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Comparative Grammar of
Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian and French

Learn and Compare 4 Languages

Simultaneously

MIKHAIL PETRUNIN
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Copyright © 2018 Mikhail Petrunin

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 9781983334269

!ii
COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

To all language lovers like me.

!iii
MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

!iv
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

CONTENTS

Preface To the Learner xviii

Six reasons why this book was written and why you xviii
need it

Acknowledgements xxiv

Symbols xxv

Introduction: Alphabet 1

Letter names and Pronunciations 1

Digraphs 4
Diacritics 7
Diphthongs 9

Chapter 1: Nouns 11

Gender of Nouns 11

Forming the Feminine 18

Plural Forms of Nouns 21

Special Cases of Forming the Plural Nouns 22

Nouns which are always Plural 27
Nouns which are always Singular 28

Chapter 2: Adjectives 30

Gender of Adjectives 30

Forming the Feminine 31

Plural Forms of Adjectives 38

Peculiarities of Adjective Use 39

Italian Bello 42
Italian Grande 43

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Italian Buono and Nessuno 43

Chapter 3: Adverbs 45

Use of Adverbs 45

Forming Adverbs from Adjectives. Adverbs Ending in 45

-mente (-ment)
Peculiarities of Adverb Use 46

Other Adverbs 46

Adverbs of manner 46
Adverbs of place 47
Adverbs of time 48
Adverbs of intensity 49
Adverbs of doubt 50
Adverbs expressing affirmation 50
Adverbs expressing exclusion 51
Adverbs composed of several words 51
Adverbial phrases 51
Position of Adverbs 53

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 53

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives 58

Chapter 4: Articles 61

Origin of Articles in Romance Languages. Definite 61

and Indefinite Articles. Gender
French 63
Italian 63
Spanish and Portuguese 63
Use of the Article 63

General Use of the Indefinite Article 64

General Use of the Definite Article 65

!vi
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Omission of the Definite Article 72

Omission of the Article 73
The Neuter Article lo in Spanish 74

The Partitive 75

Contraction of the Article 77

Chapter 5: Pronouns 80

Personal Pronouns 80

Subject Pronouns 83

Overview 83
Use of Subject Pronouns 84
Omission of Subject Pronouns 88
Direct Object 90

Use of Direct Object Pronouns 92

Word Order of Direct Object Pronouns 93
Divergent Aspects in Word Order 95
Different Variants of Direct Object in Portuguese 97
Indirect Object 99

Use of Indirect Object Pronouns 100

Common Verbs Used with an Indirect Object in 102
Romance Languages
Word Order of Indirect Object Pronouns 103
Contraction. Using Direct and Indirect Object 103
Pronouns in the Same Sentence
Italian ci, ne and French y, en Special Pronouns 107

Italian ci and French y Pronouns 107

Use of ci and y 107
Italian ne and French en Pronouns 112
Use of ne and en 112

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns 114

Use of Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns 115

Special Forms of Prepositional Pronouns and 116
Prepositions in Spanish and Portuguese
Use of Prepositional (Disjunctive) Pronouns in 118
French. Special Cases
Reflexive Pronouns 119

Use of Reflexive Pronouns 120

Word Order of Reflexive Pronouns 121
Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns in Romance 122
Languages
Possessive Adjectives 122
Possession with de (Spanish, Portuguese, French) 126
and di (Italian)
Omission of Possessive Adjectives 127
Possessive Pronouns 127

Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns in Spanish, 130

Portuguese, Italian and French
Demonstrative Adjectives 130
Forms of Demonstrative Adjectives 131
Demonstrative Adjectives this and these in Romance 132
Languages
Demonstrative Adjectives that and those in Romance 133
Languages
Demonstrative Adjectives that over there and those 134
over there in Spanish and Portuguese
Combined Demonstrative Adjectives in Portuguese 135
Word Order of Demonstrative Adjectives 136
Demonstrative Pronouns 136

Forms of Demonstrative Pronouns 137

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Possession with the Demonstrative Pronoun and de 138

(di)
Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns in Spanish and 139
Portuguese
Forms of Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns 139
Combined Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns in 140
Portuguese
Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives 141

Exclamations with Interrogative Pronouns 153

Relative Pronouns 156

Indefinite Adjectives and Pronouns 170

Chapter 6: Verbs 197

Overview 197

The Indicative Mood 201

The Present Tense 201

Irregular Verbs in the Present Tense 212

Verb Spelling and Vowel Changes 214
Use of the Present Tense 247
Special Use of the Present Tense and Prepositions 250
The Past Participle 251

Overview 251
Formation of Past Participle of Regular Verbs 251
Irregular Past Participles 252
Use of Past Participle 254
The Present Perfect 255

Formation of the Present Perfect 255

Formation of the Present Perfect with the Verb to be 257
in Italian and French
Agreement of the Past Participle 258

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Agreement of the Past Participle with avoir in French 259

Use of the Present Perfect 260
Special Use of the Present Perfect in Italian and 261
French
Sp. acabar de; Port. acabar de; Fr. venir de + The 261
Infinitive
The Preterite 261

Formation of the Preterite 261

Irregular Verbs in the Preterite 264
Irregularities in Formation the Preterite 268
Use of the Preterite 277
Special Use of the Preterite in French 279
Difference between the Preterite and the Present 279
Perfect in the Romance languages
Asking Questions 280

Peculiarities of Interrogation in the Romance 281

languages
Negation 284

Formation of Negation in Simple Tenses 285

Omission of Pas in French 286
Negation of the Infinitive 287
Negation with Adjectives and the Adverb Very 287
Formation of Negation in Compound Tenses 288
Other Negative Expressions 289
The Imperfect Tense 301

Formation of the Imperfect 301

Irregular Verbs in the Imperfect 304
Use of the Imperfect 305
Sp. desde hace; Port. desde; It. da; Fr. depuis + The 309
Imperfect Tense

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Difference between the Preterite and the Imperfect 311

in the Romance Languages
Compound Tenses in The Past 312

Overview 312
The Pluperfect Tense 312

Formation of the Pluperfect 312

Use of the Pluperfect Tense 316
Peculiarities of Use of the Pluperfect in the Romance 316
Languages
Irregular Verbs of the Pluperfect in Portuguese 317
The Past Perfect (Anterior) Tense 317

Formation of The Past Perfect (Anterior) 317

Use of the Past Perfect (Anterior) Tense 321
The Future Tense 322

Regular Formation of the Future 322

Irregular Verbs in The Future 324
Irregularities in Formation of the Future in French 327
Use of The Future Tense 327
The Informal Future 329
Special Use of the Future 330
The Future Perfect Tense 331

Formation of the Future Perfect 331

Use of the Future Perfect Tense 334
Special Use of the Future Perfect 335
The Conditional Tense 336

