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Download textbook Complications In Robotic Urologic Surgery 1St Edition Rene Sotelo ebook all chapter pdf
Download textbook Complications In Robotic Urologic Surgery 1St Edition Rene Sotelo ebook all chapter pdf
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Complications
in Robotic Urologic
Surgery
René Sotelo
Juan Arriaga
Monish Aron
Editors
123
Complications in Robotic Urologic
Surgery
René Sotelo • Juan Arriaga
Monish Aron
Editors
Complications
in Robotic Urologic
Surgery
Editors
René Sotelo Juan Arriaga
USC Institute of Urology Department of Urology
University of Southern California Hospital CIMA
Los Angeles, CA, USA Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Monish Aron
USC Institute of Urology
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA, USA
v
vi Contents
26 Cystectomy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 253
Daoud Dajani, Arjun Aron, and Monish Aron
27 Orthotopic Neobladder Formation���������������������������������������������� 261
Christian Andreas Bach and Anthony Koupparis
28 Radical Cystectomy and Urinary Diversion�������������������������������� 273
Ahmed A. Hussein, Zishan Hashmi, Richard Sarle,
and Khurshid A. Guru
29 Incontinence and Pelvic Organ Prolapse Surgery���������������������� 279
Óscar Sánchez-Resendis, José María Mojarra-Estrada,
Juan Arriaga, Eduardo Rivas-Larrauri,
and Lionel Leroy-López
30 Urinary Fistulas ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 285
Luciano Adolfo Nuñez Bragayrac, David Michael Hatcher,
and René Javier Sotelo Noguera
31 Pelvic Lymphadenectomy�������������������������������������������������������������� 297
Gerald Heulitt and James Porter
32 Inguinal Lymphadenectomy �������������������������������������������������������� 305
Marcos Tobias-Machado and Marcio Covas Moschovas
ix
x Contributors
xv
Part I
Complications Related to Robotic Surgery
Patient’s Own Risk Factors
1
Shadi Dowlatshahi, Wei-I Vickie Wu,
and Michael Donald Wang
dobutamine stress echocardiogram (DSE) or harmful. However, they may need to be decreased
myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) [12–14]. in dose or temporarily discontinued due to hypo-
Currently, there are no randomized controlled tri- tension, bradycardia, or bleeding.
als comparing the two stress test modalities; There is conflicting data however on the ben-
therefore, which test to pursue should be based efits versus risks of initiating beta-blocker ther-
on local expertise performing the test, in addition apy. Initial data supported the use of beta-blockers
to patient characteristics [2]. to prevent postoperative cardiac complications;
Patients with a moderate to large area of myo- however, these trials were limited by small sam-
cardial ischemia noted on stress test imaging are ple sizes with low power [2]. A favorable out-
at increased risk for perioperative MI and/or come has been observed in patients who
death. They may be considered for preoperative preoperatively are at intermediate or high risk for
revascularization if they are deemed to have myocardial ischemia, as determined by pharma-
unstable angina and/or left main disease and cological stress test [24], or if the patient has an
would otherwise need to undergo emergent/urgent RCRI of ≥3 [25]. The POISE trial showed that
revascularization [15, 16]. Patients who require beta-blockers had a potentially harmful effect,
revascularization secondary to an ST elevation MI including increased risk of stroke and death.
or non-ST elevation MI usually benefit from per- Criticism of the POISE trial included use of high-
cutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Due to the dose long-acting beta-blockers, initiating beta-
shorter need for ongoing dual antiplatelet therapy blocker immediately before surgery, and lack of a
(DAPT), bare-metal stent (BMS) may be pre- titration protocol before or after surgery [26].
ferred over a drug-eluting stent (DES) if surgery A risk-benefit analysis should be performed
is time sensitive [16]. The Coronary Artery before deciding if a beta-blocker should be ini-
Revascularization Prophylaxis (CARP) trial – the tiated. If a decision is made to start a beta-
largest randomized trial of its kind – showed that blocker, it should be initiated at least 1 day
there was no mortality benefit to coronary artery prior to surgery and titrated safely to lower the
revascularization, either with PCI or coronary resting heart rate [2].
artery bypass grafting (CABG), prior to elective
vascular surgery, in patients with known stable Statin Therapy
coronary artery disease [17]. Only patients with Patients currently taking a statin should be con-
left main disease showed a benefit to preoperative tinued on the statin throughout the perioperative
coronary artery revascularization [18]. period. Further, patients may be started on statins
Patients who undergo PCI should have sur- if deemed to be higher risk (i.e., history of diabe-
gery delayed by 14 days after balloon angioplasty tes, hypertension, coronary artery disease). Data
and 30 days after BMS implantation. Those who from statin trials suggests there is a reduction in
undergo DES placement should have surgery cardiovascular events in the perioperative period
delayed by at least 365 days, though surgery may in high-risk patients [27, 28]. The general recom-
be considered after 180 days if the risks of delay- mendation is to start statin therapy 1 week prior
ing the surgery further are greater than the risk of to surgery and to continue for 30 days after, if not
stent thrombosis [2, 19–21]. already indicated. Regardless, patients who meet
criteria for initiation of a statin may benefit long
term from its introduction.
