032 Performance V3 2015

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ATPL manuals
032 - PERFORMANCE -
AEROPLANES
Issue 3_2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 9
1 - GENERAL 15
1. GENERAL PRESENTATION........................................................................................................15
2. CERTIFICATION SPECIFICATIONS..........................................................................................16
2.1. CS 23...........................................................................................................................................................................16
2.2. CS 25...........................................................................................................................................................................17
3. PERFORMANCE CLASSES.........................................................................................................17
4. OPERATING SPEEDS UNITS......................................................................................................17
4.1. CALIBRATED AIR SPEED (CAS)..............................................................................................................................18
4.2. INDICATED AIR SPEED (IAS)..................................................................................................................................19
4.3. TRUE AIR SPEED (TAS)............................................................................................................................................19
4.4. GROUND SPEED (GS)..............................................................................................................................................20
4.5. MACH NUMBER........................................................................................................................................................21
5. FLIGHT MECHANICS..................................................................................................................22
5.1. STANDARD EQUATIONS..........................................................................................................................................23
5.2. EQUATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER.............................................................................................24
6. FUEL CONSUMPTIONS...............................................................................................................25
6.1. TOTAL FUEL FLOW..................................................................................................................................................25
6.2. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION...........................................................................................................................25
6.3. SPECIFIC RANGE.....................................................................................................................................................25
7. ENVIRONMENTAL ENVELOPE.................................................................................................26
8. ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS........................................................................................27
8.1. GENERAL...................................................................................................................................................................27
8.2. TAKE-OFF MAXIMUM ICING..................................................................................................................................28
8.3. ICE ACCRETIONS.....................................................................................................................................................28
2 - TAKE OFF 31
1. TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION..........................................................................31
1.1. GENERAL...................................................................................................................................................................31
1.2. MINIMUM SPEEDS...................................................................................................................................................32
1.3. OPERATIONAL TAKEOFF SPEEDS........................................................................................................................38
1.4. DISTANCES RELATED TO TAKEOFF.....................................................................................................................45
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1.5. TAKEOFF PATH........................................................................................................................................................52
1.6. EFFECTS OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS AND AEROPLANE CONFIGURATION.......................................55
2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT..............................................................................65

2.1. AVAILABLE TAKEOFF LENGTHS...........................................................................................................................65
2.2. DEPARTURE SECTOR..............................................................................................................................................72
3. CALCULATION OF REGULATED TAKE OFF MASS AND SELECTION OF AEROPLANE

PARAMETERS...................................................................................................................................78
3.1. REGULATED TAKEOFF MASS: RTOM...................................................................................................................78
3.2. SELECTION OF AIRPLANE PARAMETERS............................................................................................................84
3.3. TAKEOFF CHARTS...................................................................................................................................................87
4. TAKEOFF PROCEDURES............................................................................................................90
4.1. FLEXIBLE TAKEOFF................................................................................................................................................90
4.2. DERATED TAKEOFF................................................................................................................................................95
4.3. NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURES...............................................................................................98
3 - CLIMB 101
1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN CLIMB..............................................................................................101
1.1. DEFINITIONS..........................................................................................................................................................101
1.2. CLIMB EQUATIONS................................................................................................................................................102
1.3. CLIMB GRADIENT (ɣ).............................................................................................................................................102
1.4. RATE OF CLIMB (RC).............................................................................................................................................103
1.5. SPEED POLAR.........................................................................................................................................................103
2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS..............................................105

2.1. MASS EFFECT.........................................................................................................................................................105
2.2. ALTITUDE EFFECT................................................................................................................................................106
2.3. TEMPERATURE EFFECT.......................................................................................................................................107
2.4. WIND EFFECT.........................................................................................................................................................108
2.5. BLEED AIR EFFECT...............................................................................................................................................109
3. CLIMB SPEEDS...........................................................................................................................109
3.1. CLIMB MANAGEMENT...........................................................................................................................................109
3.2. CLIMB AT GIVEN IAS/MACH LAW........................................................................................................................110
4. CLIMB IN OPERATIONS...........................................................................................................111
4.1. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM GRADIENT........................................................................................................................111
4.2. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM RATE..................................................................................................................................112
4.3. CLIMB AT MINIMUM COST...................................................................................................................................112
4.4. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM SPEED...............................................................................................................................113
4.5. FCOM CLIMB TABLE.............................................................................................................................................113
5. CABIN CLIMB.............................................................................................................................114
4 - CRUISE 117
1. CRUISE ALL ENGINES OPERATING.......................................................................................117
1.1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT.............................................................................................117
1.2. SPECIFIC RANGE...................................................................................................................................................122
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1.3. SPEED OPTIMISATION..........................................................................................................................................123
1.4. ALTITUDE OPTIMISATION....................................................................................................................................131
1.5. MAXIMUM CRUISE THRUST LIMITED ALTITUDE............................................................................................135
1.6. EN-ROUTE MANOEUVRE LIMITS.........................................................................................................................139
1.7. CRUISE OPTIMISATION.........................................................................................................................................144
1.8. CRUISE TABLES......................................................................................................................................................145
2. EN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE...............................................................................147

2.1. EN-ROUTE FAILURE CASES.................................................................................................................................147
2.2. OPERATING REGULATIONS.................................................................................................................................148
2.3. DRIFT DOWN FLIGHT PATHS..............................................................................................................................151
2.4. EN-ROUTE OBSTACLE CLEARANCE...................................................................................................................154
2.5. MAXIMUM TAKEOFF MASS DUE TO EN-ROUTE ENGINE FAILURE..............................................................159
2.6. ETOPS FLIGHT.......................................................................................................................................................159
2.7. IN-FLIGHT CABIN PRESSURISATION FAILURE.................................................................................................164
5 - DESCENT / HOLDING 167

1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN DESCENT........................................................................................167
1.1. DEFINITIONS..........................................................................................................................................................167
1.2. DESCENT EQUATIONS..........................................................................................................................................168
1.3. DESCENT GRADIENT (ɣ).......................................................................................................................................169
1.4. RATE OF DESCENT (RD).......................................................................................................................................169
1.5. SPEED POLAR.........................................................................................................................................................170
2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS..............................................171

2.1. MASS EFFECT.........................................................................................................................................................171
2.2. ALTITUDE EFFECT................................................................................................................................................173
2.3. TEMPERATURE EFFECT.......................................................................................................................................173
2.4. WIND EFFECT.........................................................................................................................................................174
2.5. SPOILERS / AIRBRAKES EFFECT.........................................................................................................................174
2.6. THRUST EFFECT....................................................................................................................................................175
2.7. BLEED AIR EFFECT...............................................................................................................................................175
3. DESCENT SPEEDS.....................................................................................................................175
3.1. THRUST SETTING...................................................................................................................................................175
3.2. DESCENT AT GIVEN MACH/IAS LAW..................................................................................................................176
3.3. GRADIENT AND RATE OF DESCENT EVOLUTION DURING DESCENT.........................................................177
4. DESCENT IN OPERATIONS......................................................................................................178
4.1. DESCENT AT MINIMUM GRADIENT....................................................................................................................178
4.2. DESCENT AT MINIMUM RATE..............................................................................................................................179
4.3. DESCENT AT MINIMUM COST.............................................................................................................................179
4.4. EMERGENCY DESCENT.........................................................................................................................................179
4.5. FCOM DESCENT TABLES......................................................................................................................................180
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5. CABIN DESCENT.......................................................................................................................180
6. HOLDING....................................................................................................................................181
6.1. HOLDING SPEED...................................................................................................................................................181
6.2. HOLDING IN OPERATION.....................................................................................................................................183
6.3. FCOM HOLDING TABLES......................................................................................................................................183
7. SUMMARY OF POLAR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS FOR TURBOJETS.............................184
6 - APPROACH AND LANDING 185

1. MINIMUM AND OPERATIONAL SPEEDS..............................................................................185
1.1. MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED DURING APPROACH AND LANDING VMCL...................................................185
1.2. REFERENCE SPEED: VREF...................................................................................................................................187
1.3. LOWEST SELECTABLE SPEED: VLS.....................................................................................................................188
1.4. FINAL APPROACH SPEED: VAPP........................................................................................................................188
2. ACTUAL LANDING DISTANCE...............................................................................................189

3. GO-AROUND PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS.................................................................190
3.1. APPROACH CLIMB.................................................................................................................................................191
3.2. LANDING CLIMB....................................................................................................................................................192
4. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS...................................................................193

4.1. TEMPERATURE.......................................................................................................................................................193
4.2. PRESSURE ALTITUDE............................................................................................................................................193
4.3. WIND........................................................................................................................................................................194
4.4. RUNWAY SLOPE.....................................................................................................................................................194
4.5. RUNWAY CONDITIONS..........................................................................................................................................195
4.6. BRAKE TEMPERATURE.........................................................................................................................................195
4.7. ENGINE AIR BLEED...............................................................................................................................................195
4.8. FLAP SETTING........................................................................................................................................................195
5. LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE.........................................................................................196

6. REGULATED LANDING MASS CALCULATION...................................................................198
6.1. REGULATED LANDING MASS (RLM)...................................................................................................................198
6.2. MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL LANDING MASS (MSLM)..........................................................................................198
6.3. RUNWAY LENGTH LIMITED LANDING MASS....................................................................................................198
6.4. CLIMB LIMITED LANDING MASS.........................................................................................................................203
7. IN-FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS....................................................................................................204
7.1. IN-FLIGHT FAILURE..............................................................................................................................................204
7.2. OVERWEIGHT LANDING REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................................204
7.3. FUEL JETTISONING CONDITIONS......................................................................................................................205
8. APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES..........................................................................207

8.1. NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE.......................................................................................................................207
8.2. GO-AROUND PROCEDURE...................................................................................................................................207
8.3. STEEP APPROACH PROCEDURE.........................................................................................................................208
8.4. SHORT LANDING OPERATIONS...........................................................................................................................209
7 - PERFORMANCE CLASS B AEROPLANES 213
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1. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................213
1.1. CERTIFICATION REGULATION............................................................................................................................213
1.2. OPERATION REGULATION...................................................................................................................................213
2. TAKE-OFF...................................................................................................................................214
2.1. TAKE-OFF DISTANCE (TOD)................................................................................................................................214
2.2. TAKE-OFF RELATED SPEEDS..............................................................................................................................215
2.3. AVAILABLE DISTANCES FOR TAKE-OFF............................................................................................................216
2.4. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS.................................................................................................216
2.5. TAKE-OFF FLIGHT PATH......................................................................................................................................217
2.6. OBSTACLE CLEARANCE AFTER TAKE-OFF (MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT)....................................................218
2.7. CALCULATION OF THE MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF MASS......................................................................................220
3. EN ROUTE LIMITATIONS.........................................................................................................220
3.1. SINGLE-ENGINE AEROPLANES............................................................................................................................220
3.2. MULTI-ENGINE AEROPLANES.............................................................................................................................221
4. LANDING....................................................................................................................................221
4.1. REFERENCE SPEED...............................................................................................................................................221
4.2. LANDING DISTANCE..............................................................................................................................................221
4.3. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS.................................................................................................222
4.4. PERFORMANCE REQUIRED IN CASE OF GO-AROUND...................................................................................223
5. FLIGHT MECHANICS OF PISTON ENGINE AIRCRAFT........................................................223

5.1. GENERAL INFORMATION.....................................................................................................................................223
5.2. POWER CURVES IN CLIMB...................................................................................................................................226
5.3. POWER CURVES IN CRUISE FLIGHT..................................................................................................................227
5.4. POWER CURVES IN DESCENT..............................................................................................................................229
5.5. CHARACTERISTIC POINTS ON THE POLAR CURVE.........................................................................................230
Abbreviations meaning 233
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INTRODUCTION
To fully appreciate and understand subject 032, the applicant will benefit from background knowledge in
subject 080 Principle of flight.
Although the terms "weight" and "aircraft" are generally those systematically used in Manuals or colloquial
language, this book uses the regulatory terms "mass" and "aeroplane":
• The mass of an object measures the quantity of matter this object is made of, while the weight is the
measure of mass interaction with gravitational field; the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), the one of
weight is the Newton (N).
• An aeroplane is an engine-driven fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air, that is supported in flight by
the dynamic reaction of the air against its wing, while an aircraft is a machine that can derive
support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air (aeroplane, helicopter, gyroplane etc.).
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1- GENERAL
1
GENERAL PRESENTATION 15
CERTIFICATION SPECIFICATIONS 16
PERFORMANCE CLASSES 17
OPERATING SPEEDS UNITS 17
FLIGHT MECHANICS 22
FUEL CONSUMPTIONS 25
ENVIRONMENTAL ENVELOPE 26
ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS 27
1. GENERAL PRESENTATION
Public transport aircraft operation presents two aspects, which may sometimes appear as
antinomic: safety and cost saving.
Safety is an essential objective of air transport. One of the means enabling to guarantee a
minimum level of safety is the implementation of regulations. Some of these regulations will
concern the aircraft from its design and manufacturing and thus will be intended for aircraft
manufacturer use: these are the certification regulations (Appendix 8 of the ICAO); others will
check the use of the aircraft downstream and will be intended for operator use: these are the
operational regulations (Appendix 6 of ICAO).
In Europe, certification regulations are the responsibility of the European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA) and depend on the aircraft category. Both certification specifications CS 23 and CS 25
apply to the aircraft we are interested in. At the end of ground and flight tests, the manufacturer
has to publish the performance of its aircraft in the Airplane Flight Manual, each page of which
has to be certified by the Authority, which guarantees the compliance with these specifications.
As for the European operational regulations, they are proposed in the EASA AIR-OPS. The
operator has to publish an Operations Manual, containing all the information and instructions
necessary for the operation staff to ensure their tasks. Some parts of the Operating Manual may
require an approval from the Authority.
Once safety has been ensured within the regulatory framework, the operator can develop the
economic aspect through the optimisation of flights: choice of altitudes and flight speeds, choice
of routes, etc.
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GENERAL
2. CERTIFICATION SPECIFICATIONS
The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is the centrepiece of the European Union's strategy
for aviation safety. Its mission is to promote the highest common standards of safety and
environmental protection in civil aviation. While national authorities continue to carry out the
majority of operational tasks – such as certification of individual aircraft or licensing of pilots –
the Agency ensures common safety and environmental standards at the European level.
On 28 September 2003, the Agency took over responsibility for the airworthiness and
environmental certification of all aeronautical products, parts, and appliances designed,
manufactured, maintained or used by persons under the regulatory oversight of EU Member
States.
2.1. CS 23
"EASA CS-23" : certification specifications for normal, utility, aerobatic and commuter category
aeroplanes, including airworthiness codes and acceptable means of compliance.
CS 23.1 Applicability
• (a) This airworthiness code is applicable to –
• (1) Aeroplanes in the normal, utility and aerobatic categories that
have a seating configuration, excluding the pilot seat(s), of nine or
fewer and a maximum certificated take-off weight of 5670 kg (12
500 lb) or less; and
• (2) Propeller-driven twin-engined aeroplanes in the commuter
category that have a seating configuration, excluding the pilot
seat(s), of nineteen or fewer and a maximum certificated take-off
weight of 8618 kg (19 000 lb) or less.
CS 23.3 Aeroplane categories
• (a) The normal category is limited to non-aerobatic operations. Non-
aerobatic operations include
• (1) Any manoeuvre incident to normal flying;
• (2) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
• (3) Lazy eights, chandelles and steep turns or similar manoeuvres,
in which the angle of bank is not more than 60°.
• (b) The utility category is limited to any of the operations covered
under sub-paragraph (a); plus
• (1) Spins (if approved for the particular type of aeroplane); and
• (2) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns, or similar manoeuvres
in which the angle of bank is more than 60° but not more than 90°.
• (c) The aerobatic category is without restrictions, other than those
shown to be necessary as a result of required flight tests.
• (d) Commuter category operation is limited to any manoeuvre incident
to normal flying, stalls (except whip stalls) and steep turns in which the
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GENERAL
angle of bank is not more than 60°.

