenti a ottantamila lire
italiane; onde Orazio ha nella Epistola I del lib. I:
Si quadringentis sex septem milia desunt

Est animus tibi, sunt mores et lingua, fidesque,
Plebs eris [55].
Non oserei asseverare con franchezza che l’egual patrimonio si

richiedesse nelle colonie per entrare nell’ordine degli Augustali.
Nè fu ostacolo a tutti questi liberi ordinamenti, foggiati sul modulo di
Roma stessa, l’essere stata Pompei dichiarala colonia e perfino
l’essere stato a lei cambiato il nome in Colonia Veneria Cornelia;
perocchè se negli anteriori tempi le romane colonie erano politiche
istituzioni create ad unico beneficio della metropoli ed a vigilanza de’
nemici in mezzo a’ quali si piantavano, — onde ci avvenne già nelle
pagine precedenti di vedere i prischi abitatori rivoltarsi contro i
presidj romani e trucidarli, — la legge Giulia, dopo la Guerra Sociale,
fece alle colonie migliori condizioni. Tutti gli Italiani divennero
cittadini romani, adottarono le leggi di Roma, acconciandovi le patrie
costituzioni, ed ebbero il diritto di suffragio e di eleggibilità; onde
scomparir deve, a mio credere, la meraviglia che fra Paolo Sarpi
ebbe ad esprimere nell’Opinione in qual modo debba governarsi la
Republica Veneziana, che, cioè, le colonie romane siensi mantenute
sempre con affetto alla madre patria, mentre i cittadini trapiantati da
Venezia a Candia divennero selvaggi od avversi. Imperocchè la
ragione abbiasi a rinvenire in ciò che Roma accordasse a’ nuovi
coloni i diritti di cittadini romani: mentre Venezia invece a quelli
mandati a Candia avesse a togliere i privilegi che avevano goduto
innanzi di cittadini veneti.
E, poichè sono al tema delle leggi e degli officj, reputo dover qui
toccare di quell’onore che gli antichi accordar solevano a’ principali
loro magistrati e che nelle lapidi pompejane vediamo più d’una volta
menzionato. Voglio dire dell’onore del bisellium, concesso in
Pompei, come nelle altre colonie e municipj, a’ decurioni e duumviri.
Consisteva esso nel seggio onorifico e distinto cui davasi diritto nelle
publiche adunanze di affari o degli spettacoli. I Romani dedotto
avevano dagli Etruschi l’uso delle sedie curuli pe’ senatori e consoli;
a loro imitazione nelle provincie venne introdotto il bisellio. Era un
largo sedile capace di due persone, abbenchè in fatto non servisse
che per una sola. Ambitissima era una tale distinzione e non veniva
largita che a’ cittadini i quali si fossero meglio distinti nell’esercizio
delle più alte funzioni e ben meritato avessero della patria. Lo si
concedeva con un diploma dei decurioni, confermato dal popolo.
Tanto apprendiamo dalla seguente iscrizione scolpita sul sepolcro di
Cajo Calvenzio Quieto nella Via delle Tombe della città che ho presa
a dichiarare:
C . CALVENTIO . QVIETO .
AVGVSTALI
HVIC . OB . MVNIFICENT . DECVRIONVM .
DECRETO . ET . POPVLI . CONSENSV . BISELLII
HONOR . DATUS . EST
Egualmente risulta che l’onore del bisellio conferivasi dai decurioni

col consenso del popolo dall’iscrizione scolpita sul sepolcro di
Nevoleja Tiche, che esprime appunto com’essa, liberta di Giulia, a
sè stessa ed a Cajo Munazio Fausto Seviro augustale e pagano,
cioè del Pago Augusto Felice, a cui i decurioni col Consenso del
popolo decretarono il bisellio pe’ suoi meriti, vivente abbia elevato il
monumento a’ suoi liberti e liberte ed a quelli di Cajo Munazio
Fausto:
NÆVOLEIA . I . LIB . TYCHE . SIM . ET
C . MVNAZIO . FAVSTO . VI . V . AVG. ET. PAGANO
CVI . DECVRIONES . CONSENSV . POPVLI
BISELLIUM . OB . MERITA . EIVS . DECRETAVERVNT .
HOC . MONIMENTVM . NÆVOLEIA . TYCHE
LIBERTIS . SVIS .
LIBERTATISQVE . ET . C . MVNATI . FAVST .
VIVA . FECIT .
Questo monumento di Nevoleja Tiche reca dal lato che riguarda la