Overview 336
Formation of the Present Conditional 337
Irregular Verbs in the Conditional 338

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 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Irregularities in Formation the Conditional in French 341

Use of the Conditional Tense 342
The Conditional Perfect Tense 344

Overview 344
Formation of the Conditional Perfect 344
Use of the Conditional Perfect Tense 347
Conditional Clauses 348

The Subjunctive Mood 351

Overview 351
Basic Rules for Indicative and Subjunctive 351
The Present Subjunctive 353

Formation of the Present Subjunctive 353

Irregular Verbs in the Present Subjunctive 355
Use of the Present Subjunctive 358
Sp. Ojalá (que) 360
Use of the Present Indicative instead of Subjunctive 369
Subjunctive with Subordinate Conjunctions 371
Indirect Commands in Romance languages 376
Subjunctive after Affirmation in Romance Languages 377
Subjunctive in Relative Clauses 377
Subjunctive with the Superlative and It. solo, unico; 378
Fr. seul, unique
Subjunctive with Indefinite Words 379
The Present Perfect Subjunctive 381

Formation of the Present Perfect Subjunctive 381

Use of the Present Perfect Subjunctive 384
The Imperfect Subjunctive 385

Formation of the Imperfect Subjunctive 385

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 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Irregular Verbs in the Imperfect Subjunctive 387

Use of the Imperfect Subjunctive 388
The Pluperfect (Past Perfect) Subjunctive 388

Overview 388
Formation of The Pluperfect Subjunctive 389
Use of the Pluperfect Subjunctive 393
The Future Subjunctive in Spanish and Portuguese 394

Overview 394
Formation of the Future Subjunctive 394
Irregular verbs in the Future Subjunctive 395
Use of The Future Subjunctive 395
The Future Perfect Subjunctive 396

Overview 396
Formation of the Future Perfect Subjunctive 396
Use of The Future Perfect Subjunctive 397
The Sequence of Tenses with the Subjunctive 399

The Imperative Mood 400

Spanish and Portuguese Let’s Commands with the 404

Verb Ir
Irregular Imperative 405
The Negative Imperative 406
Softened Commands in the Romance Languages 408
The Present Participle (Gerund) 410

Overview 410
Formation of the Present Participle (Gerund) 410
Irregularities in Formation of the Present Participle 411
(Gerund) in Spanish and Italian
Use of Present Participle (Gerund) 413

!xiii
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

No Use of Present Participle (Gerund) 415

How to Avoid Using the Present Participle (Gerund) 416
The Compound Present Participle (Gerund) in 418
Portuguese and Italian
Formation of the Compound Present Participle 418
(Gerund) in Portuguese and Italian
Use of the Compound Present Participle in 419
Portuguese and Italian
The Continuous Tenses 419

Formation of Continuous Tenses 419

Use of Continuous Tenses 420
The Present Continuous 421
The Imperfect Continuous 421
The Infinitive 422

Overview 422
Use of The Infinitive 422
Spanish al + Infinitive 438
Make in Causative Constructions in The Romance 439
Languages
Let and Verbs of Perception + the Infinitive in the 443
Romance Languages
The Compound Infinitive 445

Use of the Compound Infinitive 445

Portuguese Personal Infinitive 446

Overview 446
Forms of the Personal Infinitive 446
Use of Portuguese Personal Infinitive 447
Reflexive Verbs 450

Overview 450

!xiv
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Formation of Reflexive Verbs 450

Reflexive Verbs with a Reflexive Meaning 452
Italian and French Compound Tenses with Reflexive 456
Verbs
Reflexive Verbs with Parts of the Body 456
Reciprocal Reflexive Verbs 457
Reflexive Verbs Versus Non-Reflexive Verbs 461
Reflexive Verbs in the Infinitive in the Romance 463
languages
Reflexive se (Spanish, Portuguese and French) and si 464
(Italian) as an Indefinite Subject
Frequent Reflexive Verb of Becoming 465
Affirmative Imperative of Reflexive verbs in the 465
Romance Languages
Negative Imperative of Reflexive Verbs in the 466
Romance Languages
The Passive Voice 467

Overview 467
Formation of the Passive Voice 467
Spanish Passive Voice with Ser and Estar 477
French Passive Voice with de 478
Alternatives to Passive Voice in the Romance 479
Languages

Chapter 7: Numbers, Time and Dates 482

Numbers 482

Overview 482
Cardinal Numbers 482

Peculiarities of Spelling Rules of Cardinal Numbers 489

in the Romance Languages
Phrases of Approximation Used with Cardinal 493
Numbers

!xv
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Use of Cardinal Numbers 494

Ordinal Numbers 498

Adverbial Ordinals in the Romance Languages 505

Fractions 505

Arithmetical Operations 508

Collective Numbers 509

Multiple Numerals 510

Dates 511

Days 511
Months 512
Ways to Ask the Date in the Romance Languages 514
Seasons 515
Time 516

Chapter 8: Prepositions 525

Overview 525

Simple Prepositions 526

Uses of Simple Prepositions 528

Compound Prepositions (Prepositional Phrases) 614

Contraction of Prepositions with Article 630

Chapter 9: Conjunctions 631

Overview 631

Coordinating Conjunctions 631

Subordinating Conjunctions 632

Correlative Conjunctions 638

Functions of Conjunctions 639

Copulative conjunctions 639

Adversative conjunctions 640

!xvi
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Disjunctive conjunctions 642

Consecutive conjunctions 643
Causal conjunctions 645
Concessive conjunctions 647
Conditional conjunctions 648
Final conjunctions 650
Temporal conjunctions 651
Comparative conjunctions 652
Complementizer 653

Chapter 10: Interjections 655

Overview 655

Types of Interjections 655

Interjections with Exclamatory Words 672

Verb Charts 673

Regular Verbs 673

Irregular Verbs 676

Index 682

!xvii
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

PREFACE TO THE LEARNER

“Aut inveniam viam aut faciam” -
I shall either find a way or make one

Hello, my friends.

Spanish: Hola, mis amigos.

Portuguese: Olá, meus amigos.

Italian: Ciao, i miei amici.

French: Salut, mes amis.

Nowadays thousands of grammar books, textbooks, outlines,

references and language guides of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and
French are published year by year. However, all of them teach these
languages separately. Here you will find a comparative grammar of the
four major Romance languages together based on their grammatical and
lexical similarities for you, lovers of foreign languages, to learn and
compare Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French simultaneously. It is an
audacious endeavor to find or create a novel way of learning to speak
several languages and becoming a multilingual person.

Below I will discuss six reasons why I decided to write this book
and why you need it. Also, I will try to answer such questions as whether
it is possible and not confusing to learn several languages
simultaneously, and why you should ever learn Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian and French.

Six reasons why this book was written and why you need it.