• (e) Except for commuter category, aeroplanes may be certificated in
more than one category if the requirements of each requested category
are met.
2.2. CS 25
"EASA CS-25" : certification specifications for large aeroplanes, including airworthiness codesand
acceptable means of compliance. It concerns turbine powered large aeroplanes.
3. PERFORMANCE CLASSES
A definition of performance Classes is given in AIR-OPS
CAT.POL.A-100 + Annex 1 Definitions Applicability
• (90) "Performance class A aeroplanes" means multi-engined aeroplanes powered by turbo-
propeller engines with an MOPSC of more than nine or a maximum take-off mass
exceeding 5 700 kg, and all multi-engined turbo-jet powered aeroplanes.
• (91) "Performance class B aeroplanes" means aeroplanes powered by propeller engines
with a MOPSC of more than nine or less and a maximum take-off mass of 5 700 kg or less.
• (92) "Performance class C aeroplanes" means aeroplanes powered by reciprocating engines
with an MOPSC of more than nine or a maximum take-off mass exceeding 5 700 kg.
Summary
Performance Class A Multi-engined turbojet
Multi-engined turboprop pax or MTOM
Performance Class B Propeller aeroplanes pax and MTOM
Performance Class C Piston-engined pax or MTOM
The sections 2 to 6 of this book will deal with performance class A aeroplanes certified under
CS25, while section 7 will be dedicated to performance class B aeroplanes.
4. OPERATING SPEEDS UNITS
Different speed types are used to operate an aircraft. Some of them enable the crew to manage the
flight while maintaining some margins from critical areas, whereas others are mainly used for
navigational and performance optimization purposes. This is why the following sections propose a
review of the different speed types that are used in aeronautics.
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GENERAL
4.1. CALIBRATED AIR SPEED (CAS)

The Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) is obtained from the difference between the total pressure ( )
and the static pressure ( ). This difference is called dynamic pressure ( ).
As the dynamic pressure cannot be measured directly, it is obtained thanks to two probes:
To obtain the total pressure , airflow is stopped by means of a forward facing tube, called the
pitot tube, which measures the impact pressure. This pressure measurement accounts for the
ambient pressure (static aspect) at the given flight altitude plus the aircraft motion (dynamic
aspect).
The static pressure is measured by means of a series of symmetrical static probes
perpendicular to the airflow. This measurement represents the ambient pressure at the given flight
altitude (static aspect).
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GENERAL
Flying at a constant CAS during a climb phase enables the aerodynamic effect to remain the same
as at sea level and, consequently, to eliminate speed variations.
4.2. INDICATED AIR SPEED (IAS)

The Indicated Air Speed (IAS) is the speed indicated by the airspeed indicator. Whatever the flight
conditions are, if the pressure measurement were accurate, then the IAS should ideally be equal to
the CAS. Nevertheless, depending on the aircraft angle of attack, the flaps configuration, the
ground proximity (ground effect or not), the wind direction and other influent parameters, some
measurement errors are introduced, mainly on the static pressure. This leads to a small difference
between the CAS and the IAS values. This difference is called instrumental correction or antenna
error ( ).
4.3. TRUE AIR SPEED (TAS)

An aircraft in flight moves in an air mass, which is itself in motion compared to the earth. The
True Air Speed (TAS) represents the aircraft speed in a moving reference system linked to this air
mass, or simply the aircraft speed in the airflow. It can be obtained from the CAS, using altitude
and temperature corrections.
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GENERAL
Effect of altitude: at given CAS when

Effect of temperature: at given CAS when
(order by size : )
4.4. GROUND SPEED (GS)

The ground speed (GS) represents the aircraft speed in a fixed ground reference system. It is equal
to the TAS corrected for the wind component.
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GENERAL
4.5. MACH NUMBER

The Mach Number is a comparison between the TAS and the speed of sound:
where represents the speed of sound at the flight altitude.

The speed of sound is solely dependent on temperature:
• at standard sea level ;
• above the tropopause
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GENERAL
Effect of altitude in the at given Mach number when

troposphere:
Effect of altitude in the at given Mach number when
stratosphere :
Effect of temperature: at given Mach number when
(order by size : )
5. FLIGHT MECHANICS
For a flight at constant speed in level flight, the drag force must balance the engine thrust.
As a general rule, when engine thrust is higher than drag, the aircraft can use this excess thrust to
accelerate and/or climb. On the other hand, when the thrust is insufficient to compensate for drag,
the aircraft is forced to decelerate and/or descend.
In flight, four forces are applied to an aircraft : Thrust, drag, lift and weight.
If the aircraft is in steady level flight, the following balance is obtained:
• The required thrust for steady level flight (Tr) is equal to drag (
),
• Weight (mg) is equal to lift ( ).
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GENERAL
5.1. STANDARD EQUATIONS

Lift equation:
With:
• aeroplane mass
• gravitational acceleration
• air density
• wing reference area
• lift coefficient
The lift coefficient, , is a function of the angle of attack ( ), the Mach number ( ), and the
aircraft configuration.
Drag equation:
With:
• required thrust
• drag coefficient
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GENERAL
The engines thrust must balance the aeroplane drag in order to fly at a constant level and speed. As
a result, drag can be considered as the thrust required to maintain a constant flight level and a
constant speed.
The drag coefficient, , is a function of the angle of attack ( ), the Mach number ( ), and the
aircraft configuration.
Power equation:
With:
Generally speaking,
5.2. EQUATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER

Lift and drag equations may be expressed with the Mach number . As a result, the equations are:
With
6. FUEL CONSUMPTIONS
6.1. TOTAL FUEL FLOW

Total fuel flow . It is expressed in .
6.2. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

The specific fuel consumption is the total fuel flow flat rated to thrust unit. It is expressed in
.
where is the available thrust, supplied by the engines.
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GENERAL
6.3. SPECIFIC RANGE

The Specific Range represents the distance covered by fuel unit. It is expressed in or
.
And, considering air distance,
7. ENVIRONMENTAL ENVELOPE
CS 25.1527 Ambient air temperature and operating altitude

The extremes of the ambient air temperature and operating altitude for which
operation is allowed, as limited by flight, structural, powerplant, functional, or
equipment characteristics, must be established.
The result of this determination is the so-called environmental envelope, which features the
pressure altitude and temperature limits. Inside this envelope, the aircraft's performance has been
established and the aircraft systems have met certification requirements.
Example
The following figure is an example of an A320 environmental envelope, published in the Flight
Crew Operating Manual (FCOM).
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GENERAL
Environmental envelope
8. ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS
8.1. GENERAL
CS 25 - Appendix C regulations describe the atmospheric characteristics to be taken into account
for aeroplanes certification.
The maximum intensity of atmospheric icing conditions is defined by maximum values of the 3
following variables:
• the cloud liquid water content, function of the cloud horizontal extent;
• the mean effective diameter of the cloud droplets;
• the ambient air temperature.
These three parameters are correlated, and their respective values, determined after measuring
campaigns, depend on two considered conditions:
• continuous maximum atmospheric icing conditions (stratiform clouds), and
• intermittent maximum atmospheric icing conditions (cumuliform clouds).
For each case, the limiting icing envelope in term of altitude and temperature is given below.
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GENERAL
8.2. TAKE-OFF MAXIMUM ICING

The maximum intensity of atmospheric icing conditions for takeoff is defined by:
• the cloud liquid water content of ,
• the mean effective diameter of the cloud droplets of 20 microns, and
• the ambient air temperature at ground level of .
The takeoff maximum icing conditions extend from ground level to a height of 1500 ft above the
level of the takeoff surface.
8.3. ICE ACCRETIONS

The most critical ice accretion in terms of aeroplane performance and handling qualities for each
flight phase must be used to show compliance with the applicable aeroplane performance and
handling requirements in icing conditions.
The ice accretions for each flight phase is the most critical ice accretion on unprotected surfaces,
and any ice accretion on the protected surfaces appropriate to normal ice protection system
operation:
• take-off ice: between lift-off and 400 ft above the take-off surface, assuming accretion
starts at lift-off in the take-off maximum icing conditions;
• final take-off ice: between 400 ft and either 1500 ft above the take-off surface, or the
height at which the transition from the takeoff to the en route configuration is completed
and is reached, whichever is higher, assuming ice accretion starts at lift-off in the
take-off maximum icing conditions;
• en-route ice: during the en-route phase;
• holding ice: during the holding flight phase;
• approach ice: following exit from the holding flight phase and transition to the most critical
approach configuration;
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GENERAL
• landing ice: following exit from the approach flight phase and transition to the final landing
configuration.
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2- TAKE OFF
2
TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION 31
INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT 65
CALCULATION OF REGULATED TAKE OFF MASS AND SELECTION OF AEROPLANE PARAMETERS 78
TAKEOFF PROCEDURES 90
1. TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION
1.1. GENERAL
During the takeoff phase, the pilot must achieve the sufficient speed and angle of attack conditions
to balance the aircraft's lift and weight forces.
At the end of the ground acceleration phase, the pilot pulls the stick to start the rotation. During
this phase, acceleration is maintained and the angle of attack is increased in order to achieve a
higher lift. The ground reactions progressively decrease until lift off.
The possibility of an engine failure during takeoff should always be considered, and the crew
must be provided with the appropriate means of deciding on the safest procedure in the event of
such a failure.
For EASA certified aircraft, failure of the most critical engine must be considered. "Critical
engine" means the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or handling
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TAKE OFF
qualities of an aircraft.
1.2. MINIMUM SPEEDS

The minimum speeds are measured during flight test : they are representative of the handling
quality of the aeroplane, and crucial for performance. Four speeds are determined:
• the stall speed ;
• two minimum control speeds in case of sudden failure of critical engine: on ground (
), and in flight ( ); and
• the minimum take-off speed .
1.2.1.Stall Speeds
Air velocity over the wing increases with the angle of attack, so that air pressure decreases and the
lift coefficient increases.
Angle of Attack Air velocity over the wing Air pressure and Lift coefficient
Therefore, the lift coefficient increases with the angle of attack. Flying at a constant level, this lift
coefficient increase implies a decrease of the required speed. Indeed, the lift has to balance the
aircraft weight, which can be considered as constant at a given time.
The speed cannot decrease beyond a minimum value. Above a certain angle of attack, the airflow
starts to separate from the airfoil. The lift coefficient increases up to a maximum lift coefficient (
), and suddenly decreases when the angle of attack is increased above a certain value.
This phenomenon is called a stall and two speeds can be identified:
• which corresponds to the maximum lift coefficient (i.e. just before the lift starts
decreasing); at that moment, the load factor is still equal to one (CS 25 reference stall
speed);
• which corresponds to the conventional stall (i.e. when the lift suddenly collapses); at
that moment, the load factor is always less than one (FAR 25 reference stall speed).
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CS 25.103 Stall speed

(a) The reference stall speed is a calibrated airspeed defined by the
applicant. may not
be less than a 1 g stall speed. is expressed as:
Where:
• = [speed of maximum lift coefficient, i.e. ];
• = load factor normal to the flight path at ...
CS 25.201 Stall demonstration

• (a) Stalls must be shown in straight flight and in 30° banked turns with:
• power off; and
• the power necessary to maintain level flight at 1.5 (where
corresponds to the reference stall speed at maximum landing weight
with flaps in the approach position and the landing gear retracted.
• (b) In each condition required by sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, it
must be possible to meet the applicable requirements of CS 25.203
[stall characteristics] with :
• flaps, landing gear and deceleration devices in any likely
combination of positions approved for operation;
• representative weights within the range for which certification is
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requested;
• the most adverse centre of gravity for recovery;
• the aeroplane trimmed for straight flight at a speed selected by the
applicant, but not less than 1.13 and not greater than 1.3 .
Change 15 of JAR 25 (October 2000) introduced this notion of reference stall speed , which
is the same as . In the previous version of JAR 25, a direct relationship between and
was provided, in order to ensure the continuity between aircraft models certified at , and
aeroplane models certified at . This relationship between and is:
Example
As an example (§ Operational Takeoff Speeds):
• For aeroplane models certified at (A300/A310),
• For aeroplane models certified at (Fly-By-Wire airplane),
Fundamental
In Airbus operational documentation, as well as in this brochure, is referred to as .
Example : A320
A320
At minimum weight (37 t) in clean configuration:

At maximum weight (77 t) in clean configuration:
At maximum landing weight (64.5 t), in landing configuration (Full + gear down):
CS 25.207 Stall warning
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• (c) When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding (1

kt/sec), stall warning must begin, in each normal configuration, at a
speed, VSW, exceeding the speed at which the stall is identified (...) by
not less than 9.3 km/h (5 kt) or 5% CAS, whichever is greater. Once
initiated, stall warning must continue until the angle of attack is reduced
to approximately that at which stall warning began.
• (d) In addition to the requirement of subparagraph (c) of this paragraph,
when the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding (1 kt/sec), in
straight flight with engines idling (...), VSW, in each normal
configuration, must exceed VSR by not less than 5.6 km/h (3 kt) or 3%
CAS, whichever is greater.
1.2.2.Minimum Control Speed on the Ground: VMCG
CS 25.149 Minimum control speed

• (e) , the minimum control speed on the ground, is the calibrated
airspeed during the takeoff run, at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane using the rudder control alone (without the use of nose-wheel
steering),as limited by 667 N of force (150 lbf), and the lateral control
to the extent of keeping the wings level to enable the take-off to be
safely continued using normal piloting skill.
In the calculation of , assuming that the path of the aeroplane accelerating
with all engines operating is along the centreline of the runway, its path from
the point at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which
recovery to a direction parallel to the centreline is completed, may not deviate
more than 9.1 m (30 ft) laterally from the centreline at any point.
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must be established, with:

• The aeroplane in each take-off configuration or, at the option of the
applicant, in the most critical take-off configuration;
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engines;
• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off; and
• The most unfavourable weight in the range of take-off weights.
1.2.3.Minimum Control Speed: VMC

The official appellation of the minimum control speed is , but the acronym of
(Minimum Control speed, Airborne) is often used.

• (b) VMC is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is
suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the
aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight
with an angle of bank of not more than 5°.
• (c)VMC may not exceed 1.13 with:
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines;
• The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• The aeroplane trimmed for take-off;
• The maximum sea-level take-off weight (or any lesser weight
necessary to show );
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• The aeroplane in the most critical take-off configuration existing

along the flight path after the aeroplane becomes airborne, except
with the landing gear retracted;
• The aeroplane airborne and the ground effect negligible; and
• If applicable, the propeller of the inoperative engine
• windmilling
• in the most probable position for the specific design of the
propeller control; or
• feathered, if the aeroplane has an automatic feathering device
acceptable (...).
• (d) The rudder forces required to maintain control at may not
exceed 667 N (150 lbf) nor may it be necessary to reduce power or
thrust of the operative engines. During recovery, the aeroplane may not
assume any dangerous attitude or require exceptional piloting skill,
alertness, or strength to prevent a heading change of more than 20°.
1.2.4.Minimum Unstick Speed: VMU
CS 25.107 Take-off speeds

• (d) is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplane can
safely lift off the ground, and continue the take-off. speeds must
be selected by the applicant throughout the range of thrust-to-weight
ratios to be certificated. (...)
During the flight test demonstration, at a low speed (80 - 100 kt), the pilot pulls the control stick to
the limit of the aerodynamic efficiency of the control surfaces. The aeroplane accomplishes a slow
rotation to an angle of attack at which the maximum lift coefficient is reached, or, for
geometrically-limited aircraft, until the tail strikes the runway (the tail is protected by a dragging
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device). Afterwards, the pitch is maintained until lift-off.
Two minimum unstick speeds must be determined and validated by flight tests:
• with all engines operating :
• with one engine inoperative :
In the one-engine inoperative case, must ensure a safe lateral control to prevent the
engine from striking the ground.
It appears that :
1.3. OPERATIONAL TAKEOFF SPEEDS

The operational takeoff speeds are defined with safety margin for minimum speeds.
1.3.1.Decision Speed: V1
is the maximum speed at which the crew can decide to reject the takeoff, and is ensured to stop
the aeroplane within the limits of the runway.
CS 25.107
• (a) must be established in relation to as follows:
• (1) is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is
assumed to fail. must be selected by the applicant, but may not
be less than .
• (2) , in terms of calibrated airspeed, is selected by the applicant;
however, may not be less than plus the speed gained with
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the critical engine inoperative during the time interval between the
instant at which the critical engine is failed, and the instant at which
the pilot recognises and reacts to the engine failure, as indicated by
the pilot's initiation of the first action (e.g. applying brakes,
reducing thrust, deploying speed brakes) to stop the aeroplane
during accelerate-stop tests.
can be selected by the applicant, assuming that an engine failure has occurred at . The time
which is considered between the critical engine failure at and the pilot recognition at , is 1
second.
Thus:
This speed is entered by the crew in the Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU) during
the flight preparation, and is represented by a "1" on the speed scale of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) during takeoff acceleration.
1.3.2.Rotation Speed VR
is the speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate rate of about 3° per
second.
CS 25.107 Takeoff Speeds

• (e) , in terms of calibrated air speed, (...) may not be less than:
• ;
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• 105% of ;
• The speed that allows reaching before reaching a height of 11 m
(35 ft) above the take-off surface; or
• A speed that, if the aeroplane is rotated at its maximum practicable
rate, will result in a [satisfactory] .
is entered in the MCDU by the crew during the flight preparation.
1.3.3.Lift Off Speed: VLOF

• (f) VLOF is the calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane first
becomes airborne.
Therefore, it is the speed at which the lift overcomes the weight.