porta della città, scolpito in rilievo, il bisellio, e senza di esso e dei
due di bronzo rinvenuti negli scavi pompejani, ci sarebbe ancora
sconosciuta la forma di questo seggio d’onore. Vedesi senza
spalliera e ricoperto di un pulvinare, o cuscino con frange pendenti.
Il bisellium, scrive Chimentelli, era al duumvirato ciò che era il
laticlavo [56] all’autorità senatoria, ed il ceppo di vite a quella del
centurione [57]. Parrebbe altresì che fosse talvolta attribuito anche
agli Augustali [58], come infatti, dalla surriferita epigrafe di Nevoleja,
lo vediamo essere stato accordato al seviro Cajo Munazio Fausto.
Il Falieri opina poi essere assai probabile che l’onore del bisellium
fosse proprio unicamente della Augustalità, ossia di que’ sacerdoti,
che come più sopra ho notato, vennero istituiti in onore d’Augusto
collocato fra i numi; ma non già perchè fosse comune a tutti gli
augustali, ma perchè venisse concesso a coloro che nella
augustalità fossero i più onorevoli e degni.
Il medesimo autore reca la deliberazione dei centumviri del
municipio di Vejo, che convennero in Roma nel tempio di Venere
Genitrice, e piacque ad essi permettete a Cajo Giulio, liberto del
Divo Augusto, che venisse il giustissimo onore decretato di essere
ascritto nel numero degli augustali, e gli fosse concesso in tutti gli
spettacoli di quel municipio sedere nei bisellio proprio fra gli
augustali; e una iscrizione che Quinto Largenujo Chresimo diede di
molti sesterzi alla republica de’ Pisani per l’onore del bisellio. Il
Grutero ha pur una iscrizione antica dalla quale appare lo stesso
onore accordato a Tizio Chresimo augustale.
Importa ora conoscere, alla migliore idea della publica
amministrazione di Pompei, come si scoprisse nella Via delle Terme
uno stabilimento che corrisponderebbe ad una odierna dogana e che
gli antichi appellavano con parola greca Telonium — Τελωνὶσν — o
banco de’ gabellieri ed anche Ponderarium, da pondus, peso,
perchè luogo a pesare le merci. Vi si accede per una porta larga
forse trenta piedi e si trova in un cortile, nel fondo del quale sta un
piedistallo che un dì sosteneva forse una statua, rovesciatasi per
avventura nell’anno 63, quando avvenne quel formidabile tremuoto,
che tanto guasto menò alla città, e di cui ho già informato il lettore,
nè più rimessavi poi.
Si rinvenne in questa località una discreta quantità di pesi di marmo
e di piombo, circolari e di differenti grossezze ed altri marcati con
buchi o con punti rilevanti. Su taluni si lessero le sigle C. Pon, cioè
centum pondo, in altri Pon, pondo, ed in altri ancora Ta, talentum.
Su molti piccoli pesi quadrati di piombo da un lato stava impressa la
parola Eme, compera, dall’altro Habebis, l’avrai. Alcuni poi
portavano inciso il visto del magistrato: exacta in capita.
Si trovò pure una stadera con ganci all’estremità della sua catena e
nell’asta marcati i numeri da uno ad otto, col peso pendente di 22
once, raffigurante un Mercurio. In altra stadera i numeri appaiono
duplicati nella parte opposta, e in una bilancia con coppa lungo la
sua asta erano impresse le seguenti parole:
IMP. VESP. AVG. IIX. C. IMP. AVG. T. VI. C. EXACTA. IN. CAPITOL.
cioè: nel consolato ottavo di Vespasiano imperatore Augusto e nel

sesto di Tito Imperatore, figlio d’Augusto, provata nel Campidoglio.
Qui mi conviene far cenno altresì di cinque altre bilancie romane,
interamente di bronzo, notevoli pei modi diversi ond’è segnato il
numero nei varj punti in cui puossi appoggiare il peso. Su due di
esse sono impressi questi numeri, V, X, XV, XX, che significano 5,
10, 15, 20: su d’un’altra i seguenti XIIIIVIIIIXXIIIIVIIIIXXXIIII, che

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6.2 In Search for Identity: Advanced Technologies, Natural

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

seminar on social media at Harvard University in Cambridge, USA. At each of the

architectural drawing. The scientiﬁc conclusions lead to systematizing generaliza-

of the most characteristic features of our times, and it is a fundamental element of

Abstract In globalized world, the geographical location of the buildings is loosing

Deﬁning the territorial framework in the research is commonly justiﬁed by the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 9

of conservation issues, which implied a conscious adjustment, contextualization of

Today, the range of activities of creators has been signiﬁcantly extended.

employment of specialists to perform speciﬁc tasks. Impact of the creative envi-

1. obtaining the adequate statement of skills: professional, language competence.

Table 2.1 Expansiveness of architectural ofﬁces

233 researched intercontinental projects, as many as 154 were implemented by the

Architectural Association, where a very individual approach to students is applied.

Bonenberg, A. (2013). Media, przestrzeń, architektura. Transformacje przestrzeni społeczeństwa

Abstract Traditionally, urban public spaces integrated inhabitants of a city. It

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 23

cioè: Campani, una vittoria sui Nocerini vi ha distrutti.

Il Municipio — Ordini cittadini — Decurioni, Duumviri,

Quando l’Allighieri, tratta occasione dalle accoglienze oneste e liete

Quante volte del tempo che rimembre,

Nel secondo verso di questo terzetto compendia l’immortale poeta

Queste due ultime parole, che significano Pompejana Colonia,

I lavoratori delle Saline si raccomandano in altra a Marco Cerrinio

I facchini pregano Aulo Vezio in questa:

e Celio Cajo prega lo stesso edile, e Sergio Infanzione prega Popidio

Son pure ricordati edili un Marcello ed un Albucio in questa:

I Venerei salutano in quest’altra il giudice duumviro Paquio:

La carica di quinquennale, così detti da’ cinque anni che durava la

E così altre molte iscrizioni publiche ricordano nomi e dignità e

Si quadringentis sex septem milia desunt

Non oserei asseverare con franchezza che l’egual patrimonio si

Egualmente risulta che l’onore del bisellio conferivasi dai decurioni

Questo monumento di Nevoleja Tiche reca dal lato che riguarda la

cioè: nel consolato ottavo di Vespasiano imperatore Augusto e nel

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