1. I began studying the Romance languages in 2007. When I first

started to learn the French language and literature at the Department of
Romance and Germanic languages of Derzhavin Tambov State University
I found myself totally captivated by Latin-based languages.

In my second year, I took additional classes of Spanish and

started learning Italian and Portuguese by myself. While studying these
four languages, I gradually realized how incredibly similar Spanish,
Portuguese, Italian and French are and how amazing it would be to have
a special course which would enable students to learn them at the same

!xviii
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

time in order to get a certain level of knowledge of the four major

Romance languages.

Since a university academic program would not offer courses like

that, I started to search for a book that would teach Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian and French simultaneously but, to my surprise and regret, a book
like that had never been written. So I decided to write a Comparative
Grammar of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French to use it in my own
future courses.

This book is written for readers like you who are fond of or would
like to learn Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French simultaneously or
just to get an all-round knowledge of all these four Romance languages.
It is designed not only for beginners who do not have an extensive
knowledge of grammar, yet need a guide through the grammatical
concepts of all mentioned above languages, but also intermediate and
advanced students who would like to have a reference book of several
Romance languages at once.

2. I spent many years learning these languages separately, which

was a complete waste of time before I realized it. This book will hopefully
save you a great deal of time and allow you to study and compare at a
glance the four main Neo-Latin languages. How I wish I had a book like
this ten years ago!

3. Global processes of integration, exchange of human resources,

intellectual and material products, and information between countries
show great progress in entering a period of multilingualism where
knowledge of only one foreign language is no longer sufficient. The
foundation of the European Union and creation of a common economic
and social space between the countries and people of Europe gave rise to
the issue of multilingualism and teaching and learning of multiple
languages. Knowledge of foreign languages is fast becoming a necessary
requirement for those who are involved in international business,
tourism, culture and education. This book offers you four languages to
learn, which will make you feel at home wherever you go, whether as a
tourist or businessman.

4. Learning several languages simultaneously or one by one will

train and strengthen your memory and can help stave off such terrible
diseases as Alzheimer’s.

5. If you have never studied several languages at once before and

you like challenges, then you should definitely try it. Because it is a really
entertaining and challenging task to do.

6. Finally, this book will teach you how to say “house” in Spanish,
Portuguese, Italian and French and the plural form of the word. You will
know how to count in four languages and what sounds different animals
make in these four languages.

!xix
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

Is it possible to learn several languages simultaneously?

Yes, it is. It is a well-known fact that all the Romance languages

originated from Latin, or from Vulgar Latin to be precise. Vulgar Latin
was spoken by ordinary citizens living throughout all the provinces of the
Roman Empire.

Due to active expansion, the Romans managed to spread and

popularize their language all over Western and Eastern Europe, making
other nations and tribes speak Latin. By that time, the conquered nations
already had their own languages and dialects and, therefore, the classical
form of Latin gradually changed under the influence of the linguistic
peculiarities and habits of local people. The changes were so dramatic
that they eventually led to the development of the Romance languages,
which retained significant grammatical and lexical similarities and
mutual intelligibility.

Therefore, the significant grammatical and lexical convergence

will allow the simultaneously study of several Romance languages.

Below are some examples that demonstrate apparent lexical

similarities between Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French.

Count from one to ten

Spanish Portuguese Italian French English

un(o), una um, uma uno, una un, une one

dos dois, duas due deux two

tres três tre trois three

cuatro quatro quattro quatre four

cinco cinco cinque cinq five

seis seis sei six six

siete sete sette sept seven

ocho oito otto huit eight

nueve nove nove neuf nine

diez dez dieci dix ten

Several common verbs

!xx
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Spanish Portuguese Italian French English

sonar soar sonare sonner to ring

haber haver (ter) avere avoir to have

(tener)
hacer fazer fare faire to do

sentir sentir sentire sentir to feel, to

sense

Some other commonly used nouns

Spanish Portuguese Italian French English

hombre homem uomo homme man

pan pão pane pain bread

cielo ceu cielo ciel sky

hierba erva erba herbe grass

vivo vivo vivo vif alive

blanco branco bianco blanc white

venir vir venire venir to come

If Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French are so similar, would not it

be confusing to learn them together?

The answer is no. In order to avoid mess and confusion in

learning, I suggest 8 tips on how to effectively study these four languages:

1. To make the process of learning better structured and more effective,

learn the grammatical rules and phrases of these four languages in a
fixed and strict sequence. These languages have already been put in a
strict order for you to learn. The sequence is this: at first you read a
rule or phrase in Spanish => then in Portuguese => then Italian =>
and finally in French. You should get used to this particular sequence
in order to avoid confusion.

2. As Leonardo da Vinci once said, “Study without desire spoils the

memory, and it retains nothing that it takes in.” Motivate yourself

!xxi
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

and develop an overwhelming and strong desire to learn and master

Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French. Motivation and
understanding of how important the knowledge of these languages is
to you is the key to success. Constantly remind yourself why you need
to learn several or all of these languages and where you are going to
use them.

3. Try to read and memorize the rules of each chapter at least twice
before starting with the next one. If you genuinely wish to improve
your Spanish, Portuguese, Italian or French, return and revise each
chapter over again. Practice makes perfect. Remember that.

4. While reading new rules, phrases and constructions, try to make up

your own sentences and examples using the rules that you just
learned.

5. Use this book with a pencil to underline rules or constructions that

you feel are important and which you may use later on in
conversation.

6. Revise comparative grammar of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and

French from time to time. Because our brain tends to forget all the
grammar rules we’ve learned so rapidly, we constantly need to
refresh our memory by reviewing and repeating them at times.

7. Practice your Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and/or French in real

conversations with native speakers no matter how good or bad you
know those languages. Use these language every day and at every
opportunity both in the streets and on the internet, on social
networks or different online chats. Learning is an active process. You
will never learn a language until you practice it with people.

8. Your final goal is to speak Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and/or

French. Therefore, use your notebook or any device to record all the
new words and phrases you hear while practicing your languages with
people or watching TV or listening radio in Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian or French.

Why you should learn Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French.

That is very simple. The Romance languages are the most widely
spread in the world by number of speakers. Besides the most widely
spoken languages, which are Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French,
there are also Catalan, Galician, Romansh, Romanian, Franco-Provençal,
Sardinian and others that belong to the Romance languages. It is quite
difficult to determine the exact number of languages belonging to the
Romance group as there are no accurate methods of division between a
“language” and a “dialect”.

!xxii
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

Nowadays around 7 billion people live on Earth and over 800

million people speak the Romance languages in Europe, South and North
America, Africa and Asia. Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French are
spoken in France, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and other
European countries.