• (e) (...) VLOF [must] not [be] less than 110% of VMU in the all-
engines-operating condition and 105% of VMU determined at the
thrust-to-weight ratio corresponding to the one-engine-inoperative
condition.
The regulations consider the particular case of aircraft which are geometrically-limited. An
aeroplane is said to be geometrically-limited, when, at its maximum angle of attack (the tail of the
aeroplane hits the ground while the main landing gear is still on ground), the maximum lift
coefficient is not reached. In these conditions, the margins can be reduced, as follows:

• (e) (...) if the VMU attitude is limited by the geometry of the aeroplane
(i.e., tail contact with the runway), 108% of VMU in the all-engines
operating condition and 104% of VMU determined at the thrust-to-
weight ratio corresponding to the one engine-inoperative condition.
Airbus aircraft, as most commercial airplanes, are generally geometrically limited.
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Geometric limitation:
•
•
Aerodynamic limitation:
•
•
1.3.4.Takeoff Climb Speed: V2

V2 is the minimum climb speed that must be reached at a height of 35 feet above the runway
surface, in case of an engine failure.

• (b) V2min, in terms of calibrated airspeed, may not be less than:
• 1.13 VSR for two-engined and three-engined turbo-propeller
powered aeroplanes (...);
• 1.08 VSR for turbo-propeller powered aeroplanes with more than
three engines (...);
• 1.10 times VMC
• (c) V2, in terms of calibrated airspeed, must be selected by the
applicant to provide at least the gradient of climb required by CS
25.121(b) but may not be less than:
• V2min; and
• VR plus the speed increment attained before reaching a height of 11
m (35 ft) above the take-off surface; and
• A speed that provides manoeuvring capability specified in CS
25.143 (h).
CS 25.143
• (h) The manoeuvring capabilities in a constant speed coordinated turn
at forward centre of gravity, as specified in the following table, must be
free of stall warning or other characteristics that might interfere with
normal manoeuvring.
( ) A combination of weight, altitude and temperature (WAT) such that

the thrust or power setting produces the minimum climb gradient
specified in CS 25.121 for the flight condition.
( ) Airspeed approved for all-engines operating initial climb.
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( ) That thrust or power setting which, in the event of failure of the

critical engine and without any crew action to adjust the thrust or power
of the remaining engines, would result in the thrust or power specified
for the take-off condition at V2, or any lesser thrust or power setting
that is used for all engines-operating initial climb procedures.
Thus: where V2min = greater of [1.10 VMC; 1.13 VSR]

VSR depends on the aeroplane mass, unlike VMC (see below).
It appears that:
for light weights → V2min = 1.1 VMC
for medium and heavy weights → V2min = 1.13 VSR (1.2 VS)
This speed V2 must be entered by the crew during flight preparation, and is represented by a
magenta triangle on the speed scale.
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1.3.5.Takeoff Speeds Limits

1.3.5.1.Maximum Brake Energy Speed:VMBE
When the takeoff is aborted, brakes must absorb and dissipate the heat corresponding to the
aircraft's kinetic energy at the decision point ( ).
CS 25.109 Accelerate-stop Distance

• (i) A flight test demonstration of the maximum brake kinetic energy
accelerate-stop distance must be conducted with no more than 10% of
the allowable brake wear range remaining on each of the aeroplane
wheel brakes.
Brakes have a maximum absorption capacity, known as maximum brake energy. For certification
purposes, this absorption capacity must be demonstrated with worn brakes. As a result, the speed
at which a full stop can be achieved for a given takeoff weight is limited to a maximum value
(VMBE).
Thus, for a given takeoff weight:
1.3.5.2.Maximum Tyre Speed: VTYRE

The tyre manufacturer specifies the maximum ground speed that can be reached, in order to limit
the centrifugal forces and the heat elevation that may damage the tyre structure.
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Thus:
For almost all Airbus aircraft models, VTYRE is equal to 195 knots (Ground Speed).
1.3.6.Speed Summary
The following figure illustrates the relationships and the regulatory margins between the certified
speeds (VSR, VMCG, VMC, VMU, VMBE, VTYRE), and the takeoff operating speeds (V1, VR,
VLOF, V2).
1.4. DISTANCES RELATED TO TAKEOFF

Three different distances are related to takeoff. They are defined in
• CS 25.113: Take Off Distance and Take Off Run
• CS 25.109: Accelerate-Stop Distance
1.4.1.Takeoff Distance: TOD

For given operational conditions (temperature, pressure altitude, weight, etc.):
a) The takeoff distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:
• = Distance covered from the start of the takeoff to a point at which the
aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming that the critical engine is made
inoperative at VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of the takeoff,
• = 115% of the distance covered from the start of the takeoff to a point at
which the aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, with all engines operating.
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b) The takeoff distance on a wet runway is the greater of the following values:
• = Takeoff distance on a dry runway (see above),
• = Distance covered from the start of the takeoff to a point at which the
aircraft is 15 feet above the takeoff surface, ensuring the V2 speed to be achieved before
the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming that the critical engine is made
inoperative at VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of the takeoff.
1.4.2.Takeoff Run: TOR

1.4.2.1.Runway with Clearway
a) The takeoff run on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:
• = Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the
point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the
takeoff surface, assuming that the critical engine is made inoperative at VEF and remains
inoperative for the rest of the takeoff,
• = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant
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between the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, with all engines operating.
b) The takeoff run on a wet runway is the greater of the following values:
• = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is
15ft above the takeoff surface, ensuring the V2 speed to be achieved before the airplane is
35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming that the critical engine is made inoperative at
VEF and remains inoperative for the rest of the takeoff. It is equal to TOD N-1 wet .
• = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant
between the point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 ft
above the takeoff surface, with all engines operating.
1.4.2.2.Runway without Clearway

The takeoff run is equal to the takeoff distance, whatever the takeoff surface (dry or wet).
1.4.2.3.Clearway Influence on a Wet Runway
With a wet runway, the takeoff run with one engine-out is always equal to the takeoff distance
with one engine-out (i.e. from brake release to 15 feet). Therefore, a clearway does not give any
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performance benefit on a wet runway, as the TOR is always more limiting (TORA less than
TODA).
1.4.3.Accelerate-Stop Distance: ASD

a) The accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following values:
• = Sum of the distances necessary to
• Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,
• Accelerate from VEF to V1 assuming the critical engine fails at VEF and the pilot
takes the first action to reject the takeoff at V1
• Come to a full stop,
• Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed.
• = Sum of the distances necessary to:
• Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1, assuming the pilot takes the
first action to reject the takeoff at V1
• With all engines still operating come to a full stop
• Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed
b) The accelerate-stop distance on a wet runway is the greater of the following values:
•
• = same definition as except the runway is wet
• = same definition as dry except the runway is wet
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The accelerate-stop distances must be determined with all the aeroplane wheel brake assemblies at
the fully worn limit of their allowable wear range.
Means other than wheel brakes may be used to determine the accelerate-stop distance if that
means:
• is safe and reliable;
• is used so that consistent results can be expected under normal operating conditions; and
• is such that exceptional skill is not required to control the aeroplane.
The effects of available reverse thrust:
• must not be included as an additional means of deceleration when determining the
accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway; and
• may be included as an additional means of deceleration using recommended reverse thrust
procedures when determining the accelerate-stop distance on a wet runway.
Note
The landing gear must remain extended throughout the accelerate-stop distance.
1.4.4.Regulatory Background
The different Airbus types have been certified at different times and comply with different
certification rules. A major change occurred when the FAA published an amendment to FAR 25,
known as "Amendment 25-42" (JAR-25 Change 14). This amendment, which became effective on
March 1, 1978, revised the takeoff performance standards and made them more restrictive.
To summarize, Amendment 25-42 (Change 14) required the accelerate-stop distance to include
two seconds of continued acceleration beyond V1 speed, before the pilot takes any action to stop
the airplane. It also introduced the notion of Accelerate-Stop Distance all engines. This revision
resulted in longer accelerate-stop distances for airplanes whose application for a type certificate
was made after this amendment became effective. The A320 was the first airplane to be certified
under this rule, as no retroactivity was required. It was also the last one.
Although the airplane types were originally certified at different times, thus allowing the use of
different amendments, both groups of airplanes were continuing in production and competing for
sales and for use over some common routes. Airplanes whose designs were type-certified to the
standards introduced by this amendment were penalised in terms of payload, even though the
airplane's takeoff performance might be better from a safety perspective, than the design of a
competing airplane that was not required to meet the latest standards.
This disparity in airworthiness standards has created an unfair international trade situation,
affecting the competitiveness of a later design of the A320. At the June 1990 annual meeting, the
FAA and JAA agreed to jointly review the current takeoff performance standards to reduce the
above-discussed inequities, without adversely affecting safety. In March 1992, the JAA Notice for
Proposed Amendment (NPA) 25B,D,G-244: "Accelerate-Stop Distances and Related Performance
Matters" was issued, followed by the FAA Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) 93-8 on July
1993. The rule changes proposed in the NPA and in the NPRM were essentially the same, and are
better known as Post-Amendment 42.
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To summarize, NPA 244 and NPRM 93-08 (post-amendment 42) proposed the following rule
changes:
1. Replace the two seconds of continued acceleration beyond V1, with a distance margin
equal to two seconds at V1 speed
2. Require that the runway surface condition (dry or wet) be taken into account, when
determining the runway length that must be available for takeoff.
3. Require that the capability of the brakes to absorb energy and stop the airplane during
landings and rejected takeoffs be based on brakes that are worn to their overhaul limit.
After industry feedback, NPA 244 was incorporated into JAR 25 on October 2000 (change 15),
whereas NPRM 93-08 was incorporated into FAR 25 on February 1998 (amendment 25-92).
The definitions provided in the following sections refer to the latest airworthiness standards (i.e.
change 15).
As a reminder, the certification status of the Airbus models is the following:
• Pre-amendment 42 : A300, A300-600, A310
• Amendment 25-42 : A320
• Post-amendment 42 (CS 25 Change 15) : A318, A319, A320, A321, A330, A340
(Some A320s are certified with amendment 25-42, others with post-amendment 42.)
1.4.5.Influence of V1 on Accelerate-Go/Stop Distances

For a given takeoff weight, any increase in V1 leads to a reduction in both and
. The reason is that the all engine acceleration phase is longer with a higher V1 speed,
and, consequently, in case of an engine failure occurring at VEF, the same V2 speed can be
achieved at 35 feet at a shorter distance.
On the other hand, and are independent of V1 as there is no engine failure, and
thus no consequence on the acceleration phase and the necessary distance to reach 35 feet.
On the contrary, for a given takeoff weight, any increase in V1 leads to an increase in both the
and . Indeed, with a higher V1 speed, the acceleration segment from brake release
to V1 is longer, the deceleration segment from V1 to the complete stop is longer, and the
additional 2 second segment at constant V1 speed is longer.
As a result, the following graph providing the takeoff/rejected takeoff distances as a function of
V1 can be plotted. This graph clearly shows that a minimum distance is achieved at a particular V1
speed. This speed is called "balanced V1", and the corresponding distance is called "balanced
distance".
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1.5. TAKEOFF PATH
1.5.1.Definition
CS 25.111 Take-off path

• (a) The takeoff path extends from a standing start to a point in the
take-off at which the aeroplane is 457 m (1500 ft) above the take-off
surface, or at which the transition from the takeoff to the en-route
configuration is completed and VFTO is reached, whichever point is
higher. (...).
CS 25.115 Take-off flight path

• (a) The takeoff flight path must be considered to begin 11 m (35 ft)
above the takeoff surface at the end of the take-off distance.(...).
The takeoff path and takeoff flight path regulatory definitions assume that the aircraft is
accelerated on the ground to VEF, at which point the critical engine is made inoperative and
remains inoperative for the rest of the takeoff. Moreover, the V2 speed must be reached before the
aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, and the aircraft must continue at a speed not less than
V2, until it is 400 feet above the takeoff surface.
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VFTO is the final takeoff speed:
CS 25.107 Take off speeds

• (g) VFTO, in terms of calibrated airspeed, must be selected by the
applicant to provide at least the gradient of climb required by CS
25.121(c), but may not less than:
• (1) 1.18 VSR; and
• (2) A speed that provides the manoeuvring capability specified in
CS25.143(h).
CS 25.143 General
normal manoeuvring.
( ) A combination of weight, altitude and temperature (WAT) such that

the thrust or power setting produces the minimum climb gradient
specified in CS 25.121 for the flight condition.
VFTO corresponds to the green dot speed on Airbus aircraft.
1.5.2.Takeoff Segments and Climb Requirements

§ CS 25.121.
The takeoff flight path can be divided into several segments. Each segment is characteristic of a
distinct change in configuration, thrust, and speed. Moreover, the configuration, weight, and thrust
of the aircraft must correspond to the most critical condition prevailing in the segment.
Finally, the flight path must be based on the aircraft's performance without ground effect. As a
general rule, the aircraft is considered to be out of the ground effect, when it reaches a height equal
to its wing span.
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After an engine failure at VEF, whatever the operational conditions are, the aircraft must fulfil
minimum climb gradients, as required by CS 25.121.
The following Table summarizes the different requirements and aircraft status during the four
takeoff segments: minimum required climb gradient (air gross gradient) one engine inoperative,
flaps/slats configuration, engine rating, speed reference, landing gear configuration.
The mass taken in reference on a given segment is the mass at the beginning of this segment,
except for the final segment where the reference is the mass at the end of the takeoff path.
First Second Third Final

segment segment segment segment
Minimu Two- >0 2.4% 1.2% * 1.2%

m engined
climb Three- 0.3% 2.7% 1.5% * 1.5%
gradient engined
(N-1)
eng. Four- 0.5% 3.0% 1.7% * 1.7%
engined
Start when VLOF Gear fully Acceleratio En-route
reached retracted n configuratio
height n
reached achieved
Engine rating TOGA/FL TOGA/FL TOGA/FL MCT
EX EX EX
Landing gear Extended Retracted Retracted Retracted
(retraction)
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First Second Third Final

segment segment segment segment
Slats / Flaps Takeoff Takeoff Takeoff Clean

configuration (retraction)
Speed reference VLOF V2 Acceleratio VFTO
n
* available gradient of climb
1.6. EFFECTS OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS AND AEROPLANE

CONFIGURATION
Calculation of the performance limited Takeoff Weight must be done considering the external
conditions of the day and the aeroplane configurations.
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.205 Take-off

• (c) When showing compliance with (b), the following shall be taken
into account:
• The pressure altitude at the aerodrome;
• The ambient temperature at the aerodrome;
• The runway surface condition and the type of runway surface;
• The runway slope in the direction of take-off;
• Not more than 50% of the reported head-wind component or not
less than 150% of the reported tailwind component; and
• The loss, if any, of runway length due to alignment of the aeroplane
prior to takeoff.
1.6.1.Temperature
Temperature influences airframe and engine performance.
1.6.1.1.Effect on Aerodynamics
The force balance in level flight can be illustrated as follows:
When the Outside Air Temperature (OAT) increases, the air density decreases. As a conclusion,
when the temperature increases for a given weight, the true air speed (TAS) must be increased to
compensate for the air density reduction.
Therefore, the takeoff distance is increased.
1.6.1.2.Effect on Engines
The Takeoff thrust (TOGA) remains constant, equal to the Flat Rated Thrust, until the OAT
reaches the Flat Rating Temperature (Tref). Above this temperature, the takeoff thrust starts
decreasing (EGT limit).
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Consequently, when the Outside Air Temperature increases, the takeoff distances are longer and
takeoff climb gradients are reduced.
1.6.1.3.Summary
1.6.2.Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude influences airframe and engine performance as well.
1.6.2.1.Effect on Aerodynamics
When the Pressure altitude (PA) increases, the air density decreases. As mentioned above, the true
air speed (TAS) must be increased to compensate for the air density reduction. As a result, the
takeoff distance is increased.
1.6.2.2.Effect on Engines
When pressure altitude increases, the available takeoff thrust is reduced.
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Therefore, takeoff distances are longer and takeoff climb gradients are reduced.
1.6.2.3.Summary
1.6.3.Wind
The wind component along the runway axis is an important influencing factor for takeoff. It
affects the takeoff ground speed and, therefore, the takeoff distances, which are reduced in case of
headwind and increased in case of tailwind.
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The maximum takeoff mass calculated prior to takeoff, must be determined considering 50% of
the actual headwind component, or 150% of the actual tailwind component.
This condition forms part of the Airbus performance software, so that an operator just has to
consider the actual wind component for the MTOW calculation.
CS 25.237 Wind velocities