Perioperative Cardiac Medications
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme
Beta-Blocker Therapy Inhibitor (ACEI)/Angiotensin Receptor
Patients currently on beta-blockers should be Blocker (ARB) Therapy
continued on these medications throughout the ACEI/ARB may be continued throughout the
perioperative period. Studies [22, 23] have shown perioperative period; however, there is increased
that sudden withdrawal of beta-blocker may be risk for transient intraoperative hypotension
6 S. Dowlatshahi et al.
[29]. If they are held preoperatively, they may be Table 1.2 General perioperative strategies in reduction
of postoperative pulmonary complications
restarted postoperatively when the blood pressure
is able to tolerate the addition of the medication. Preoperative Postoperative
Immediate smoking Incentive spirometer and
cessation deep breathing
nticoagulants and Antiplatelet
A
Optimization of Early mobilization
Therapy underlying lung disease
See anticoagulation/antiplatelet section for fur- Optimization of nutrition Pain control in thoracic/
ther details. abdominal surgeries
– Nasogastric decompression
when indicated
Perioperative Pulmonary
Assessment
(<3.5 g/dL) and weight loss, are at increased risk
The frequency of postoperative pulmonary com- for PPCs [32].
plications (PPCs) varies from 5% to 70%, with Patients with at least a 20 pack-year smoking
the wide discrepancy explained by the definition history are at increased risk for PPCs, compared
used in each study, patient selection, and to those with a lesser smoking history. Risk for
procedure-related risk factors [30]. PPCs is reduced when patients stop smoking at
PPCs include atelectasis, cough, dyspnea, least 4 weeks prior to surgery [33]; however, data
bronchospasm, hypoxemia, hypercapnia, adverse has shown that even briefer durations of smoking
reaction to pulmonary medication, pleural effu- cessation have been associated with a reduction
sion, pneumonia, pneumothorax, and ventilatory in PPCs [34, 35].
failure. Those that are particularly at increased Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
risk are persons with preexisting lung disease, (COPD) is an important risk factor for PPCs.
medical comorbidities, poor nutritional status, Patients with severe COPD have an increased
overall poor health, and current smokers. PPCs risk for pneumonia, unplanned intubation, and
are not only detrimental to the patient (account prolonged ventilatory support [36]. Similar to
for about 25% of deaths occurring within 6 days COPD, patients with asthma are at increased risk
of surgery [30]), but they are also costly to the for PPCs when it is not well controlled [37, 38].
hospital (i.e., can increase length of stay by Patients should be medically optimized prior to
1–2 weeks). Similar to cardiac complications, the surgery (Table 1.2).
patient’s own risk factors, as well as the proce- Obesity causes decreased lung volumes,
dure itself, may increase the risk for pulmonary ventilation-
perfusion mismatch, and relative
complications. hypoxemia, which one would expect to increase
the risk for PPCs. However, available data is
inconsistent regarding this matter, and the con-
Patient Risk Factors sensus currently is that obesity is not a predictor
of PPCs [38, 39]. Patients with suspected obstruc-
There are several patient-related risk factors that tive sleep apnea (OSA) should undergo screen-
are associated with increased risk for PPCs. Age ing with one of the available screening tools such
has been shown to be an independent risk factor as the STOP-BANG questionnaire. Early identi-
for PPCs, specifically, in patients greater than age fication of these patients will allow for possible
50 [31]. The general health status is usually pre- intraoperative and postoperative modifications to
dicted by the American Society of Anesthesiology be made, such as minimizing the use of sedatives
(ASA) classification system, and class two or and opioid analgesics [40, 41]. An arterial blood
higher is associated with an increased pulmonary gas should be considered in patients with sus-
risk [31]. In addition, patients with poor func- pected or known OSA and suspicion for obesity
tional status, as well as those with low albumin hypoventilation syndrome [40].