Spanish and Portuguese are natively spoken or enjoy official

status in almost all the countries of South and Central America (Mexico,
Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Cuba, Bolivia,
Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, etc.). French, Portuguese and Spanish have
official status in a wide range of countries in Africa. In Arabic countries
of North Africa (mostly Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria) French is the
second spoken language. People of Western and Central African
countries (Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Central African Republic,
Cameroon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Togo, Benin, Senegal, Mali, etc.) speak French as their native or second
language. Spanish is the official language of Equatorial Guinea and
Portuguese is the official language of six countries in Africa (Angola,
Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and Sao Tome and Principe).
In Asia, Portuguese is one of the official languages in Macau and East
Timor.

There is a large number of television programs and radio

programs broadcasting, countless books, newspapers, magazines and
journals are published worldwide in Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and
French.

Furthermore, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French are

official languages of the European Union, the United Nations (Spanish
and French), as well as many other international organizations,
communities, congresses and conferences.

Thus, the Romance languages play a significant role in the world,

arouse genuine interest and have obvious practical benefit for learners.

In conclusion, I would like to sincerely thank you for purchasing

the book and your interest in it. I hope it will help you improve your
languages. If I can help you in any way, please do not hesitate to contact
me. I would be glad to answer any questions and share ideas related to
multilingualism and learning multiple languages simultaneously. I also
welcome any remarks from readers. I have created a list of errata for the
book in Google Docs. So I welcome you to make remarks and corrections
to improve it. Here is the link: https://docs.google.com/document/d/
1vfkGAoyF4kEJxEJs3alEIci7HOiJW__k6SYI2OZmbq8/edit?
usp=sharing

Mikhail Petrunin

Email: petrunin.mikh5@gmail.com

!xxiii
 MIKHAIL PETRUNIN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to my relatives, friends and colleagues for their

useful advice and invaluable assistance in the writing of this book.

First of all, I would like to sincerely thank my parents Marina

Petrunina and Mikhail Petrunin, as well as my sister Oxana Petrunina for
their encouragement and support in this venture.

My special thanks go to my competent reviewers Kai Tang, Peter

Mitchell, Ben Hack, Richard Graham, Falonne Placidia Nkounkou
Babingui, Julya Veronica Pereira Lazzarotto, Wassila Oudinache, Cristina
Becerra Bustamante, Francesco Lubinu, Simona Itro, Pamela Pacheco, T.
Adam Forbish, Milagros Miracles and Taísa Crespo, for their corrections,
remarks and observations, which helped me to avoid many mistakes.

I would also like to acknowledge the assistance of my scientific

advisor Pavel Sysoyev Ph.D., Ed.D., Head of Science and Research
Department of Students and Scholars of Derzhavin Tambov State
University, and my professor Oleg Polyakov Ph.D. in FLT, Head of
Linguistics and Humanities Department of Derzhavin Tambov State
University, whose roles was of intrinsic value during the earlier stages of
this project.

Many more people, my dearest friends Neyri Matos, Lina

Benavides, Marina Drotsenko, Nimo Khenissi, Houssem Chaaouri and
Taynara Leme offered their kind support in the form of comments,
advice and suggested examples.

Despite the care and attention that has been involved into
producing this book, there are, undoubtedly, errors, oversights and
inaccuracies for which I take full responsibility.

Mikhail Petrunin, 2018

!xxiv
 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR OF SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ITALIAN AND FRENCH

SYMBOLS

> – becomes, changes to

/ – or, alternative forms or meanings

Sp. – Spanish

Port. – Portuguese

It. – Italian

Fr. – French

Lat. – Latin

Braz. Port. – Brazilian Portuguese

Euro. Port. – European Portuguese

Masc. - Masculine

Fem. - Feminine

Pl. - Plural

Cons. - Consonant

!xxv
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET
Letter names and Pronunciations

The alphabet of the Romance languages is based on the Latin

alphabet with several specific letters. The Spanish alphabet consists of 27
letters, Portuguese alphabet encompasses 26 letters, Italian alphabet has
21 letters and French alphabet includes 26 letters.

Remember that Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French

pronunciation of some of the letters differ between particular regions and
areas, especially between Peninsular and Latin American Spanish or
European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. The only way to
pronounce and understand Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and French
correctly is to listen and try to copy native speakers.

However, below is the table that shows letters, their names

and pronunciation in Spanish (Peninsular and Latin American),
Portuguese (European and Brazilian), Italian and French:

Spanish Portuguese Italian French

Lett Na Pho Lett Na Pho Lett Na Pho Lett Na Pho

er me ne er me ne er me ne er me ne
me me me me
Aa a /a/ Aa á /a/ Aa a /a/ Aa a /ɑ/

Bb be /be/ Bb bê /be/ Bb bi /bi/ Bb bé /be/

Cc ce /θe/ Cc cê /se/ Cc ci / Cc cé /se/

tʃi/

Dd de /de/ Dd dê /de/ Dd di /di/ Dd dé /de/

!1
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Spanish Portuguese Italian French

Ee e /e/ Ee é or /ɛ/, Ee e /e/ Ee e /ə/

ê /e/

Ff efe / Ff efe / Ff effe / Ff effe /ɛf/

efe/ ˈɛfi/ ˈɛffe
/

Gg ge /xe/ Gg gê /ʒe/ Gg gi / Gg gé /ʒe/

dʒi/

Hh hac / Hh agá /a Hh acc / Hh ach /aʃ/

he atʃe ˈɡa/ a ˈakk e
/ a/

Ii i /i/ Ii i /i/ Ii i /i/ Ii i /i/

Jj jota / Jj jota / __ __ __ Jj ji /ʒi/

xota ˈʒɔt
/ ɐ/

Kk ka / Kk cá / __ __ __ Kk ka /
ka/ ka/ kɑ/

Ll ele / Ll ele / Ll elle / Ll elle /ɛl/

ele/ ˈɛli/ ˈɛlle
/

Mm eme / Mm eme /’e Mm em / Mm em /

eme mi/ me ˈɛm me ɛm/
/ me/

Nn ene / Nn ene / Nn enne / Nn enn /

ene/ ˈeni ˈɛnn e ɛn/
/ e/

Ññ eñe / __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
eɲe
/

Oo o /o/ Oo ó or /ɔ/, Oo o /ɔ/ Oo o /o/

ô /o/

!2
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

Spanish Portuguese Italian French

Pp pe /pe/ Pp pê /pe/ Pp pi /pi/ Pp pé /pe/

Qq cu / Qq quê /ke/ Qq cu / Qq qu /
ku/ ku/ ky/

Rr erre / Rr erre / Rr erre / Rr err /ɛʁ/

ere/ or ˈɛʁi/ ˈɛrr e
rê e/

Ss ese / Ss esse / Ss esse / Ss esse /ɛs/

ese/ or ˈɛsi/ ˈɛsse
si /

Tt te /te/ Tt tê /te/ Tt ti /ti/ Tt té /te/

Uu u /u/ Uu u /u/ Uu u /u/ Uu u /y/

Vv uve, /be/ Vv vê /ve/ Vv vi, /vi; Vv vé /ve/

ve vu vu/

Ww Dob / Ww dáb / __ __ __ Ww dou /

le dobl lio ˈdab ble dubl
ve e or d liu/ vé əve/
βe/ upl
o vê

Xx equ / Xx xis / __ __ __ Xx ixe /

is ekis ʃis/ iks/
/

Yy ye, i /i Yy ípsi / __ __ __ Yy i /
grie grie lon ˈipsi gre iɡʁɛ
ga ga/ lõ/ c k/