• (1) A 90° cross component of wind velocity, demonstrated to be safe
for take-off and landing, must be established for dry runways and must
be at least 37 km/h (20 kt) or 0.2 VSR0 , whichever is greater, except
that it need not exceed 46 km/h (25 kt).
• (2) The crosswind component for takeoff established without ice
accretions is valid in icing conditions.
• (3) The landing crosswind component must be established for non-icing
conditions, and icing conditions with the landing ice accretion defined
in [1.8. page 18].
The crosswind component does not affect takeoff performance. Nevertheless, it is necessary to
demonstrate the safety of takeoff and landing procedures up to 25 knots of crosswind. The
maximum demonstrated value must be published in the Aircraft Flight Manual.
1.6.4.Runway Slope
A slope is generally expressed in percentages, preceded by a plus sign when it is upward, or a
minus sign when it is downward.
Airbus aircraft are all basically certified for takeoff on runways whose slopes are between -2% and
+2%. Nevertheless, these values can be extended to higher limits for operations on particular
runways, but it remains marginal as it requires additional certification tests.
From a performance point of view, an upward slope degrades the aircraft's acceleration capability
and, consequently, increases takeoff distance. On the other hand, the stopping distance is
shortened in case of a rejected takeoff. This is why, depending on the takeoff limitation, an upward
slope can sometimes improve MTOW and sometimes lower it.
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1.6.5.Runway Conditions
The previously-discussed performance aspects only concerned dry and wet runways. But
contaminants also affect takeoff performance, and have to be considered for takeoff weight
calculation. The following section aims at defining the different runway states that can be
encountered at takeoff.
1.6.5.1.Definitions
AIR-OPS Annex 1 - Definitions

• (24) Contaminated runway. A runway is considered to be contaminated
when more than 25% of the runway surface area (whether in isolated
areas or not) within the required length and width being used is covered
by the following:
• (i) Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by slush, or
loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 in) of water;
• (ii) Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which
resists further compression and will hold together or break into
lumps if picked up (compacted snow); or
• (iii) Ice, including wet ice.
• (31) Damp runway. A runway is considered damp when the surface is
not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance.
• (41) Dry runway. A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor
contaminated, and includes those paved runways which have been
specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained to
retain ‘effectively dry' braking action even when moisture is present.
• (124) Wet runway. A runway is considered wet when the runway
surface is covered with water, or equivalent, less than specified in
subparagraph (a)(2) above or when there is sufficient moisture on the
runway surface to cause it to appear reflective, but without significant
areas of standing water.
A runway is considered to be wet, as soon as it has a shiny appearance, but without risk of
hydroplaning due to standing water on one part of its surface.
A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area is
covered by:
• Standing water: Caused by heavy rainfall and/or insufficient runway drainage with a
depth of more than 3 mm (0.125in).
• Slush: Partly melted snow or ice with a high water content, which spatters when stepping
firmly on it. Slush is normally a transient condition found only at temperature close to 0°C,
and its density is approximately 0.85 kg/litre (7.1 lb/USG).
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• Wet snow: If compacted by hand, snow will stick together and tend to form a snowball. Its
density is approximately 0.5 kg/litre (4.18 lb/USG).
• Dry snow: Snow can be blown if loose, or if compacted by hand, will fall apart upon
release (also commonly referred to as loose snow). Its density is approximately 0.2 kg/litre
( 1.7 lb/USG).
• Compacted snow: Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass such that the
aeroplane wheels will run on the surface without causing significant rutting (a typical
friction coefficient is 0.2).
• Ice : The friction coefficient is 0.05 or below.
1.6.5.2.Effect on performance
There is a clear distinction of the effect of contaminants on aircraft performance.
Contaminants can be divided into hard and fluid contaminants:
• Hard contaminants are: compacted snow and ice.
They reduce friction forces. The friction forces on a dry runway vary with aircraft speed ( as
speed ). The main problem is that the resulting friction forces of an aircraft (interaction
tyre/runway) depend on its weight, tyre wear, tyre pressure, anti-skid system efficiency and...
ground speed. Flight tests help to establish the direct relation between the aircraft's friction
coefficient ( ) and the ground speed.
• Fluid contaminants are: water, slush, and loose snow.
They reduce friction forces, and cause precipitation drag and hydroplaning.
Precipitation drag is composed of the displacement drag (produced by the displacement of the
contaminant fluid from the path of the tyre) and the spray impingement drag (produced by the
spray thrown up by the wheels (mainly those of the nose gear) onto the fuselage). The effect of
these additional drags is to :
• improve the deceleration rate: Positive effect, in case of a rejected takeoff.
• worsen the acceleration rate: Negative effect for takeoff.
Three forms of hydroplaning have being identified:
• Dynamic hydroplaning is a condition where the tyre is completely lifted above the
runway surface: the presence of water on the runway creates an intervening water film
between the tyre and the runway, leading to a reduction of the dry area. This phenomenon
becomes more critical at higher speeds.
• Viscous hydroplaning can occur at lower speeds on smooth runways: the tyre slips on a
thin film
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• Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs on wet runways when the pilot "locks" the
brakes: the tyre track area heats up due to friction causing some of the rubber to "revert
back" to a gummy state, trapping water. The water turns to steam and steam pressure lifts
the tyre from the runway surface.
Hydroplaning speed depends on tyre pressure, and on the specific gravity of the contaminant (i.e.
how dense the contaminant is).
In other words, the hydroplaning speed is a threshold at which friction forces are severely
diminished. Performance calculations on contaminated runways take into account the penalizing
effect of hydroplaning.
1.6.5.3.Aircraft manufacturer data
The aircraft manufacturer has to provide relevant data for operations on runways contaminated by
one of the above contaminants.
As far as performance calculation is concerned, Airbus provides guidance material for the
following runway contaminants and maximum depths:
Contaminant Wet runway or Contaminated runway

equivalent
Water (fluid) < 3 mm (0.12 in) 3 to 13 mm (0.5 in)
Slush (fluid) < 2 mm (0.08 in) 2 to 13 mm (0.5 in)
Wet snow (fluid) < 4 mm (0.16 in) 4 to 25 mm (1 in)
Dry snow (fluid) < 15 mm (0.59 in) 15 to 51 mm (2 in)
Compacted snow (hard) any thickness
Ice (hard) any thickness
Note that takeoff is not recommended, when conditions are worse than the above-listed.
1.6.6.Relative Humidity
CS 25.101 General
• (b) The performance, as affected by engine power or thrust, must be
based on the following relative humidities:
• (1) 80%, at and below standard temperatures; and
• (2) 34%, at and above standard temperatures plus 10ºC (50ºF).
Between these two temperatures, the relative humidity must vary linearly.
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1.6.7.Bleed Air
Bleed air is used for anti-icing and air conditioning. The use of bleeds during takeoff decreases
engine thrust. As a consequence:
1.6.8.Flaps/Slats setting
For a given aeroplane mass, an increase of flap angle:
• increases the coefficient of lift , which reduces stalling speed and takeoff speed; thus,
the takeoff distance decreases;
• increases the drag and decreases the lift to drag ratio, thus the climb gradient after takeoff
decreases.
But when the flap angle exceeds a certain value, the increasing of drag reduces acceleration so that
the takeoff distance will increase again. An optimum setting can be determined, allowing the
shortest takeoff distance.
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1.6.9.Influence of V1
influences the three different distances related to takeoff as seen in Influence of V1 on
Accelerate-Go/Stop Distances (see TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION p 25).
In case of a low value of , the acceleration phase with one engine inoperative is very long to
reach V2, but, in case of rejected takeoff, the deceleration segment from is very short:
is longer than ASD, as shown below.
In case of higher , the opposite occurs, ASD is longer than :
1.6.10.Influence of V2
For a given aeroplane mass, when increases, all the takeoff speeds increase too, and
• a longer takeoff distance is necessary in order to achieve a higher at 35ft;
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• the climb gradient initially increases as indicated in the figure below:
2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT
2.1. AVAILABLE TAKEOFF LENGTHS
2.1.1.Takeoff Run Available: TORA

• (114) Take Off Run Available (TORA): Means the length of runway
which is declared available by the state of the aerodrome and suitable
for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
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TORA is either equal to the runway length, or to the distance from the runway entry point
(intersecting taxiway) to the end of the runway.

• (b)(3) The Take off run shall not exceed the take off run available.
2.1.2.Takeoff Distance Available : TODA

The runway may be extended by an area called the clearway.
The clearway is an area beyond the runway, not less than 152 m (500 ft) wide, centrally located
about the extended centreline of the runway, and under control of the airport authorities. The
clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an
upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, above which no objects or terrain protrudes. However,
threshold lights may protrude above the plane, if their height above the end of the runway is 0.66
m (26 in) or less, and if they are located on each side of the runway.

• (109) Takeoff Distance Available (TODA): Means the length of the
take off run available plus the length of the clearway available, if
provided.
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• (b)(2) The Takeoff distance shall not exceed the take-off distance
available, with a clearway distance not exceeding half of the take-off
run available.
2.1.3.Accelerate-Stop Distance Available: ASDA

The runway may be extended by an area called the stopway. The stopway is an area beyond the
runway:
• no less wide than the runway, and centred upon the extended centreline of the runway;
• able to support the aeroplane during an abortive takeoff, without causing structural damage
to the aeroplane; and
• designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the aeroplane during an
abortive takeoff.

• (1) Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA): Means the length of
the takeoff run available plus the length of stopway, if such stopway is
declared available by the state of the aerodrome and is capable of
bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the prevailing operating
conditions.
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AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.205 Take off

• (b)(1) The accelerate-stop distance shall not exceed the accelerate-stop
distance available.
2.1.4.Balanced/Unbalanced Field Length

When neither clearway, nor stopway exist at the end of the runway (for a given QFU), the runway
length is called balanced field length. In this case : TORA = TODA = ASDA.
Therefore, you must check the two conditions :
As described in Influence of V1 on Accelerate-Go/Stop Distances (see TAKE-OFF

PERFORMANCE CALCULATION p 25), for a given takeoff weight, when V1 varies, a
minimum distance such as ASD = TOD is achieved at a particular V1 speed. This minimum
distance and the corresponding V1 are called "balanced distance" and "balanced V1".
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If you want to takeoff at this given takeoff weight, the balanced field length must be at least equal
to the balanced distance:
An unbalanced field length exists when there is a clearway, either a stopway, or both of them at
the end of the runway (for a given QFU). In this case TORA, TODA and ASDA have different
values.
This time, it is necessary to check the three conditions:
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Considering the same aeroplane, at the same takeoff weight, for each value of V1 it is possible to
build minimum runway, stopway and clearway lengths in order to comply with these conditions,
as shown in the figure below:
As a summary, from the point of view of an airport designer who wants to receive an aeroplane at
a given weight, the choice is:
• either to build a balanced field at least as long as the balanced distance; or
• to build an unbalanced field with a shorter runway, but extended by a clearway and a
stopway.
2.1.5.Loss of Runway Length due to Alignment

Airplanes typically enter the takeoff runway from an intersecting taxiway. The aeroplane must be
turned so that it is pointed down the runway in the direction for takeoff. JAA regulations require
airplane operators to take into account the runway distance used to align the airplane on the
runway for takeoff.
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.205 Take Off

• (c) (...) an operator must take account of the following: (...)
• (6) the loss, if any, of runway length due to alignment of the
aeroplane prior to takeoff.
Line-up corrections should be made when computing takeoff performance, anytime runway access
does not permit positioning the airplane at the threshold. Runways with displaced takeoff
thresholds, or ample turning aprons, should not need further adjustment.
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The takeoff distance / takeoff run (TOD / TOR) adjustment is made, based on the initial distance
from the beginning of the runway to the main gear, since the screen height is measured from the
main gear, as indicated by distance "A" in figure below. The accelerate-stop distance (ASD)
adjustment is based on the initial distance from the beginning of the runway to the nose gear, as
indicated by distance "B" in figure below.
The following tables contain the minimum line-up distance adjustments that result from a turn
onto the runway and a turn manoeuvre on the runway.
90° Runway Entry

Aeroplane model Minimum line up distance correction
A B
A320 all models 10.9 23.6
A330-300 (Mod 24.4 50
47500)
A340-600 24.6 57.8
180° Turnaround
Aeroplane Minimum line up distance Nominal line up distance
model correction * on a 60 m runway width
**
A B A B
A320 all 16.5 29.1 16.5 29.1
models
A330-300 33.2 58.5 47.9 73.3
(Mod 47500)
A340-600 41.1 74.3 60.7 93.9
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* Lineup distance required to turn 180 degrees at maximum effective steering angle and end
aligned with the centerline of the pavement. The indicated minimum runway width is required.
** Lineup distance required to turn 180 degrees and realign the airplane on the runway centerline
on a 60 m wide runway.
2.2. DEPARTURE SECTOR
2.2.1.Definition
Takeoff funnel
The takeoff funnel, also called departure sector, represents an area surrounding the takeoff flight
path, within which all obstacles must be cleared, assuming they are all projected on the intended
track.
2.2.2.Dimensions
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.210 Take off obstacle clearance

• (a) The net take-off flight path shall be determined in such a way that
the aeroplane clears all obstacles by a vertical distance of at least 35 ft
or by a horizontal distance of at least 90 m plus 0.125 x D, where D is
the horizontal distance the aeroplane has travelled from the end of the
take-off distance available (TODA) or the end of the take-off distance if
a turn is scheduled before the end of the TODA. For aeroplanes with a
wingspan of less than 60 m, a horizontal obstacle clearance of half the
aeroplane wingspan plus 60 m, plus 0.125 x D may be used.
(b)(6) For cases where the intended flight path does not require track
changes of more than 15°, the operator does not need to consider those
obstacles that have a lateral distance greater than:
• (i) 300 m, if the pilot is able to maintain the required navigational
accuracy through the obstacle accountability area, or
(ii) 600m, for flights under all other conditions
• (b)(7) For cases where the intended flight path require track changes of
more than 15°, the operator does not need to consider those obstacles
that have a lateral distance greater than
(i) 600 m, if the pilot is able to maintain the required navigational
accuracy through the obstacle accountability area; or
(ii) 900 m for flights under all other conditions.
The following figures represent the EU-OPS departure sectors
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The semi-width (b/2) at the start of the departure sector is a function of the aircraft's wingspan.
The following Table provides the values for different aeroplane types:
Aeroplane Type Wingspan Semi-width at the

start of the
departure sector
(b/2)
A318/A319/A320/A32 34.10 m (111 ft 10 78 m (253 ft)
1 in)
A330-200/300 A340- 60.30 m (197 ft 10 90 m (296 ft)

200/300 in)
A340-500/600 63.50 m (208 ft 2 in) 90 m (296 ft)

The maximum semi-width is equal to 300 m, 600 m or 900 m, depending on the track changes of
the intended flight path (less, or more than 15°), and on the navigational accuracy.
The Required Navigational Accuracy can either be obtained via navigation aids, or by using
external references in case of Visual Course guidance (VMC day flights).
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2.2.3.Obstacle Clearance
2.2.3.1.Gross and Net Takeoff Flight Paths
Most of the time, runways have surrounding obstacles which must be taken into account prior to
takeoff, to ascertain that the aeroplane is able to clear them. A vertical margin has to be considered
between the aeroplane and each obstacle in the takeoff flight path. This margin, based on a climb
gradient reduction, leads to the definitions of the Gross Takeoff Flight Path and the Net Takeoff
Flight Path:
Definition : Gross Flight Path