1 Patient’s Own Risk Factors 7
pleted and hemostasis has been achieved, the min should stop the drug 2–3 days before sur-
patient should be restarted on LMWH or UFH, as gery, while those with a CrCl of 30–50 mL/min
a bridge to warfarin. Similarly, patients with should stop the drug 3–5 days prior to surgery,
atrial fibrillation and at high risk for thromboem- depending on bleeding risk [56]. Similarly,
bolism (Table 1.3) should be restarted on warfa- patients on apixaban and rivaroxaban should
rin after surgery, with a LMWH/UFH bridge, as stop the drug 2–3 days before surgery, with the
soon as possible once the bleeding risk and longer duration for those undergoing high bleed-
hemostasis have been addressed (Fig. 1.1) [52]. ing risk procedures. Patients with high risk for
Patients with low-risk mechanical valves or thromboembolism may benefit from bridging
atrial fibrillation with low- or intermediate-risk with LMWH or UFH; however, there is an asso-
CHA2DS2-VASc score (Table 1.3) should con- ciated increased risk of bleeding [57, 58]. If the
sider stopping warfarin 5 days before surgery and patient has a low thromboembolic risk with low
be restarted on anticoagulation after surgery, with bleeding risk, DOACs may be restarted 24 h
no need for full-dose bridging with LMWH or postoperatively; if there is a high bleeding risk, it
UFH (Fig. 1.2) [55]. Note that VTE prophylaxis may be restarted with a delay: 48–72 h postop-
is still indicated in these patients. eratively (Table 1.4).
Patients on a DOAC undergoing robotic uro- If the patient is at a high risk for thromboem-
logic procedure should have their last dose of the bolic event and underwent a high bleeding risk
drug held 2–5 days prior to surgery, based on the surgery, it is suggested to restart the DOAC at a
DOAC used and their creatinine clearance reduced dose on the evening of the surgery and
(CrCl). Patients on dabigatran and CrCl >50 ml/ continue this dose the following day (postopera-
10 S. Dowlatshahi et al.
Edoxaban Factor Xa ~10 CrCl >50 mL/min Once Last dose 2 days Last dose 3 days
inhibitor CrCl 30–50 mL/ daily before surgery before surgery
min (i.e., skip 1 dose) (i.e., skip 2 doses)
Rivaroxaban Factor Xa ~9–12 CrCl >50 mL/min Once Last dose 2 days Last dose 3 days
inhibitor daily before surgery before surgery
(i.e., skip 1 dose) (i.e., skip 2 doses)
tive day 1). Resumption of the full dose of the POISE-2 study demonstrated that patients who
DOAC may occur on postoperative days 2–3, once were at increased risk for cardiovascular events
hemostasis has been achieved (Table 1.4) [59]. who stopped ASA prior to surgery did not have
an increased risk for postoperative cardiovascu-
Antiplatelet Therapy lar events. Bleeding risk was higher on ASA
Patients who require dual antiplatelet therapy until postoperative days 7–8 [60].
(DAPT) for a BMS or DES should be continued
on therapy for no less than 30 days for a BMS
and no less than 365 days for a DES to minimize Perioperative Assessment
risk of in-stent thrombosis. Ideally surgery of the Geriatric Patient
should be delayed until it is safe to stop the
P2Y12 inhibitor [2, 19–21]; however, if surgery More and more adults over the age of 60 years
cannot be delayed, then the patient should be are undergoing surgical procedures. With the
continued on DAPT during the perioperative increase in comorbidities and complexity of care,
period, if surgically permissible [52]. On the the risk for complications and medical errors
other hand, if a patient has no prior history of may be increased. As with all patients, a thor-
cardiac stenting, recent MI, or stroke, it is rea- ough review of their medication list should be
sonable to stop ASA prior to surgery. The performed, with all nonessential medications
1 Patient’s Own Risk Factors 11
stopped days prior to surgery. Medications that geries. When a frail patient is exposed to stressors,
are medically indicated or that have the potential the effects can be a disproportionate decompen-
for withdrawal should be continued in the periop- sation [70], leading to adverse events and pro-
erative period. Similar to their younger counter- longed recovery. Furthermore, in studies that
parts, patients should be assessed for cardiac and looked at frail patients after cardiac surgery, frail
pulmonary risk factors prior to surgery and patients were more likely to require rehabilitation
should be managed for these risk factors postop- and/or institutionalization [71]. There are several
eratively in a similar manner. frailty assessment tools, which evaluate the main
Older patients are also at increased risk for phenotypes of frailty: slowness, weakness, low
postoperative delirium and deconditioning [61]. physical activity, exhaustion, and shrinking. A
Patients at increased risk for postoperative delir- simple evaluation is a 5-meter gait speed: a per-
ium include those over 65, chronic cognitive formance over 6 s indicates frailty.