Zz zeta / Zz zê /ze/ Zz zeta / Zz zèd /

θeta dzɛː e zɛd/
/ ta/

!3
 INTRODUCTION: ALPHABET

NOTE:
Spanish
Despite the fact that the letters k and w are
part of the Spanish alphabet, they are used only
in loanwords.
Italian
The letters j, k, w, x and y are used for
loanwords and foreign names.
French
The letters w and k are used only in loanwords
and regional words.

Digraphs

The Romance languages use digraphs. Digraphs are pairs of

letters that symbolize a single sound and are usually not included in the
alphabet.

Study the following digraphs that exist in Spanish,

Portuguese, Italian and French:

Spanish Portuguese Italian French

Grapheme ch ch sc ch

Pronuncia- /tʃ/ /ʃ/ 1) /ʃ/ /ʃ/

tion (before -i
and -e);

2) /sk/
(before
other
letters)

Example ocho chuva 1) scialo; chat

2) scalo

!4
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
estado y causas en que la
pobreza se conserua y cria, y avn
augmenta como es en la vida que
por remedio escogeis. En verdad
que el que viuiendo en
seruidunbre le pareçe huyr la
pobreza no puedo sino afirmar
que grandemente a sí mesmo se
engaña, pues sienpre veo al tal
menesteroso y miserable y en
neçesidad de pedir, y que le den.
Miçilo.—Yo quiero, gallo,
responder por mí y por aquellos
que la neçesidad los trae a este
vibir, con los quales comunicando
muchas vezes con mucho gusto y
plazer me solian dezir los
fundamentos y razones con que
apoyauan y defendian su opinion,
que a muchos oy dezir que
seguian aquella vida del palaçio
porque a lo menos en ella no se
temia la pobreza, pues que
conforme a la costumbre de otros
muchos honbres trabajauan auer
su cotidiano mantenimiento de su
industria y natural soliçitud,
porque ya venidos a la vejez,
quando las fuerças faltan por
flaqueza o enfermedad, esperan
tener alli en qué se poder
mantener.
Gallo.—Pues veamos agora si
esos dizen la verdad. Mas antes
me pareçe que con mucho mayor
trabajo ganan esos tales el
mantenimiento que quantos en el
mundo son. Porque lo que alli se
gana hase de alcançar con
ruegos; lo qual es más caro que
todo el trabajo, sudor y preçio
conque en el mundo se pueda
comprar. Quanto más que avn
quieren los señores que se
trabaje y se sude el salario; y de
cada dia se les augmentan dos
mil negoçios y ocupaçiones[1112]
para el cunplimiento de las[1113]
quales no basta al honbre la
natural salud y buena dispusiçion
para los acabar[1114]; por lo qual
es neçesario venir a enfermedad
y flaqueza y cuando los
señores[1115] sienten a sus
criados que por su indispusiçion
no los pueden seruir y abastar a
sus negoçios los despiden de su
seruiçio, casa y familia[1116]. De
manera que claramente ves ser
engañados por esa razon, pues
les acarreó el palaçio más
miseria, enfermedad y trabajo,
lleuauan[1117] quando a él fueron.
Miçilo.—Pues dime agora tú
gallo; pues no te pareçe que los
miseros como yo sin culpa
podrian elegir y seguir aquella
vida por gozar (siquiera) de aquel
deleyte y contentamiento que da
vibir en aquellas anchas y
espaçiosas casas, habitaçion y
morada de los dioses y de sola
persona real? enhastiados y
mohinos destas nuestras
miserables y ahumadas choças
que más son pozilgas de puercos
que casas y habitaçion de
honbres; y ansi mouidos[1118]
someternos a su seruiçio, avnque
no se goze alli de más que de la
vista de aquellos marauillosos
tesoros que estan en aquellos
suntuosos aparadores de oro[1119]
y de plata, bagillas y tapetes y
otras admirables riquezas que
entretienen al honbre con sola la
vista en deleyte y contentamiento,
y avn comiendo y beuiendo en
ellos, casi en esperança de los
comer y tragar?
Gallo.—Esto es, Miçilo, lo
verdadero que primero se auia de
dezir, que es causa prinçipal que
mueue a los semejantes honbres
a trocar su libertad por
seruidumbre, que es la cobdiçia y
ambiçion de solo gustar y ver las
cosas profanas, demasiadas y
superfluas; y no el ir a vuscar
(como primero deçiades) lo
neçesario y conueniente a vuestra
miseria[1120], pues eso mejor se
halla[1121] en vuestras choças y
pobres[1122] casas aunque
vaçias[1123] de tesoro, pero ricas
por libertad, y esas esperanças
que dezis que prometen los
señores con la conuersaçion de
su generosidad, digo que son
esperanças vanas, y de
semejante condiçion que las
promesas con que el amante
mançebo entretiene a su amiga,
que nunca le falta vna esperança
que la dar de algun suçeso, o
herençia que le ha de venir,
porque la vanidad de su amor, no
piensa poderla conseruar sino
con la vana esperança de que
algun tienpo[1124] ha de tener
grandes tesoros que la dar, y ansi
ambos dos confiados de aquella
vanidad llegan a la vejez
mantenidos de solo el deleyte que
aquella vana esperança les dio,
abiertas las bocas hasta el morir,
y se tienen estos por muy
satisfechos porque gozaron de vn
contentamiento que les entretubo
el viuir, avnque con trabajo y
miseria. Desta manera se an los
que viben en el palaçio, y avn es
de mejor condiçion la esperança
destos miseros amantes que la de
que se sustentan los que viuen de
salario y merçed, porque aquellos
permaneçen en su señorio y
libertad, y estos no. Son como los
compañeros de Ulixes, que
transformados por Cyrçes en
puercos rebolcandose en el suçio
çieno estimauan en más gozar de
aquel presente deleyte y
miserable contentamiento que ser
bueltos a su humano natural.
Miçilo.—¿Y no te pareçe, gallo,
que es gran feliçidad y cosa de
gran[1125] estima y valor tener a la
contina comunicaçion y
familiaridad con ylustres,
generosos prinçipes y señores,
aunque del palaçio no se sacasse
otro bien ni otro prouecho, ni otro
interes?
Gallo.—Ha, ha, ha.
Miçilo.—¿Y de qué te ries, gallo?
Gallo.—Porque nunca oí cosa
más digna de reyr. Porque yo no
ternia por cosa más vana que
comunicar y asistir al Rey más
prinçipal que en el mundo ay, si
otro interes no se sacasse de alli:
¿pues no me sería igual trabajo
en la vida que auer de guardar
tanto tienpo aquel respeto, aquel
sosiego y asiento, miramiento y