Takeoff flight path actually flown by the aeroplane from 35 ft above the takeoff surface at the end
of the takeoff distance (determined as appropriate for the runway surface condition).
Definition : Net Flight Path

Gross takeoff flight path minus a mandatory reduction.
CS 25.115 Take-off flight path

• (b) The net takeoff flight path data must be determined so that they
represent the actual [Gross] takeoff flight path (...) reduced at each
point by a gradient of climb equal to:
• 0.8% for two-engined aeroplanes;
• 0.9% for three-engined aeroplanes;
• 1.0% for four-engine aeroplanes.
• (c) The prescribed reduction in climb gradient may be applied as an
equivalent reduction in acceleration along that part of the take-off flight
path at which the aeroplane is accelerated in level flight.
The gradient penalty between the net and the gross flight path must be taken into account during
the first, second, and final takeoff segments. During the acceleration segment, an equivalent
reduction of acceleration is applied.
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2.2.3.2.Obstacle Clearance during a straight Takeoff
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.210 Take-off obstacle clearance

• (a) The net take-off flight path shall be determined in such a way that
the aeroplane clears all obstacles by a vertical distance of a least 35 ft
(...).
Example
As an example, the minimum required climb gradient during the second segment must be 2.4% for
a two-engine aircraft. But, as per regulation, the net flight path must clear any obstacle by at least
35 feet. This may sometimes require the second segment gradient to be greater than 2.4% and,
consequently, the maximum take-off mass may have to be reduced accordingly. This is a case of
obstacle limitation.
2.2.3.3.Obstacle Clearance during a Turn
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.210 Take-off obstacle clearance

• (b)(3) Any part of the net take-off flight path in which the aeroplane is
banked by more than 15° shall clear all obstacles within the horizontal
distances specified in (a), (b)(6) and (b)(7) by a vertical distance of at
least 50 ft.
• (b)(4) Operations that apply inscreased bank angles of not more than
20° between 200 ft and 400 ft, or not more than 30° above 400 ft, shall
be carried out in accordance with CAT.POL.A.240.
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Obstacle clearance
margin
Bank angle 15° 35 ft
Bank angle > 15° 50 ft
3. CALCULATION OF REGULATED TAKE OFF MASS AND

SELECTION OF AEROPLANE PARAMETERS
3.1. REGULATED TAKEOFF MASS: RTOM

The regulated takeoff mass (RTOM) is the maximum permissible takeoff mass taking into
account:
• the effect of outside parameters on aeroplane performance: temperature, pressurealtitude,
wind;
• the airport infrastructure: available lengths, runway conditions;
• the airport environment: obstacles height and distance within the takeoff funnel; and
optimised by the selection of aeroplane parameters: speeds, flap setting.
In other words, RTOM is the smallest mass between:
• maximum structural takeoff mass; and
• maximum takeoff mass related to performance:
• runway length limited takeoff mass;
• climb limited takeoff mass: first, second and final segment;
• obstacle limited takeoff mass;
• tyres speed limited takeoff mass;
• brake energy limited takeoff mass.
3.1.1.Maximum Structural Take Off Mass

Maximum structural take off mass MSTOM is the maximum permissible aeroplane total mass
at the start of the take off run.
For large aeroplanes, it is calculated so that aeroplane and landing gear structure can support the
efforts resulting from landing at this mass at a vertical speed of 1.83 m/s or 6 ft/s, so to say 360
ft/min (CS 25.473).
3.1.2.Maximum Take Off Mass related to Aeroplane Performance

3.1.2.1.Runway Length limited Takeoff Mass
In case of balanced field length, a maximum takeoff mass may be obtained so that the
corresponding balanced distance is equal to the runway length.
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In case of unbalanced field length, considering the runway requirements ( ,

, and ), a maximum takeoff mass can be obtained for each runway
limitation. As an example, when for a given takeoff mass the TOD is equal to the TODA, this
takeoff mass is maximum regarding the TakeOff Distance limitation.
Two cases must be studied, function of the length of the clearway.
With a short clearway, one may determine a maximum mass with a V1 value such as
and . In this case .
When the clearway lengthens, it is possible to increase the takeoff mass due to the extension of
TODA. But at the same time TOR increases, and, if the clearway is long enough, TOR will reach
TORA, limiting TOD at a shorter value than TODA. Moreover, in order to maintain ASD within
the limit of ASDA with a higher mass, it is necessary to reduce the value of V1.
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As a consequence, we can define the maximum usable clearway as the clearway length from
which takeoff mass is limited by takeoff run (no more takeoff mass gain through clearway
lengthening).
Effect of operational parameters:
Temp. max. runway-length limited takeoff mass

PA max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
Headwind max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
RWY upslope max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
Bleeds OFF max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
ON
Flaps setting max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
V2 / VSR max. runway-length limited takeoff mass
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3.1.2.2.Climb limited Take Off Mass

Reminder on the takeoff path (§ Takeoff Segments and Climb Requirements (see TAKE-OFF
PERFORMANCE CALCULATION p 25)):
The maximum mass at brake release is determined thus allowing to respect the minimum gradients
imposed along the takeoff path, or more precisely on first, second and final segments.
As indicated below, for the imposed gradient, the maximum mass depends on operational
parameters:
Operational First segment Second segment Final segment

parameters
Temperature max. mass max. mass max. mass
Pressure altitude max. mass max. mass max. mass
Bleeds OFF ON max. mass max. mass max. mass
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Operational First segment Second segment Final segment

parameters
Flap setting max. mass max. mass
V2 / VSR max. mass
3.1.2.3.Obstacle limited Take Off Mass

The maximum mass at brake release must be such as net path gets over obstacles in takeoff funnel
with a clearance of 35 ft (50 ft during a turn with a bank angle higher than 15°).
The net flight path is the gross (actual) flight path reduced at each point by a gradient penalty (§
Gross and Net Takeoff Flight Paths (see INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT p 56)).
That is why all the obstacles must be clear of a plane 35 ft under the net flight path as indicated in
the figure below:
The obstacle A, located under the second segment, imposes the net minimum gradient during this
segment. This leads to a gross minimum gradient and, consequently to a maximum takeoff mass.
The obstacle B, located under the acceleration segment, imposes the minimum acceleration net
height, and, as a result, the minimum acceleration (gross) height, also named EFFRA: Engine
Failure Flaps Retraction Altitude.
Minimum Acceleration Height
CS 25.111 Take-off path

• (c)(2) The aeroplane must reach before it is 11 m (35 ft) above the
take-off surface and must continue at a speed as close as practical to,
but not less than until it is 122 m (400 ft) above the take-off surface;
• (c)(3) At each point along the takeoff path, starting at the point at which
the aeroplane reaches 122 m (400 ft) above the take-off surface, the
available gradient of climb may not be less than:
• 1.2% for two-engined aeroplanes
• 1.5% for three-engined aeroplanes
• 1.7% for four-engined aeroplanes
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So, below 400 feet, the speed must be maintained constant to a minimum of . Above 400 feet,
the aircraft must fulfil a minimum climb gradient, which can be transformed into an acceleration
capability in level flight.
Therefore, the regulatory minimum acceleration height is fixed to 400 feet above the takeoff
surface.
Nevertheless, during the acceleration segment, obstacle clearance must be ensured at any moment.
Therefore, the operational minimum acceleration height is equal to or greater than 400 feet.
Maximum Acceleration Height

The Maximum Takeoff Thrust (TOGA) is certified to be used for a maximum of 10 minutes, in
case of an engine failure at takeoff, and for a maximum of 5 minutes with all engines operating.
The Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT), which is not time-limited, can only be selected once the
en-route configuration is achieved (i.e. when the aircraft is in clean configuration at VFTO).
As a result, the en-route configuration (end of the third segment) must be achieved within a
maximum of 10 minutes after takeoff, thus allowing the calculation of a maximum acceleration
height.
3.1.2.4.Tyre Speed limited Take Off Mass
The takeoff mass must be calculated to keep VLOF lower than, or equal to VTYRE.
VTYRE being a ground speed, VLOF maximum value depends on pressure altitude, temperature,
wind, and flap setting, but will not be affected by runway slope. A limitation on VLOF will lead to
a takeoff mass limitation.
3.1.2.5.Brake Energy limited Take Off Mass
must be less than, or equal to VMBE.
If the maximum takeoff mass leads to a V1 higher than VMBE, you must decrease the takeoff
mass in order to reduce V1 to the VMBE value: follow instructions in the Airplane Flight Manual
(amount of mass to be deducted for each knot that exceeds VMBE).
In case of maximum takeoff mass limited by brake energy, a positive runway slope (upwards) may
increase the takeoff mass, compared to a runway without slope: a positive runway slope increases
potential energy during the braking phase, actually reducing brake energy
3.1.2.6.Runway strength
The takeoff mass of the aeroplane may be limited by runway strength consideration. The
ACN/PCN system is a method which classifies pavement bearing strength for aeroplanes with a
maximum mass exceeding 5 700 kg (12 500 lbs).
ACN (Aircraft Classification Number): number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a
pavement for a specified standard category. The ACN (whole number generally included between
1 and 100) depends on the total mass of the aeroplane, the pavement type and the subgrade
strength category.
PCN (Pavement Classification Number): number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement
for unrestricted operations. The PCN comes in the form of a number (whole number generally
included between 1 and 100) followed by four code letters.
Operation on the runway is permissible without restriction if the ACN is less than or equal to the
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PCN.
The Authority may establish criteria to regulate the use of a pavement by an aircraft with an ACN
higher than the PCN reported by that pavement. Generally, an occasional use by an aeroplane with
an ACN up to 150% of PCN may be permitted.
ACN/PCN system is fully developed in chapter 010 Air Law, Subpart "Aerodrome".
3.2. SELECTION OF AIRPLANE PARAMETERS
3.2.1.Selection of V1 according to Actual Take Off Mass

3.2.1.1.V1 Range
If the actual takeoff mass is lower than the runway length limited takeoff mass, i.e. if the runway
length available is greater than the required runway length corresponding to the actual takeoff
mass, there will be a range of speed within which can be chosen.
The minimum value of this range (VGO) is the first speed at which the takeoff can be
completed within the takeoff distance available. This speed offers a margin in case of accelerate-
stop, therefore it will be used in case of damp runway, or worn brakes, for instance.
The maximum value of this range (VSTOP) is the last speed at which the accelerate-stop can be
completed within the accelerate-stop distance available. This speed offers a margin in case of
takeoff with one engine inoperative, that is why it will be used in case of obstacles in the takeoff
funnel.
Except for this two particular cases, is usually chosen at the middle of the speed range.
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3.2.1.2.Non compliance to procedure after engine failure

The figure below shows the consequences of a non compliance to procedure after engine failure on
limitative runway (stop in case of failure before – continue in case of failure after ):
In case of takeoff continuation when engine failure occurs before , this will lead to a reduction
of screen height at the end of the TODA. This reduction is more significant with a twin-engine
(loss of 50% of the takeoff thrust) than with a four-engine (loss of 25% of the takeoff thrust).
In case of aborted takeoff when engine failure occurs after , it is impossible to stop the aeroplane
within the limit of ASDA: the aeroplane will come out of ASDA with a speed depending on the
aeroplane mass and on the speed gap with at the beginning of the accelerate-stop.
It appears that the second condition is more hazardous than the first one, and this confirms that
is the extreme speed at which stopping the takeoff remains possible.
3.2.2.Flap setting
3.2.2.1.Flap selection with limitative runway
For a given mass, an increase of flap setting decreases the takeoff distance (§ Flaps/Stats setting
(see TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION p 25)). As a consequence, for a given
runway length, an increase of flap setting will lead to an increase of takeoff mass:
3.2.2.2.Flap selection with obstacle limitation

If there are obstacles in the takeoff funnel, the climb gradient must be considered: increasing flap
setting reduces climb gradient.
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Usually, with close obstacle a high flap setting is often more interesting (the takeoff distance is
shorter), and with distant obstacle, a low flap setting is more interesting (the climb gradient is
better).
As a summary, a low flap setting is generally more interesting with:

• long runway;
• distant obstacle in the takeoff funnel;
• high pressure altitude;
• high temperature.
3.2.3.Bleed Air
If necessary, it is possible to shut off air conditioning in order to increase the takeoff thrust, and
therefore increase the maximum takeoff mass.
Example
The gain in the second segment limitation may reach 1,400 kg for an A320.
3.2.4.Optimisation of V2/VS
For a given takeoff mass, a higher V2 increases the takeoff distance , but increases the climb
gradient as well (§ Influence of V2 (see TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION p 25)).
As a consequence, the maximum takeoff mass:
• decreases in case of runway length, brake energy or tyre speed limitations;
• increases in case of climb limitation (2nd segment) or obstacle limitation.
3.3. TAKEOFF CHARTS

To determine the regulated takeoff mass for repetitive takeoff planning, it is mandatory to provide
pilots with data, which enable quick calculations of the maximum allowed takeoff mass and its
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associated speeds. This can be done via ground or onboard computerized systems, such as the LPC
(Less Paper in the Cockpit), or through paper documents.
These paper documents are referred to as Regulated TakeOff Weight charts (RTOW) or
Regulated TakeOff Mass charts (RTOM). The charts must be generated for each runway
heading, and can be produced for different takeoff conditions at the convenience of the applicant
(temperature, wind, QNH, flap setting, runway status, inoperative items).
They provide the:
• Maximum Takeoff Mass (MTOM);
• Takeoff speeds ( , , );
• Limitation code;
• Minimum and maximum acceleration heights.
Example : A319 RTOW chart

Example: MTOM and speeds calculation
Data:
• takeoff from Paris-Orly, Runway 08
• Slat/Flap configuration: 1+F
• OAT = 24ºC
• Wind = Calm
• QNH = 1013 hPa
• Air conditioning: Off
• Runway condition: Dry
Results:
• MTOM = 73.6 tons
• V1 = 149 kt, VR = 149 kt, V2 = 153 kt
• MTOM limited by: second segment and obstacle (2/4)
Note: In case of deviation from the chart reference conditions (QNH, air conditioning...),
corrections have to be applied to the MTOW and the speeds.
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4. TAKEOFF PROCEDURES
4.1. FLEXIBLE TAKEOFF
The aircraft actual takeoff mass is often lower than the maximum regulated takeoff mass.
Therefore, in certain cases, it is possible to takeoff at a thrust less than the Maximum Takeoff
Thrust. It is advantageous to adjust the thrust to the actual mass, as it increases engine life and
reliability, while reducing maintenance and operating costs.
A takeoff at reduced thrust is called a flexible takeoff, and the corresponding thrust is called
flexible thrust.
4.1.1.Definition
AMC 25-13 Reduced and derated take-off thrust (power) procedures

• (4)(c) Reduced takeoff thrust, for an aeroplane, is a takeoff thrust less
than the takeoff (or derated takeoff) thrust. The aeroplane takeoff
performance and thrust setting are established by approved simple
methods, such as adjustments, or by corrections to the takeoff or
derated thrust setting and performance. When operating with a reduced
take-off thrust, the thrust setting parameter, which establishes thrust for
take-off, is not considered a take-off operating limit.
With a flexible takeoff procedure, "the thrust for takeoff is not considered as a takeoff operating
limit". Thus, if necessary, it is possible to set the maximum takeoff thrust at any moment of the
takeoff procedure.
As shown below, the actual takeoff mass is less than the maximum allowed takeoff mass obtained
from a RTOW chart. Therefore, it is possible to determine the temperature that should be for the
related limitation equal to actual takeoff mass. This temperature is called "flexible temperature (
)" or "assumed temperature".
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4.1.2.Flexible Temperature
Consequently, the flexible temperature is the input parameter through which the engine monitoring
computer adapts the thrust to the actual takeoff weight. This method is derived from the approved
maximum takeoff thrust rating, and thus uses the same certified minimum control speeds.
The thrust reduction is only possible when the flexible temperature is higher than the flat rating
temperature ( ) as shown above.
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• (5)(a) The reduced takeoff thrust setting

• (4) Is at least 75 % of the maximum takeoff thrust, or derated take-
off thrust if such is the performance basis, for the existing ambient
conditions (...)
• (5) for turboprop installations, (...) is limited to at least 75 % take-
off thrust.
Thrust reduction cannot exceed 25% of the maximum takeoff thrust, thus leading to a
maximum flexible temperature, as shown below.
To comply with the above requirements, flexible takeoff is only possible when the flexible
temperature fulfils the following three conditions:
4.1.3.Limitations on Flexible Takeoff