decline/dementia, poor vision/hearing, severe ill-
ness (i.e., ICU admission), and presence of an
infection [62]. One-third to one-half of delirium Intraoperative Risks
cases are preventable, and perioperative manage-
ment is targeted toward delirium prevention. Pneumoperitoneum/
Careful review of the patient’s medications will Retroperitoneum
aid in reducing the risk for postoperative delir-
ium. Further, optimal pain control, optimizing Patients with cardiopulmonary disease can be
the physical environment (minimizing overnight particularly susceptible to the effects of pneumo-
interruptions, frequent reorientation, encourag- peritoneum during robotic surgeries. Insufflation
ing family at bedside), having vision and hearing will decrease venous return and preload, thereby
aids accessible, use of earplugs during sleep, lowering cardiac output while increasing the
removal of catheters, and daily physical activity afterload due to compression of the aorta. At the
all promote delirium risk reduction. Several same time, the increased intra-abdominal pres-
screening tools have been adapted to evaluate and sure from insufflation can decrease functional
diagnose patients with delirium. The Confusion residual capacity and vital capacity, which can
Assessment Method (CAM) is one of the most further compromise patients with underlying
widely used screening tools [63, 64]. Once a restrictive lung disease or decreased pulmonary
patient has been diagnosed with delirium, the reserve, leading to a hypercarbic condition [1].
healthcare team should identify any precipitating Intraoperative compensatory maneuvers to aug-
factors and treat accordingly [65, 66]. Patients ment blood pressure, such as volume administra-
may benefit from systematic intervention tion, can potentiate pulmonary edema at the end
(interdisciplinary team approach, ongoing educa- of the case, particularly once insufflation is with-
tional programs) and/or consultation with a geri- drawn, with a corresponding large increase in
atrician [64]. preload [1].
Frailty can be defined as a state of decreased
physiological reserve and vulnerability to stress-
ors [67]. Elderly patients are at particular risk for linical Risk Factors in Patient
C
frailty, which can be a prognostic marker in Positioning
patients with underlying cardiovascular disease.
Awareness of this fact can provide optimal Intraocular Pressure
patient-centered care. Studies have correlated Steep Trendelenburg position, with abdominal
frailty with a threefold increased risk for 1-year insufflation, leads to increased intraocular pres-
mortality [68] and a 30% risk of developing new sure (IOP) [72]. Glaucoma patients generally
heart failure [69]. A frail patient with heart fail- have decreased outflow through the trabecu-
ure can be particularly at risk during robotic sur- lar meshwork and at baseline have increased
12 S. Dowlatshahi et al.
intraocular pressure; therefore, these patients cardiac risk of major noncardiac surgery. Circulation.
1999;100(10):1043–9.
should be identified during preoperative evalu-
4. Bilimoria K, Liu Y, Paruch J, Zhou L, Kmiecik T, Ko
ation. During surgery, IOP is increased in a C, et al. Development and evaluation of the universal
time-dependent fashion while in the steep ACS NSQIP surgical risk calculator: a decision aid
Trendelenburg position, with 25% of the studied and informed consent tool for patients and surgeons.
J Am Coll Surg. 2013;217(5):833–842.e3.
population reaching IOP ≥30 mmHg at 5 h [72].
5. Gupta P, Gupta H, Sundaram A, Kaushik M, Fang X,
Serious complications, although rare, can include Miller W, et al. Development and validation of a risk
postoperative visual loss. calculator for prediction of cardiac risk after surgery.
Treatment to control the IOP is not routinely Circulation. 2011;124(4):381–7.
6. Devereaux P, Goldman L, Cook D, Gilbert K, Leslie
used for non-glaucoma patients. However, in
K, Guyatt G. Perioperative cardiac events in patients
glaucoma patients with underlying optic nerve undergoing noncardiac surgery: a review of the mag-
damage or severe disease, full discussion of con- nitude of the problem, the pathophysiology of the
cerns should be communicated among the patient, events and methods to estimate and communicate
risk. Can Med Assoc J. 2005;173(6):627–34.
ophthalmologist, urologist, and anesthesiologist.
7. Lindenauer P, Pekow P, Wang K, Mamidi D, Gutierrez
Prophylactic treatments have been documented B, Benjamin E. Perioperative beta-blocker therapy
in the literature, including the use of systemic and mortality after major noncardiac surgery. N Engl
acetazolamide and mannitol to lower IOP [73– J Med. 2005;353(4):349–61.
8. Ford M, Beattie W, Wijeysundera D. Systematic
76]. Mannitol is not appropriate for everyone,
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monary disease, and an alternative procedure Ann Intern Med. 2010;152(1):26.
may be necessary in this situation. 9. Reilly D, McNeely M, Doerner D, Greenberg D,
Staiger T, Geist M, et al. Self-reported exercise toler-
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cardiac arrests in adults undergoing noncardiac sur-
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complications. A multidisciplinary team approach 12. Van Damme H, Piérard L, Gillain D, Benoit T, Rigo
P, Limet R. Cardiac risk assessment before vascu-
incorporating hospitalists, internists, geriatri-
lar surgery: a prospective study comparing clinical
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J. Perioperative and long-term prognostic value of
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Anesthetic Implications of Robotic
Surgery 2
Pete Roffey