seueridad que se deue tener ante
la presençia y acatamiento de la
gran magestad del Rey? Agora,
pues que emos tratado de las
causas que les traygan a estos a
vibir en tal estado de
seruidunbre [1126], vengamos
agora a tratar los trabajos,
afrentas y injurias que padeçen
para ser por los señores elegidos
en su seruiçio, y para ser
preferidos a otros que estan
oppuestos con el mesmo deseo al
mesmo salario; y tanbien veremos
lo que padeçen en el proçeso de
aquella miserable vida, y al[1127]
fin en que acaban[1128]. Quanto a
lo primero es neçesario que si has
de entrar a viuir con algun señor,
que vn dia y otro vayas y vengas
con gran continuaçion su casa, y
que nunca te apartes de sus
vmbrales y puerta, aunque te
tengan por enojoso y importuno, y
aunque con el rostro y con el
dedo te lo den a ententer, y
aunque te den con la puerta en
los ojos no te has de enojar, mas
antes has de disimular, y comprar
con dineros al portero la memoria
de tu[1129] nonbre, y que al llegar
a la puerta no le seas importuno.
Demas desto es nesçesario que
te vistas de nueuo con más
sumptuosidad y costa que lo
sufren tus fuerças conforme a la
magestad[1130] del señor que
pretendes[1131] seruir. Para lo
qual conuiene que, o vendas tu
hazienda[1132], o te empeñes para
delante pagar del salario[1133] si al
presente no tienes qué vender, y
con esto has de vestirte del color
y corte que sepas que más vsas o
le aplaze al señor[1134] porque en
cosa ninguna no discrepes ni
passes su voluntad, y tanbien has
de mirar que le acompañes con
gran cordura do quiera que fuere,
y que mires si has de yr adelante,
o detrás: en que lugar, o mano. Si
has de yr entre los prinçipales, o
con la trulla y comunidad de
familia por hazer pompa y aparato
de gente; y con todo esto has de
sufrir con paçiençia aunque
passen muchos dias sin que tu
amo te quiera mirar a la cara, ni
echarte de ver, y si alguna vez
fueres tan dichoso que te quisiere
mirar, si te llamare y te dixere
qualquiera cosa que él quisiere, o
se le viniere a la boca, entonçes
verás te cubrir de vn gran sudor, y
tomarte vna gran congoja, que se
te çiegan los ojos de vna súbita
turbaçion, prinçipalmente quando
ves los que estan al rededor que
se ryen viendo tu perplegidad y
que mudo no sabes qué dezir. En
tanta manera que a vna cosa que
acaso te pregunta respondes vn
gran disparate por verte cortado,
lleno de empacho[1135]. Y a este
embaraço de naturaleza llaman
los virtuosos que delante estan
verguença, y los desuergonçados
lo llaman temor[1136] y los
maliçiosos dizen que es neçedad
y poca esperençia; y tú,
miserable, quando has salido tan
mal desta primera conuersaçion
de tu señor quedas tan mohino y
acobardado que de descontento
te aborreçes, y despues de auerte
fatigado muchos dias y auer
passado muchas noches sin
sueño con cuydado de asentar y
salir con tu intinçion y quando ya
has padeçido mil tormentos y
aflicçiones, injurias y afrentas, y
no por alcançar vn reyno en
posesion, o vna çiudad, sino
solamente vn pobre salario de
çinco mil marauedis, ya que algun
buen hado te faboreçio, al cabo
de muchos dias vienen a
informarse de ti y de tu
habilidad[1137], y esta esperiençia
que de tu persona[1138] se haze
no pienses que le es poca
vfaneza y presunçion al[1139]
señor, porque le es gran gloria
quererse seruir[1140] de honbres
cuerdos y habiles[1141] para
qualquiera cosa que se les
encomiende; y avn te has de
aparejar que han de hazer
examen y informaçion de tu vida y
costunbres. ¡O desuenturado de
ti! que congojas te toman quando
piensas si por maliçia de vn ruyn
vezino que quiera informar de ti
vna ruyn cosa, o que quando
moço passó por ti alguna liuiana
flaqueza, y por no te ver
auentajado, por tener enuidia de
tus padres, o linaje informa mal
de ti, por lo qual estás en ventura,
de ser desechado y excluido; y
tanbien como acaso tengas algun
opositor que pretenda lo que tú y
te contradiga, es neçesario que
con toda su diligencia rodee todas
las cabas y muros por donde
pueda contraminar y abatir tu
fortaleza.
Este tal ha de examinarte la vida
y descubrirte lo que esté muy
oculto y enterrado por la
antigüedad del tienpo[1142] y
sabida alguna falta, o miseria, ha
de procurar con toda su industria
porque el Señor lo sepa. Que
tengo por mayor el daño que
resulta en tu persona saber el
señor tu falta verdadera, o
impuesta, que no el prouecho que
podra resultar de seruirse de ti
todos los dias de su vida.
Considera ¡o Miçilo! al pobre ya
viejo y barbado traerle en examen
su cordura, su linaje, costunbres y
ser; de lo que ha estudiado, qué
sabe, qué ha aprendido; y si
estaua en opinion de sabio hasta
agora, y con ello cunplia, agora
ha de mostrar lo que tiene
verdadero. Agora, pues,
pongamos que todo te suçeda
bien y conforme a tu voluntad.
Mostraste tu discreçion y
habilidad[1143] y tus amigos,
vezinos y parientes todos te
faboreçieron y informaron de ti
bien. El señor te reçibio; la muger
te açepto; y al mayordomo
despensero y ofiçiales y a toda la
casa plugo con tu venida. En fin
vençiste. ¡O bienauenturado
vençedor[1144] de vna gran
vitoria!; mereçes ser coronado
como a trihunfador de vna antigua
Olinpia[1145], o que por ti se ganó
el reyno de Napoles o pusiste
sobre el muro la vandera en la
Goleta. Razon es que reçibas el
premio y corona igual á tus
méritos, trabajos y fatigas. Que de
aqui adelante vibas descansado,
comas y bebas sin trabajo de la
abundançia del señor, y como
suelen dezir, de oy más duermas
a pierna tendida. Mas ante todo
esto es al reues. Porque de oy
más no has de sosegar a comer
ni a beber. No te ha de vagar,
dormir ni pensar vn momento con
oçio en tus proprias miserias[1146]
y neçesidades; porque sienpre
has de asistir a tu señor, a tu
señora, hijos y familia. Sienpre
despierto, sienpre con cuydado,
sienpre soliçito de agradar más a
tu señor, y quando todo esto
huuieres hecho con gran
cuydado, trabajo y soliçitud te
podrá dezir tu señor que heziste
lo que eras obligado, que para