• (5)(a) The reduced takeoff thrust setting
• (1) does not result in loss of systems or functions that are normally
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operative for take-off such as automatic spoilers, engine failure

warning, configuration warning, systems dependent on engine
bleed air, or any other required safety related system.
• (2) is based on an approved takeoff thrust rating or derating for
which complete aeroplane performance data is provided
• (3) enables compliance with the applicable engine operating and
aeroplane controllability requirements in the event that takeoff
thrust, or derated take-off thrust (if such is the performance basis) is
applied at any point in the takeoff path.(...).
Regulations require operators to conduct periodic takeoff demonstrations, using the maximum
takeoff thrust setting, in order to check takeoff parameters (N1, N2, EPR, EGT). The time interval
between takeoff demonstrations may be extended, provided an approved engine condition-
monitoring program is used.
Takeoffs utilising reduced take-off thrust settings are not authorised where items affecting
performance cause significant increase in crew workload.
Takeoffs utilising reduced take-off thrust settings are not authorised on runways contaminated
with standing water, snow, slush, or ice, and are not authorised on wet runways unless suitable
performance accountability is made for the increased stopping distance on the wet surface.
Airbus operational documentation (RTOW, FCOM) provides performance information for flexible
takeoffs on wet runways. As a result, a flexible takeoff is allowed on a wet runway, while it is
forbidden on a contaminated one.
4.1.4.Flexible Temperature Calculation

The following example illustrates how to determine a flexible temperature, with the use of a
RTOW chart (see Flap selection with obstacle limitation (see CALCULATION OF REGULATED
TAKE OFF MASS AND SELECTION OF AEROPLANE PARAMETERS p 67)).
Example : Flexible Temperature and Speeds Calculation

DATA
• Takeoff from Paris-Orly, Runway 08
• Slat/Flap configuration: 1+F
• Actual TOM = 66 tons
• OAT = 24ºC
• Wind = +20 Kt headwind
• QNH = 1013 hPa
• Air conditioning: Off
• Runway condition: Dry
RESULT
• Flex Temp = 68ºC
• V1 = 145 kt, VR = 145 kt, V2 = 150 kt
Note: In case of deviation from the chart reference conditions (QNH, air conditioning...),
corrections have to be applied to the flexible temperature.
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4.1.5.Flexible Takeoff Procedure

To carry out a flexible takeoff, which is always at the discretion of the pilot, a flexible temperature
has to be determined from an RTOW chart computed with no derate or an equivalent computerized
system. This temperature value must then be entered in the MCDU (Multipurpose Control and
Display Unit) during the takeoff preparation phase (Figure below on the left). At the brake release
point, the thrust throttles must be pushed to the FLX position (Figure below on the right) as per the
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP). TOGA thrust remains available at any moment during the
takeoff phase. But, in the event of an engine failure after V1, its selection is not required.
4.2. DERATED TAKEOFF
4.2.1.Definition

• (4)(b) Derated takeoff thrust, for an aeroplane, is a takeoff thrust less
than the maximum takeoff thrust, for which exists in the AFM a set of
separate and independent, or clearly distinguishable, takeoff limitations
and performance data that complies with all the take-off requirements
of CS 25. When operating with a derated take-off thrust, the value of
the thrust setting parameter, which establishes thrust for take-off, is
presented in the AFM and is considered as a normal takeoff operating
limit.
In case of derated takeoff, "the thrust for takeoff is considered as a normal takeoff operating
limit".
For a derated takeoff, the limitations, procedures and performance data must be included in the
Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). For each derate level, a specific RTOW chart can be established
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for a given runway, taking into account such new limitations as the minimum control speeds.
4.2.2.Minimum Control Speeds with Derated Thrust

A given derate level corresponds to the basic maximum thrust reduced by a given percentage.
Therefore, the new maximum available thrust at any point of the takeoff flight path is cut back,
compared to the non-derated thrust. New minimum control speeds (VMCG, VMC) can then be
established.
A reduction in the minimum control speeds sometimes generates a takeoff performance benefit
(higher MTOM) when taking-off on a short runway. Indeed, the decision speed V1 is the
maximum speed at which it is still possible to reject the takeoff and stop the aircraft within the
runway limits. Nevertheless, V1 must be greater than VMCG, and the Accelerate Stop Distance is
often the most constraining limitation on a short runway. A reduction of the VMCG can then
permit a reduction of the ASD for a given takeoff mass, and lead to better takeoff performance
when the MTOM without derate is ASD/VMCG limited.
Example
The figure below illustrates A340 performance with and without derated thrust (from 4% to 24%).
In this example, the optimum derate level (highest maximum takeoff mass) corresponds to 20% of
derate.
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4.2.3.Derated Takeoff and Runway condition

A derated takeoff is considered to be a normal takeoff with the engines at their normal operating
limits. New limitations, procedures, and performance data are provided in the AFM for each derate
level and each runway surface. Therefore, it is possible to determine MTOM on a dry, wet, or
contaminated runway, simply by using a specific takeoff chart established for a specific derate
level and a specific runway state.
So, derated takeoff is allowed on both a wet and contaminated runway.
4.2.4.Derated Takeoff Procedure

When derated takeoff is available, 6 certified levels exist, ranging from (TOGA -4%) to (TOGA –
24%) with a constant four percent increment: 4%, 8%, 12%, 16%, 20% and 24% (for A340-500/-
600, two supplementary derate levels: 32% and 40%). This means that the AFM must contain a set
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of performance data for TOGA, and a set for each derate level (TOGA - X%).
To carry out a derated takeoff, the actual takeoff mass and speeds have to be checked against the
maximum allowed takeoff mass computed for the given derate level (specific RTOW chart or
equivalent computerized system). The derate level must then be entered in the MCDU
(Multipurpose Control and Display Unit) during the takeoff preparation phase. At the brake release
point, the thrust throttles must be pushed to the FLX position.
Important
When a derated takeoff is carried out, TOGA thrust must never be selected until the aircraft is
airborne and above the minimum flap retraction speed ("F" speed). The reason for this is that
performance calculations are made for minimum control speeds, different from the ones of TOGA.
Note that in the Airbus philosophy, a flexible takeoff can not be cumulated with a derated takeoff.
4.3. NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

Aeroplane operating procedures for the takeoff climb shall ensure that the necessary safety of
flight operations is maintained whilst minimizing exposure to noise on the ground. Two operating
procedures have been developed: the first procedure (NADP1) is intended to provide noise
reduction for noise-sensitive areas in close proximity to the departure end of the runway; the
second procedure (NADP2) provides noise reduction to areas more distant from the runway end.
The two procedures differ in that the acceleration segment for flap/slat retraction is either initiated
prior to reaching the maximum prescribed height (3000 ft) or at the maximum prescribed height.
To ensure optimum acceleration performance, thrust reduction may be initiated at an intermediate
flap setting.
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4.3.1.Procedure Alleviating Noise close to the Aerodrome NADP1
4.3.2.Procedure Alleviating Noise distant to the Aerodrome
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3- CLIMB
3
FLIGHT MECHANICS IN CLIMB 101
INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS 105
CLIMB SPEEDS 109
CLIMB IN OPERATIONS 111
CABIN CLIMB 114
1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN CLIMB
1.1. DEFINITIONS
The following figure shows the different forces applied on an aircraft in climb. To make it simpler,
aeroplane axis and aerodynamic axis are supposed to be superimposed.
• The climb gradient ( ) represents the angle between the horizontal axis and the
aerodynamic axis.
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• The rate of climb (RC) represents the vertical component of the aircraft's speed. It is
positive and expressed in feet per minute.
1.2. CLIMB EQUATIONS

During climb at constant speed, the balance of forces is achieved. Along the aerodynamic axis, this
balance can be expressed as :
The balance along the vertical axis, becomes :
1.3. CLIMB GRADIENT (ɣ)

The climb angle ( ) and the angle of attack ( ) are usually small enough so that :
(in radian)
As a result:
Then:
By introducing the lift to drag ratio,
Conclusion: At a given weight and engine rating, the climb gradient is maximum when (Thrust
– Drag) is maximum (i.e. when the "drag is minimum" or when the lift-to-drag ratio is
maximum). The best lift-to-drag ratio speed is called Green Dot speed by Airbus. In case of an
engine failure, flying at green dot speed permits maximizing the aircraft's aerodynamic efficiency
and compensating for the power loss.
1.4. RATE OF CLIMB (RC)

The Rate of Climb (RC) corresponds to the aircraft's vertical speed (VS). As a consequence:
and, as (in radian):
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As , therefore:
Conclusion: At a given aircraft weight, the rate of climb is maximum when

is maximum.
In terms of power, if = required power for steady level flight ( ), and Pa = available
power delivered by the engines (= TAS·Thrust), then the rate of climb is maximum when (Pa –
Pr) is maximum.
As a rule of thumb :
1.5. SPEED POLAR

The following figure illustrates both the thrust and the power variations versus the aeroplane
speed.
The engines thrust must balance the aeroplane drag in order to fly at a constant level and speed. As
a result, drag can be considered as the thrust required to maintain a constant flight level and a
constant speed. Climb is only possible when the available thrust is higher than the required thrust
(excess of thrust).
The above figure and equations indicate that, at a given weight:
• the climb gradient ( ) is proportional to the difference between the available thrust and the
required thrust;
• the rate of climb (RC) is proportional to the difference between the available power and the
required power.
The speed corresponding to the maximum climb angle is called , and the speed corresponding to
the maximum rate of climb, .
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Therefore, as , the maximum rate of climb is obtained at a TAS higher than green
dot:
It can be observed that it is not beneficial to climb at a speed lower than , as it would require a
longer distance and time to reach a given flight level.
2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
2.1. MASS EFFECT

At a given engine rating, altitude, and climb speed (TAS), any increase in weight leads to a
decrease in the climb gradient and rate of climb.
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2.2. ALTITUDE EFFECT

Due to air density reduction when pressure altitude increases, climb thrust and drag decrease.
But, since the drag force decreases at a lower rate than the available thrust, the difference between
thrust and drag decreases. Therefore, the climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with
pressure altitude, due to a lower excess of thrust.
When climbing, mass decreases due to fuel burn off, but the effect of increasing altitude is greater,
so that rate of climb and climb gradient decrease. Next figure shows a climb profile for an A320
with two different takeoff masses.
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2.3. TEMPERATURE EFFECT

At a given pressure altitude, as temperature increases (above TREF), thrust decreases. As a result,
the effect is the same as for altitude.
2.4. WIND EFFECT

A constant wind component has no influence on the rate of climb, but changes the ground flight
path.
The air climb gradient remains unchanged, whatever the wind component is. So, fuel and time to
the Top Of Climb (TOC) remain unchanged, the ground distance only changes.
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2.5. BLEED AIR EFFECT

Bleeds are used for air conditioning and anti-icing. Their use decreases the engine thrust, therefore
rate of climb and climb gradient decrease.
3. CLIMB SPEEDS
3.1. CLIMB MANAGEMENT
3.1.1.Thrust Setting
The standard climb rating is called Maximum Climb Thrust. At the reduction altitude, pilots
have to reduce thrust from takeoff power to climb power by setting the thrust throttles to the climb
(CL) gate. This must be done prior to a maximum time of 5 minutes after brake release.
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3.1.2.Energy Sharing
Aircraft energy is provided by the engines. To fly, an aircraft needs:
• Kinetic energy : Energy necessary to maintain speed and accelerate.
• Potential energy : Energy necessary to maintain altitude and climb.
The sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy cannot exceed the total aircraft energy.
Consequently, the total energy has to be shared between the need for speed and the need for
altitude.
The FMGS manages this energy sharing during the climb (70% for speed, 30% for altitude). As a
result, when:
• TAS increases: The climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease, as a part of potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy.
• TAS decreases: The climb gradient and rate of climb increase, as a part of kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy.
3.1.3.Climb Ceiling
The climb could continue until levelling off (i.e. when the rate of climb is close to zero).
Nevertheless, as it would be both time and fuel consuming to reach the desired flight level, so the
FMGS limits the climb to a maximum altitude. This maximum altitude is generally obtained when
the rate of climb is equal to 300 feet per minute.
3.2. CLIMB AT GIVEN IAS/MACH LAW

A climb is generally operated at a constant Indicated Air Speed (IAS) and Mach Number. For
instance, a standard climb profile for the A320 family is:
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The climb phase is, therefore, divided into 3 phases:

• Below 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 250 knots. The speed is limited by Air
Traffic Control (ATC) laws.
• Above 10,000 feet: Climb at constant IAS = 300 knots (limited to M0.78). At
10,000 feet, the aircraft accelerates to a more optimum climb speed (300 knots), which is
maintained as long as the mach number remains under 0.78.
• Above the crossover altitude: Climb at constant Mach = M0.78. The crossover altitude
is the altitude where 300 knots IAS is equal to M0.78. Above this altitude, a constant ratio
between the TAS and the sound velocity must be maintained to avoid high speed buffeting.
Note
The crossover altitude depends only on IAS and Mach chosen. It does not depend on outside
temperature. In the case of an IAS 250/300/M.78 climb, the crossover altitude is equal to
29,314 ft.
4. CLIMB IN OPERATIONS
All these climbs are performed at maximum climb thrust (CL).
4.1. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM GRADIENT

The climb gradient at (green dot speed) is at its maximum. Climbing at enables a given
altitude to be reached over the shortest distance.
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This climb is used:

• when there are penalizing close obstacles after takeoff;
• in order to reach a minimum level within the shortest possible distance.
depends on mass and pressure altitude:
Mnemonic aid: follows mass and altitude

Green dot speed ( is computed by the Flight Management System based on aircraft mass,
and is indicated on the Primary Flight Display (PFD) as soon as the aircraft is in clean
configuration. This speed can, consequently, be easily flown in manual mode.
4.2. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM RATE

Climbing at the maximum rate of climb speed ( ) enables a given altitude to be reached in the
shortest time.
depends on mass and pressure altitude:
Mnemonic aid: follows mass but not altitude

The maximum rate of climb speed is not indicated on the PFD. Nevertheless, a climb at maximum
rate can be carried out in managed mode (refer to "Climb at minimum cost").
4.3. CLIMB AT MINIMUM COST

As it will be seen in the "Cruise" - Speed Optimisation (see CRUISE ALL ENGINES
OPERATING p 99), the cost index aims at lowering direct operating costs. As a result, at a given
cost index, an optimum climb speed ( ) and an optimum climb mach number (
) are calculated by the FMGS as a function of the aircraft's mass. The climb is then
carried out in managed mode, based on the following IAS/Mach law:
To minimize overall fuel consumption during flight, a low cost index must be used. As the climb
phase is fuel consuming, it is advantageous to minimize climb duration. This is achieved at the
maximum rate of climb speed.
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4.4. CLIMB AT MAXIMUM SPEED

On the other hand, a higher cost index provides a higher climb speed, thus lowering the rate of
climb. But the distance covered during the climb is longer, so the cruise phase and total flight time
are reduced. This climb is used when flight time prevails over trip fuel, generally on short range
stage. The maximum climb speed is often limited to VMO – 10 knots.
4.5. FCOM CLIMB TABLE

Climb performance are generally shown in tables.
Example : an A320 climb table
Data: Results:
• Mass at brake release : 66 t • Climb to FL350 :
• Temperature : ISA • Time : 21 min
• Distance : 132 NM
• Air conditioning : Normal
• Fuel consumed : 1,619 kg
• Anti-ice : Off • Mean TAS : 377 kt
• Centre of Gravity : 33%
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• Speed : 250 kt / 300 kt / M0.78

If the mass at brake release is 78 t instead of 66 t: time, fuel and distance values are increased by
about 50%!
It means that takeoff mass has a strong influence on climb parameters.
5. CABIN CLIMB
As the cabin is pressurized, a cabin pressurization system adjusts cabin altitude to provide
passengers with a comfortable flight.
During normal operations, the cabin altitude is limited to a maximum value, which depends on the
aircraft type. The purpose of this is to limit differential pressure (between the inside and
outside) to a maximum value. For instance:
• A320 family : Max cabin altitude
• A340-200/300 : Max cabin altitude
Cabin altitude varies according to a pre-programmed law, in order to reach the scheduled cabin
altitude at the top of climb defined by the FMGS cruise FL. For fly-by-wire aircraft, the cabin rate
of climb is limited to 1,000 feet per minute.
In the above figure: when the FMGS cruise level is FL250, the cabin altitude remains at 3,050 feet
during the cruise phase at this altitude.
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4- CRUISE
4
CRUISE ALL ENGINES OPERATING 117
EN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE 147
1. CRUISE ALL ENGINES OPERATING
1.1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT

When the aeroplane is in steady level flight, the following balance is obtained:
• the required thrust for steady level flight (Tr) is equal to the drag (
),
• weight (msg) is equal to lift ( ).
1.1.1.Standard Equations
Lift equation:
• Weight = Lift
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•
Drag equation:
• Thrust = Drag
•
In other way:
Thus: at a given weight, drag is minimum when L/D is maximum
1.1.2.Equations as a Function of Mach Number

Lift and drag equations may be expressed with the Mach number:
with = static pressure at actual flight level.
1.1.3.Cruise regions
Refer to Part 081 "Principle of flight", subpart "Flight mechanics".
The figure below shows the variations of required thrust (drag) and available thrust (supplied by
the engines and adjustable through the thrust throttles) versus Mach number:
When a steady flight level is possible. Generally, two points meet that condition:
• the one with a high speed is speed stable and is within the so-called region of normal
command;
• the second corresponds to a low speed and is within the so-called region of reversed
command, which is speed instable.
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The separation of the two regions is given by the minimum of the thrust required curve, i.e.
minimum drag or maximum L/D.
1.1.4.Drag as a Function of Mach Number

At a given pressure altitude, with a higher mass, the drag increases, and the minimum drag
corresponds to an increasing Mach number (or speed).
At a given mass, when pressure altitude increases, the drag curve translates towards higher Mach
numbers as shown on figure below. The minimum drag slightly increases due to compressibility
effects at high Mach numbers.
Furthermore, climbing at constant Mach number (pressure altitude increases), drag decreases, as
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long as one stays within the normal command region.
1.1.5.High speed Drag Polar

The drag polar remains unchanged until the Mach number reaches 0.6. Above that value, the
increase of Mach number intensifies the effects of compressibility: drag increases while lift
decreases, altering the shape of the polar curve as shown on figure below.
Considering an aeroplane flying at constant flight level (constant pressure altitude), at given mass
and Mach number, the lift equation is: . With a greater Mach number
in the same conditions, CL must decrease in order to verify the lift equation.
If the Mach number rises from a low value, the operating point on the polar curve descends along
the first polar (< 0.60), and when M exceeds 0.60 the operating point goes from one to another
curve, following the increasing value of the Mach number (see figure below).
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At a given Mach number, with a heavier mass, or a higher pressure altitude, CL must increase in
order to verify the lift equation: the displacement of the operating points looks like on the above
figure.
1.2. SPECIFIC RANGE

The specific range (SR) is the distance covered per fuel unit.
Basically speaking, the specific range is equal to:
Considering air distance, the specific range is equal to:
As TAS is expressed in nautical miles per hour (NM/h), and Fuel Flow (FF) in kilograms per hour
(kg/h), the SR is expressed in NM/kg or NM/ton.
and a (speed of sound) a where is the sea level standard day speed of
sound (661.48 kt) and is the sea level standard day temperature (288.15 K).
and
Thus, SR depends on aerodynamic characteristics (Mach and L/D), engine performance (Specific
Fuel Consumption), and aircraft weight (mg).
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Thus:
1.3. SPEED OPTIMISATION
1.3.1.Maximum Range Mach Number

The figure below illustrates the specific range as a function of Mach number for a given mass at a
constant altitude.
As a result, at a given mass, a maximum specific range value exists and the corresponding
Mach number is called Maximum Range Mach number ( ). The advantage of the
Maximum Range Mach number is that the fuel consumption for a given distance is at its
minimum. It also corresponds to the maximum distance an aircraft can fly with a given fuel
quantity. The problem is that the corresponding speed is rather low.
For that reason, flights are usually not planned at Maximum Range.
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During cruise, the aircraft's mass decreases due to fuel burn. At the same time, the specific range
increases, but increases (see figure below).
The Mach number must therefore be adjusted to correspond to mass changes during the entire
flight at constant altitude. At a given mass, when pressure altitude increases, it appears that the
Maximum range Mach number generally increases. As a summary:
1.3.2.Long Range Mach Number

An alternative to MMR is to increase cruise speed involving a minor increase in fuel consumption
only. Typically, the long-range cruise Mach number (MLRC) provides this possibility.
At the long-range cruise Mach number, the specific range corresponds to 99% of the maximum
specific range (figure below). Economically speaking, the 1% loss compared to the maximum
specific range is largely compensated by the cruise speed increase due to the flatness of the curve.
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Flying at Long Range Mach number is a first approach of an economic flight management,
achieving a good compromise between flight time and fuel consumption.
Moreover, the computation of alternate fuel is usually made at long range cruise.
In relation to the Maximum Range Mach number, the long-range Cruise Mach number decreases
as well when mass decreases.
1.3.3.Economic Mach Number

Long-range Cruise Mach number was considered as a minimum fuel regime. If we consider the
Direct Operating Cost instead, the Economic Mach number ( ), can be introduced.
Direct Operating Costs include:
• Fixed costs (maintenance costs related to cycles, crew minimum fixed rates, etc...);
• Flight-time related costs (hourly maintenance costs, hourly crew costs);
• Fuel-consumption related costs.
The right choice of flight level and speed allows these DOCs to be minimized.
In other words, as time and fuel consumption are closely related, cruise planning is established by
making the right speed and flight level choices.
As a result, for a given trip, DOC can be expressed as:
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Where:
• = fixed (constant) costs
• = cost of fuel unit
• = trip fuel
• = time related costs per flight hour
• = trip time
As DOCs are calculated per nautical mile, it is possible to plot fuel-related costs, flight-time
related costs, and direct operating costs based on Mach number
Minimum fuel costs correspond to the Maximum Range Mach number. The minimum DOC
corresponds to a specific Mach number, referred to as Econ Mach ( ).
The value depends on the time and fuel cost ratio. This ratio is called cost index (CI), and
is usually expressed in kg/min or 100 lb/h:
When is fixed and increases, it becomes interesting to decrease fuel consumption.

Therefore, when CI decreases, Econ Mach decreases:
The extreme CI values are:

• CI = 0: Flight time costs are null (fixed wages), so (lowest boundary).
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• : Flight time costs are high and fuel costs are low, so = MAX SPEED
in order to have a trip with a minimum flight time. The maximum speed is generally
(MMO - 0.02) or (VMO - 10kt).
For instance, a cost index of 30 kg/min means that the cost of one flight minute equals the cost
of 30 kg of fuel. This does not mean that the fuel flow is 30 kg/min.
Being linked to the Maximum Range Mach number, the Economic Mach number varies the same
way with mass and altitude:
Mnemonic aid : follows mass and altitude
1.3.4.Constant Mach Number

The aircraft is often operated at a constant Mach number, whatever the mass and altitude are.
Nevertheless, as the aircraft weight decreases, the span between the selected Mach and the
increases. As a result, fuel consumption increases beyond the optimum.
1.3.5.Effect of wind on cruise Mach number

The (or or ) value varies with headwind or tailwind, due to changes in the
ground SR.
On the Thrust/Mach curve, the Maximum Range is obtained at the point of tangency to required
thrust curve (= drag curve). The wind implicates a displacing of the origin of speed (Mach),
depending on tailwind or headwind as indicated on figure below:
• in headwind conditions, ground speed (GS) decreases, thus the maximum range Mach
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number increases, and the angle of attack (AoA) is reduced;

• in tailwind conditions, GS increases, thus decreases and AoA increases.
The figure on the next page shows the effect of wind variations on both Maximum Range Mach
number and ground specific range.
As a result :
Similar results are found for LR and ECON Mach numbers.
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1.4. ALTITUDE OPTIMISATION
1.4.1.At a Constant Mach Number

In examining SR changes with the altitude at a constant Mach number, it appears that, for each
mass, there is an altitude where SR is maximum. This altitude is referred to as "optimum altitude".
When the aircraft flies at the optimum altitude, it is operated at the maximum lift to drag ratio
corresponding to the selected Mach number.
When the aircraft flies at high speed, the polar curve depends on the indicated Mach number, and
decreases when Mach increases (see High speed Drag Polar (see CRUISE ALL ENGINES
OPERATING p 99)). So, for each Mach number, there is a different value of ( )max, that
lowers as the Mach number increases.
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When the aircraft is cruising at the optimum altitude for a given Mach, is fixed and corresponds
to ( )max of the selected Mach number. As a result, in the lift equation (
), the variable elements are mass and outside static pressure ( )
prevailing at the optimum altitude.
Thus, the formula expressing a cruise at optimum altitude is:
Summary
1.4.2.MMR MLRC MECON

In these cases, the Mach number varies with altitude and aeroplane mass, but the optimum altitude
curve looks like the one for constant Mach number. Furthermore, in the plane {mass; pressure
altitude}, it is possible to join the different points having the same Mach number value: the
obtained iso-Mach number curves are all quasi-parallel to the optimum altitude curve, as shown
below.
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The results - already given at the end of Economic Mach Number (see CRUISE ALL ENGINES
OPERATING p 99) - can be found again on this figure.
Another consequence is that, if the aeroplane flies following the optimum altitude, the economic
Mach number remains constant: the decrease of Mach number due to mass reduction is
compensated by the increase of Mach number due to higher altitude. The same observation can be
made for Maxi Range or Long Range Mach numbers.
1.4.3.Wind influence
The wind force can be different at different altitudes. At a given weight, when cruise altitude is
lower than optimum altitude, the specific range decreases. Nevertheless, it is possible that, at a
lower altitude with a favourable wind, the ground specific range improves.
When the favourable wind difference between the optimum altitude and a lower one reaches a
certain value, the ground-specific range at lower altitude is higher than the ground-specific range
at optimum altitude. As a result, in such conditions, it is more economical to cruise at the lower
altitude.
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The figure below indicates the amount of favourable wind necessary to obtain the same
groundspecific range at altitudes different from the optimum one:
1.5. MAXIMUM CRUISE THRUST LIMITED ALTITUDE
1.5.1.Limit Mach Number at Constant Altitude

At given pressure altitude and mass, it is necessary to increase the thrust to increase the cruise
Mach number. Each engine having a limited Max-Cruise rating, the cruise Mach number is
maximum when the thrust reaches this Max-Cruise Thrust. With a lower mass at the same altitude,
the maximum Mach number becomes greater.
The figure below shows the max-cruise thrust limit on the specific range curves at a given pressure
altitude.
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1.5.2.Maximum Cruise Altitude

When pressure altitude increases, the max-cruise thrust decreases. Thus, flying at constant Mach
number, the max-cruise thrust will be reached at an altitude all the lower that the aeroplane mass is
heavier.
For an aeroplane given weight, this defines the max-cruise thrust limited altitude as the maximum
altitude that an aircraft can maintain at maximum cruise thrust when the pilot maintains a fixed
cruise Mach number.
Three parameters have an effect on this max-cruise altitude : the aeroplane mass, the cruise Mach
number, and the outside temperature.
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1.5.3.Effect of temperature on Maximum Cruise Altitude

The Max-Cruise Thrust rating depends on the maximum temperature that the turbines can sustain.
As a result, when outside temperature increases (above TREF), maximum thrust decreases.
The figure below illustrates the maximum possible Mach number, as a function of temperature at
given altitude and mass.
As a consequence, the max-cruise thrust limited altitude lowers when outside temperature
increases as shown on the following figure.
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Max-cruise thrust limited altitude variations can be summed up as:
1.6. EN-ROUTE MANOEUVRE LIMITS

Refer to Part 081 "Principle of flight", subpart "Buffet onset boundary".
1.6.1.Lift Range
In level flight, lift balances weight, and when equals , the lift limit is reached. At this
point, if the angle of attack increases, a stall occurs.
Lift limit equation:
Thus the lift range is related to the curve .
At a given weight, depending on the lift limit equation, each value corresponds to a
static pressure ( ) value, i.e. a pressure altitude (PA). Therefore, there is a direct relationship
between and PA: it is possible to graduate the ordinates axis with PA values.
The figure on next page shows that, at a given PA, flight is only possible for a limited range of
Mach numbers, between and .
When PA increases, the Mach range decreases until it is reduced to a single point corresponding to
the lift ceiling ( ).
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1.6.2.Operating Manoeuvre Limitations

1.6.2.1.Buffet phenomenon
Concerning the lower Mach number limit, when speed decreases, the angle of attack must be
increased in order to increase the lift coefficient, which keeps the forces balanced.
In any case, it is not possible to indefinitely increase the angle of attack (AoA). At a high AoA, the
airflow separates from the upper wing surface. If the AoA continues to increase, the point of
airflow separation is unstable and rapidly fluctuates back and forth. Consequently, the pressure
distribution changes constantly and also changes the lift's position and magnitude. This effect is
called buffeting and is evidenced by severe vibrations.
When the AoA reaches a maximum value, the separation point moves further ahead and total flow
separation of the upper surface is achieved. This phenomenon leads to a significant loss of lift,
referred to as a stall.
The high Mach number limit phenomenon is quite different. In fact, at high speed,
compressibility effects produce shock waves on the upper wing surface. When Mach number,
and/or AoA increase, the airflow separates from the upper surface behind the shock wave, which
becomes unstable and induces buffeting of the same type as encountered in the low speed case.
1.6.2.2.Buffet limit
When manoeuvring, the aircraft is subject to a load factor expressed as:
During turns in level flight, the load factor value depends on the bank angle:
At the lift limit, the lift equation becomes: .
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At a given pressure altitude (Ps) and given weight (mg), one load factor corresponds to each
. Therefore, a curve representing load factor versus Mach number will have the same
shape as the one observed at the top of the previous page.
In fact, the useful limit Mach numbers in operation are the ones for which buffeting occurs, i.e.
allowing a margin with the lift limit.
The next figure represents the buffet limit, and for n = n1, a minimum Mach appears for lo speed
buffet and a maximum Mach for high speed buffet. When n increases, the Mach number range
decreases, so that when n = n max, Mmin = Mmax.
Therefore, nmax is the maximum admissible load factor at this mass and altitude, and the
corresponding Mach number M allows the highest margin regarding buffet limit.
1.6.2.3.Pressure altitude effect

With increasing pressure altitude, the lift area reduces, and the usable Mach range as well. The
following figure illustrates the effects of pressure altitude on the lift area.
When flying at given mass and cruise Mach number, the load factor at which buffet occurs
decreases with increasing altitude.
At the intermediate pressure altitude represented on the following figure, nbuffet = 1.3. It means
that it is possible to bear a load factor equal to 1.3 (or make a 40° bank turn) before buffeting
occurs at this cruise Mach number.
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In order to maintain a minimum margin against buffeting and ensure good aircraft
manoeuvrability, it is necessary to determine an acceptable load factor limit under which buffeting
shall never occur. This load factor limit is generally fixed to 1.3. This value is an operating
limitation, but not a regulatory one.
The corresponding altitude is called the "1.3g buffet limited altitude" or "buffet ceiling".
For a given Mach number, the figure below represents the 1.3g buffet limited altitude versus
aeroplane mass. At a given Mach number, when mass decreases, the buffet limited altitude
increases.
Coffin corner
If an aeroplane flies at very high altitude above the 1.3g buffet limited altitude, the usable Mach
range is narrow. There is a real risk to go off the lift limit with a slight turbulence, i.e. a light load
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factor may be sufficient to stall the aeroplane.