esto te cogio por su salario y
merçed, porque si mal siruieras te
despidiera y no te pagara, porque
él no te cogio para holgar. En fin
mil cuydados, trabajos y
pasiones, desgraçias y mohinas
te suçederan de cada dia en esta
vida de palaçio; las quales no
solamente no podra sufrir vn libre
y generoso coraçon exerçitado en
vna[1147] virtuosa ocupaçion, o
estudio de buenas letras, pero
aun no es de sufrir de alguno que
por pereza, cobdiçia y ambiçion
desee comunicar aquellas
grandeças y sumptuosidades
agenas que de si no le dan algun
otro interes más que[1148] verlas
con admiraçion sin poderlas
poseer. Agora quiero que
consideres la manera que tienen
estos señores para señalar el
salario que te han de dar en cada
vn año por tu seruiçio. El procura
que sea a tienpo y a coyuntura y
con palabras y maneras que sean
tan poco que si puede casi le
siruas de valde, y pasa ansi que
ya despues de algunos dias que
te tiene asegurado y que a todos
tus parientes y amigos y a todo el
pueblo has dado a entender que
le sirues ya, quando ya siente que
te tiene metido en la red y
muestras estar contento y hufano
y que preçias de le seruir, vn dia
señalado, despues de comer
hazete llamar delante de[1149] su
muger y de algunos amigos
iguales a él en edad, auariçia y
condiçion, y estando sentado en
su[1150] silla como en teatro, o
tribunal, limpiandose con vna paja
los dientes hablando con gran
grauedad y seueridad te
comiença a dezir. Bien has
entendido, amigo mio, la buena
voluntad que emos tenido a tu
persona, pues teniendote respeto
te preferimos en nuestra
compañia y seruiçio a otros
muchos que se nos ofreçieron y
pudieramos reçebir. Desto, pues,
has visto por esperiençia la
verdad no es menester agora
referirlo aqui, y ansi por el
semejante tienes visto el
tratamiento, orden y ventajas que
en estos dias has tenido en
nuestra casa y familiaridad.
Agora, pues, resta que tengas
cuenta con nuestra llaneza, poco
fausto, que conforme a la pobreza
de nuestra renta viuimos
recogidos, humildes como
çiudadanos en ordinario comun.
De la mesma manera querria que
subjetasses el entendimiento a
viuir con la mesma humildad, y te
contentasses con aquello poco
que por ti podemos hazer del
salario comun[1151], teniendo
antes respeto al contentamiento
que tu persona terna de seruirme
a mí, por[1152] nuestra buena
condiçion, trato y familiaridad; y
tambien con las merçedes,
prouechos y fabores que andando
el tienpo te podemos hazer. Pero
razon es que se te señale alguna
cantidad de salario y merçed, y
quiero que sea lo que te pareçiere
a ti. Di lo que te pareçera, porque
por poco no te querria desgraçiar.
Esto todo que tu señor te ha dicho
te pareçe tan gran llaneza y fabor
que de valde estás por le seruir, y
ansi enmudeçes vista su
liberalidad; y porque no ve que no
quieres dezir tu pareçer soys
conçertados que lo mande vno de
aquellos que estan alli viejos,
auarientos, semejantes y criados
de la moçedad con él. Luego el
terçero te comiença a encareçer
la buena fortuna que has auido en
alcançar a seruir tan valeroso
señor. El qual por sus meritos y
generosidad todos quantos en la
çiudad ay le desean seruir y tú te
puedes tener por glorioso, pues
todos quedan enuidiosos[1153]
deseando tu mesmo bien;
avnque[1154] los fabores y
merçedes que te puede cada dia
hazer son bastantes para pagar
qualquiera seruiçio sin alguna
comparaçion, porque parezca que
so color y titulo del salario te
pueda[1155] mandar, reçibe agora
çinco mil maravedis en cada vn
año con tu raçion; y no hagas
caudal desto que en señal de
açeptarte por criado te lo da para
vnas calças y vn jubon, con
protestaçion que no parará aqui,
porque más te reçibe a titulo de
merçed, debajo del qual te espera
pagar; y tú confuso sin poder
hablar lo dexas ansi, arrepentido
mil vezes de auer venido a le
seruir, pues pensaste a trueque
de tu liberdad remediar con vn
razonable salario toda tu pobreza
y neçesidades con las quales te
quedas como hasta aqui, y avn te
ves en peligro que te salgan más.
Sy dizes que te den más, no te
aprouechará y dezirte han que
tienes ojo a solo el interes y que
no tienes confiança ni respeto al
señor; y avnque ves claro tu daño
no te atreues[1156] despedir,
porque todos diran que no tienes
sosiego ni eres para seruir vn
señor ni para le sufrir; y si dixeres
el poco salario que te daua,
injuriaste, porque diran que no
tenias meritos para más. Mira
batalla tan miserable y tan infeliz.
¿Que harás? Neçesitaste a mayor
neçesidad; pues por fuerça has
de seruir confiado solo de la vana
esperança de merçed, y la mayor
es la que piensa la que te haze en
se seruir de ti, porque todos estos
señores tienen por el prinçipal
articulo de su fe, que los hizo tan
valerosos su naturaleza, tan altos,
de tanta manifiçençia y
generosidad que el soberano
poder afirman tenersele[1157]
vsurpado. Es tanta su presunçion
que les paraece que para solos
ellos y para sus hijos y
desçendientes es poco lo que en
el mundo ay, y que todos los otros
honbres que en el mundo viben
son estiercol, y que les basta solo
pan que tengan qué comer, y el
sol que los quiera alunbrar, y la
tierra que los quiera tener sobre
sí; y teniendo ellos diez y
veynte[1158] cuentos de renta y
más, no les pareçe vn marauedi:
y si hablan de vn clerigo que tiene
vn beneffiçio que le renta çien
ducados, o mil, santiguanse con
admiraçion: y preguntan a quien
se lo dize si aquel beneffiçio tiene
pie de altar; qué puede valer; y
muy de veras tienen por opinion
que para ellos solos hizo
naturaleza el feysan, el francolin,
el abutarda, gallina y perdiz y
todas las otras aues preçiadas, y
tienen muy por çierto que todo
hombre es indigno de lo comer.
Es, en conclusion, tanta su[1159]
soberuia y ambiçion destos que
tienen por muy aueriguado que
todo honbre les deue a ellos
salario por quererse dellos seruir;
ya que has visto como eligen los
hombres a su proposito, oye
agora cómo se han contigo en el
discurso de tu seruiçio. Todas sus
promesas verás al reues, porque
luego se van hartando y
enhadando de ti, y te van
mostrando con su desgraçia y
desabrimiento que no te quieren
ver, y procuran dartelo a entender
en el mirar y hablar y en todo el
tratamiento de tu persona. Dizen
que veniste tarde al palaçio y que
no sabes seruir y que no ay otro
hombre del palaçio sino el que
vino a él de su niñez. Si tiene la
mujer o hija moça y hermosa, y tú
eres moço y gentil hombre tiene
de ti zelos, y vibe sobre auiso
recatandose de ti: mirate a las
manos, a los ojos, a los pies.
Mandan al mayordomo que te
diga vn dia que no entres en la
sala y comunicaçion del señor, y
otro dia te dize que ya no comas
en la mesa de arriba, que te bajes
abajo al tinelo a comer, y si
porfias por no te injuriar mandan
al paje que no te dé silla en que te
asientes, y tu tragas destas
injurias dos mil por no dar al vulgo
mala opinion de ti. ¡Quanta
mohina y pesadumbre reçibes en
verte ansi tratar! y ves la nobleza
de tu libertad trocada por vn vil
salario y merçed. Verte llamar
cada hora criado y sieruo de tu
señor. ¿Qué sentira tu alma
quando te vieres tratar como a
más vil esclauo que dineros
costó? Que criado y sieruo te han
de llamar; y no te puedes
consolar con otra cosa sino con
que no naçiste esclauo, y que
cada dia te puedes libertar si
quisieres, sino que no lo osas
hazer porque ya elegiste por vida
el seruir, y quando ya el mundo y
tu mal hado te ven ya desabrido y
medio desesperado, o por
manera de piedad, o por te
entretener y prendarte para mayor
dolor, date vn çevo muy delicado,
vna dieta cordial como a honbre
que está para morir, y suçede que
se van los señores vn dia a holgar
a vna huerta, o romeria, mandan
aparejar la litera en que vaya la
señora y auisan a toda la gente
que esté a punto, que han todos
de caualgar; y quando está a
cauallo el señor y la señora está
en la litera, mandate la señora a
gran priesa llamar. ¿Que sentira
tu alma quando llega el paje con
aquel fabor? Estás en tu cauallo
enjaezado a toda gallardia y
cortesania, y luego partes con vna
braua furia por ver tu señora qué
te quiere mandar[1160]. Y ella
haziendose toda pedaços de
delicadeça y magestad te
comiença a dezir: Miçilo, ven acá;
mira que me hagas vna graçia, vn
soberano seruiçio y plazer. Haslo
de hazer con buena voluntad,
porque tengo entendido de tu
buena diligençia y buena
inclinaçion que a ti solo puedo
encomendar vna cosa tan amada
de mi[1161], y de ti solo se puede
fiar. Bien has visto quanto yo amo
a la mi armenica perrica graçiosa;
está la miserable preñada y muy
çercana al parto, por lo qual no
podre sufrir que ella se quede
acá. No la oso fiar[1162] destos
mal comedidos criados que avn
de mi persona no tienen cuydado,
quanto menos se presume que
ternan de la perrilla, avnque
saben que la amo como a mí.
Ruegote mucho que la traigas en
tus manos delante de ti con el
mayor sosiego que el cauallo
pudieres lleuar, porque la cuytada
no reçiba algun daño en su
preñez; y luego el buen Miçilo
reçibe la perrilla encomendada a
su cargo de lleuar, porque casi
lloraua su señora por se la
encomendar, que nunca a las
tales se les ofreçe fabor que suba
de aqui. ¡Qué cosa tan de reyr
será ver vn escudero gallardo,
graçioso, o a vn honbre honrrado
de barba larga y grauedad lleuar
por medio de la çiudad vna
perrica miserable delante de sí,
que le ha de mear y ensuçiar sin
echarlo él de ver! y con todo esto
quando se apean y la señora
demanda su armenica no le
faltará alguna liuiana desgraçia
que te poner por no te agradeçer
el trabajo y afrenta que por ella
pasaste. Dime agora, Miçilo,
¿quál hombre ay en el mundo por
desuenturado y miserable que
sea, que por ningun interes de
riqueza ni tesoro que se le
prometa, ni por gozar de grandes
deleytes que a su imaginaçion se
le antojen auer en la vida del
palaçio, trueque la libertad, bien
tan nunca bastantemente
estimado de los sabios, que dizen
que no ay tesoro con que se
pueda comparar; y viban en estos
trabajos, vanidades, vurlerias y
verdaderas niñerias del mundo en
seruidumbre y captiuerio
miserable? ¡Quál será, si de seso
totalmente no está pribado, y mira
sienpre con ojos de alinde las
cosas, con que todas se las
hazen muy mayores sin
comparaçion? ¿Quién es aquel
que teniendo algun offiçio, o arte
mecanica, avnque sea de vn
pobre çapatero como tú, que no
quiera más con su natural y
propria libertad con que naçio ser
señor y quitar y poner en su casa
conforme a su voluntad, dormir,
comer, trabajar y holgar quando
querra, antes que a voluntad
agena viuir y obedeçer?
Miçilo.—Por çierto, gallo,
conuençido me tienes a tu opinion
por la efficaçia de tu persuadir, y
ansi digo de hoy más que quiero
más vibir en mi pobreza con
libertad que en los trabajos y
miserias del ageno seruiçio viuir
por merçed. Pero pareçe que
aquellos solos seran de escusar,
a los quales la naturaleza puso ya
en edad razonable y no les dio
offiçio en que se ocupar para se
mantener. Estos tales no pareçe
que seran dignos de reprehension
si por no padeçer pobreza y
miseria quieren seruir.
Gallo.—Miçilo, engañaste;
porque esos muchos más son
dignos de reprehension, pues
naturaleza dio a los honbres
muchas artes y offiçios en que se
puedan ocupar, y a ninguno dexó
naturaleza sin habilidad para los
poder aprender; y por su oçio,
negligençia y viçio quedan torpes
y neçios y indignos de gozar del
tesoro inestimable de la libertad;
del qual creo que naturaleza en
pena de su negligençia los privó;
y ansi mereçen ser con vn garrote
vivamente castigados como
menospreçiadores del soberano
bien. Pues mira agora, Miçilo,
sobre todo, el fin que los tales
han. Que quando han consumido
y empleado en esta suez y vil
trato la flor de su edad, ya que
estan casi en la vejez, quando se
les ha de dar algun galardon,
quando pareçe que han de
descansar, que tienen ya los
miembros por el seruiçio contino
inhabiles para el trabajo; quando
tienen obligados a sus señores a
alguna merçed, no les falta vna