The following figure represents such a case which consequences may be catastrophic, hence the
appellation of "coffin corner".
When the aeroplane flies at at given mass and cruise Mach number, its operating point is
represented by the point 1 inside the blue lift area. If it undergoes a load factor (due to turbulences)
which moves its operating point out of lift range (point 2), the aeroplane stalls, starts to fall, and its
speed increases strongly. The operating point is now on point 3 (n<1 during descent) and it will be
necessary to wait up to altitude to come back into lift range and recover from the stall. The
altitude loss may be huge, and the speed may reach, actually sometimes exceed MMO.
1.7. CRUISE OPTIMISATION

As a result, the maximum recommended altitude indicated by the FMGS, depending on
aeroplane mass and temperature conditions, is the lowest of the:
• maximum certified altitude;
• max-cruise thrust limited altitude;
• 1.3g buffet limited altitude;
• climb ceiling (see CLIMB SPEEDS (see CLIMB SPEEDS p 93)).
Ideal cruise should coincide with optimum altitude. As a general rule, this altitude is not constant,
but increases as mass decreases during cruise. On the other hand, ATC restrictions require level
flight cruise. Aircraft must fly by segments of constant altitude which must be as close as possible
to the optimum altitude.
In accordance with the separation of aircraft between flight levels, the level segments are
established at feet from the optimum altitude, except in RVSM (Reduced Vertical
Separation Minima) areas where separation between flight levels is only 1,000 feet.
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In general, it is observed that in such conditions (flying feet from the optimum altitude):
As a result, the following profile is obtained for a step climb cruise.
Flight levels are selected in accordance with temperature conditions. Usually, the first step is such
that it starts at the first usable flight level, compatible with max-cruise thrust limited altitude.
In case of short distance trip, the cruise flight level is chosen so as to get a minimum flight time of
about 15 min.
1.8. CRUISE TABLES

In the Operations Manual, cruise performance is generally shown in tables. Cruise tables are
established for several Mach numbers in different ISA conditions with normal air conditioning and
anti-icing off. Corrections have to be applied when temperature differs from ISA conditions, or
when using low air conditioning or anti-icing.
Example : an A320 cruise table

Data: Results:
• Cruise Mach .78 • N1: 85.3%
• Temperature: ISA • FF: 1262 kg/h/engine
• Air conditioning: Normal • SR: 181.3 NM/kg
• Anti-ice: Off • Mach : .78
• Centre of Gravity: 33% • IAS: 289 kt
• Mass: 60 t • TAS: 458 kt
• FL 310
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2. EN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE

2.1. EN-ROUTE FAILURE CASES
In flight, engine or pressurization failures are potential problems, which must be carefully studied
before operating a new route. Their occurrence seriously impacts on flight altitudes and, therefore,
becomes very constraining over mountainous areas.
In case of an engine failure during flight, the remaining thrust is no longer sufficient to balance
the drag force and to maintain an adequate cruise speed. The thrust necessary to fly at the initial
altitude suddenly becomes greater than the available thrust delivered by the engines pushed at their
Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) rating.
The only solution is to descend then to a more appropriate flight altitude, where the available
thrust can equal the required thrust, thus allowing the aircraft to level off. As shown on the figure
above, the speed which allows the higher level-off is the minimum drag speed (maximum lift to
drag ratio), or green dot speed.
In case of an in-flight cabin pressurization loss, descent is also necessary. It is not dictated by a
performance constraint, but by the oxygen system constraint. Indeed, at the initial cruise altitude,
the rate of oxygen in the air is insufficient to allow crewmembers and passengers to breathe
normally. This is why the installation of an oxygen system is required. As the necessary oxygen
quantity must be quite significant to supply the entire cabin, its flow rate is limited to a maximum
duration. So, a new flight altitude, where oxygen is no longer required must be reached, before a
certain time limit.
The descent cannot always be operated in the same conditions, since, aircraft are sometimes over-
flying mountainous areas. This is why, in these particular cases, a route study is necessary to
evaluate whether or not an acceptable escape procedure is possible when a failure occurs at the
worst moment during flight. If this is possible, it must be clearly defined and indicated to the
pilots. If it is not possible, a new route has to be found.
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2.2. OPERATING REGULATIONS
2.2.1.All aeroplanes
The failure of one engine must be considered at all points along the route. The engine is assumed
to fail at the most critical point along the route.
CAT.POL.A.215 En route One Engine inoperative

• (c) (4) The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after
engine failure must meet the following criteria:
• (i) The performance requirements at the expected landing mass are
met; and
• (ii) Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and
field condition reports indicate that a safe landing can be
accomplished at the estimated time of landing.
2.2.2.Aeroplanes with three or more engines

The simultaneous failure of two engines must be considered at all points situated at more than
90 minutes, at the all-engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away
from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass
are met when using the prescribed procedure for a landing with two engines inoperative.
The two engines are assumed to fail at the most critical point of that portion of the route where the
aeroplane is more than 90 minutes away from an aerodrome.
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.220 En-route – Aeroplanes With Three Or More

Engines, Two Engines Inoperative
• (f) The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where the two
engines are assumed to fail must not be less than that which would
include sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where the landing is
assumed to be made, and to arrive there at least 1 500 ft directly over
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the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes.
2.2.3.Aeroplanes with two engines
AIR-OPS CAT.OP.MPA.140 Maximum distance from an adequate aerodrome

for two-engined aeroplanes without an ETOPS Approval
• (a) Unless approved by the Authority (...) (ETOPS Approval), the
operator shall not operate a two-engined aeroplane over a route that
contains a point further from an adequate aerodrome under standard
conditions in still air, than:
• (1) Performance Class A aeroplanes with either:
• (i) a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 20
or more; or
• (ii) a maximum take-off mass of 45 360 kg or more, the
distance flown in 60 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative
cruise speed (...);
• (2) Performance Class A aeroplanes with:
• (i) a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 19
or less; and
• (ii) a maximum take-off mass less than 45 360 kg, the distance
flown in 120 minutes or, if approved by the Authority, up to
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180 minutes for turbo-jet aeroplanes, at the one-engine-

inoperative cruise speed (...).
ETOPS means "Extended range operations for two-engined aeroplanes".

Thus, for aeroplanes with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 20 or more; or
a maximum take-off mass of 45 360 kg or more, an ETOPS approval is required to fly at more
than 60 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed away from an adequate aerodrome.
An adequate aerodrome is an aerodrome which the operator considers to be satisfactory, taking

account of the applicable performance requirements and runway characteristics. In addition, it
should be anticipated that, at the expected time of use, the aerodrome will be available and
equipped with necessary ancillary services, such as ATS, sufficient lighting, communications,
weather reporting, navaids and emergency services.
For an ETOPS en-route alternate aerodrome, the following additional points should be considered:
• the availability of an ATC facility;
• the availability of at least one letdown aid (ground radar would so qualify) for an
instrument approach; and.
• a Rescue and Fire Fighting Service (RFFS) equivalent to ICAO category 4 (for RFFS not
located on the aerodrome: capable of meeting the aeroplane within 30 minutes notice).
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2.3. DRIFT DOWN FLIGHT PATHS
2.3.1.Drift Down procedure

In case of an engine failure over a mountainous area during the climb or cruise phase, the obstacle
strategy or drift down strategy should be applied.
This procedure consists in:
• selecting Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT) on the remaining engine(s).
• decelerating to green dot speed.
• climbing or descending at green dot speed until reaching the drift down ceiling.
Green dot speed, indicated by a green circle on the primary flight display (PFD), represents the
best lift-to-drag ratio speed, where aerodynamic efficiency is maximum. As a consequence, the
drift down strategy is the procedure enabling the highest possible altitude to be achieved versus the
distance covered.
2.3.2.Gross and Net Drift Down Flight Paths

2.3.2.1.Gross Drift Down Flight Path
The Gross Drift Down Flight Path is the flight path actually flown by the aircraft after engine
failure. Regulations require that operators be provided with the drift down performance
information, as stated below:
CS 25.123 En-route flight paths

• (a) For the en-route configuration, the flight paths (...) must be
determined at each weight, altitude, and ambient temperature within the
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operating limits established for the aeroplane. The variations of weight

along the flight path, accounting for the progressive consumption of
fuel and oil by the operating engines, may be included in the
computation. The flight paths must be determined at any selected speed,
with:
• the most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• the critical engine inoperative;
• the remaining engines at the available maximum continuous power
or thrust; and
• the means for controlling the engine cooling air supply in the
position that provides adequate cooling in the hot-day condition.
2.3.2.2.Net Drift Down Flight Path

The Net Drift Down Flight Path represents the Gross flight path minus a mandatory reduction.
CS 25.123 En-route flight paths

• (b) The one-engine-inoperative net flight path data must represent the
actual climb performance diminished by a gradient of climb of 1.1% for
two-engined aeroplanes, 1.4% for three-engined aeroplanes, and 1.6%
for four-engined aeroplanes.
• in non-icing condition; and
• in icing conditions with the en-route ice accretion defined in
[paragraph 1.8.3 page 19], if:
• a speed of 1.18 VSR with the en-route ice accretion exceeds the
en-route speed selected in non-icing conditions by more than
the greater of 3 kt CAS or 3% of VSR, or
• the degradation of the gradient of climb is greater than one half
of the applicable actual-to-net flight path reduction defined in
sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph.
• (c) For three- or four-engined aeroplanes, the two-engine-inoperative
net flight path data must represent the actual climb performance
diminished by a gradient climb of 0.3% for threeengined aeroplanes,
and 0.5% for four-engined aeroplanes.
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Net flight path Gradient penalty

Two-engine Three-engine Four-engine
aircraft aircraft aircraft
One engine out 1.1 % 1.4 % 1.6 %
Two engines - 0.3 % 0.5 %
out
2.4. EN-ROUTE OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
2.4.1.Lateral Clearance
Obstacle clearance must be ensured throughout the route, in case of an engine failure. The problem
is to clearly identify which obstacles must be cleared.
Regulations indicate which obstacles must be taken into account:
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.215 En-route – One Engine Inoperative

• (c) The net flight path must permit the aeroplane to continue flight from
the cruising altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made, [...].
The net flight path shall clear [...] all terrain and obstructions along the
route within 9.3 km (5 NM) on either side of the intended track [...].
• (d) [...] The operator shall increase the width margins [...] to 18.5 km
(10 NM) if the navigational accuracy does not meet at least required
navigation performance 5 (RNP 5).
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The 95% containment level is generally achieved if the aircraft navigational system has been
updated within two hours, or if the aircraft is equipped with GPS primary.
To carry out a detailed route study (engine failure case), a topographic map shall be used and the
highest obstacles inside the required corridor width determined.
Another, less time consuming, but less accurate method, consists in using the published Minimum
Flight Altitudes which already account for a margin of 2,000 feet on the obstacles.
2.4.2.Vertical Clearance

• (a) The OEI en-route net flight path data shown in the AFM,
appropriate to the meteorological conditions expected for the flight,
shall allow demonstration of compliance with (b) or (c) at all points
along the route. The net flight path shall have a positive gradient at 1
500 ft above the aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made
after engine failure. In meteorological conditions requiring the
operation of ice protection systems, the effect of their use on the net
flight path shall be taken into account.
Vertical clearance shall always be understood as a margin between the net flight path and the
obstructions. The en route net flight path shall be determined from the Aircraft Flight Manual,
and must take into account the meteorological conditions (wind and temperature) prevailing in the
area of operations. Moreover, if icing conditions can be expected at the diversion level, the effect
of the anti-ice system must be considered on the net flight path.
Any route study should be conducted by checking one of the following two vertical clearance
conditions. When Standard Rule cannot be met, or when it appears to be too penalizing in terms of
mass, a detailed study must then be carried out based on Down Hill Rule.
2.4.2.1.Standard Rule : 1,000 feet clearance margin

• (b) The gradient of the net flight path must be positive at at least
1 000 ft above all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km
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(5 NM) on either side of the intended track.
The figure below represents the standard rule in case of engine failure during cruise, but the
principle is the same if the failure occurs during en-route climb.
One may notice that the standard rule is a conservative one: in case of engine failure before the
critical point (thus at a heavier mass), the net flight path will join the net one-engine ceiling and
overfly the obstacle with the mandatory margin.
2.4.2.2.Down Hill Rule : 2,000 feet clearance margin

Down Hill Rule (DHR) only concerns the case of an engine failure during the cruise phase. When
the standard rule is not met, or when it is too limiting in terms of weight, a drift down procedure
should be worked out, as detailed below:

• (c) The net flight path must permit the aeroplane to continue flight from
cruising altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made, (...), the
net flight path clearing vertically, by at least 2 000 ft, all terrain and
obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 NM) on either side of the
intended track [...].
At any point of a critical area on the route, it must always be possible to escape while ensuring,
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during descent, the relevant obstacle clearance margin of 2,000 feet on the net flight path.
Using the DHR procedure, the point where the engine failure is assumed to occur becomes a
critical point for the flight:
• in case of a real engine failure before this point, it is impossible to overfly the obstacle with
the mandatory margin: an alternate aerodrome situated before the obstacle must be
selected;
• in case of a real engine failure after this point, it is impossible to turn back and overfly the
obstacle with the mandatory margin: an alternate aerodrome situated after the obstacle
must be selected.
In fact, the two possibilities (continue or turn back) after engine failure have to be studied during
flight preparation and the two corresponding net flight paths positioned 2000 ft above the high
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terrain as represented on the figure below. The intersection of the two drift down paths gives the
position of the critical point, and the minimum altitude allowing a safe overfly of the obstacle.
The minimum Flight Level is then the first usable FL above the minimum altitude: on both sides
of P, a safety margin appears, allowing light inaccuracies in navigation or aeroplane mass value.
Alternatively, the published minimum flight altitudes (minimum en-route altitude, MEA, or
minimum off route altitude, MORA) may be used. This procedure avoids a detailed high terrain
contour analysis but may be more penalising than taking into account the actual terrain profile as
shown on figure below.
NOTE: MEA or MORA normally provide the required 2000 ft obstacle clearance for driftdown.
However, at and below 6000 ft altitude, MEA and MORA cannot be used directly as only 1000 ft
clearance is ensured.
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Thus, for the pilot, the implementation of the DHR rule implies the knowledge of:
• the critical point P;
• the maximum mass at P; and
• the minimum FL at P.
In order to comply with the clearance margin, fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent consistent
with reaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves, if a safe procedure is used. Therefore,
with two engines inoperative (for aeroplanes with three or more engines), the aeroplane must be
able to reach an aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made at least 1500 ft directly above
the landing area and thereafter fly level for 15 minutes.
2.5. MAXIMUM TAKEOFF MASS DUE TO EN-ROUTE ENGINE FAILURE

The takeoff mass shall be calculated so that the aeroplane complies with the mandatory vertical
obstacle clearance in case of engine failure. Two cases may be considered, function of the used
rule.
2.6. ETOPS FLIGHT

ETOPS flights have already been defined in Aeroplanes with two engines (see EN-ROUTE ONE
ENGINE INOPERATIVE p 123): an ETOPS approval is mandatory to conduct operations beyond
a threshold distance.
Concerning Performance Class A aeroplanes with a maximum approved passenger seating
configuration of 20 or more, or a maximum takeoff mass of 45 360 kg or more, the threshold
distance corresponds to the distance flown in 60 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative cruise
speed.
AIR-OPS CAT.OP.MPA.140 Maximum distance from an adequate aerodrome

for two-engined aeroplanes without an ETOPS Approval
• (b) An operator shall determine a speed for the calculation of the
maximum distance to an adequate aerodrome for each two-engined
aeroplane type or variant operated, not exceeding VMO, based upon the
true airspeed that the aeroplane can maintain with one-
engineinoperative.
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• (c) An operator must ensure that the following data, specific to each
type or variant, is included in the Operations Manual:
• 1. the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed determined in
accordance with subparagraph (b) above; and
• 2. the maximum distance from an adequate aerodrome determined
in accordance with subparagraphs (a) and (b) above.
Note: The speeds specified above are only intended to be used for establishing
the maximum distance from an adequate aerodrome.
For twin-engine wide body aeroplanes (A330, B777), the threshold distance is about 420 NM.
Thus, if one draws circles whose radius is equal to this threshold distance, it is possible to
represent the non ETOPS areas on a world map as shown on the figure below: one can easily
understand that transoceanic flights (and some terrestrial overflights) are impossible for twin
engines without an ETOPS approval.
In fact, an ETOPS flight is the outcome of successive approvals :

• approval of the aeroplane at design level;
• in-service experience;
• approval of the operation;
• continuous monitoring.
The first two points mainly concern the manufacturer while the last two ones concern the operator.
It is first the responsibility of the aeroplane manufacturer to ensure that the aircraft's design
satisfies the ETOPS regulations. To meet all these requirements, two parts can be distinguished:
• ETOPS type design eligibility: the manufacturer must first demonstrate that its aircraft
complies with the required ETOPS design criteria and is therefore eligible for ETOPS;
• ETOPS type design capability: the manufacturer must then show that the airframe/engine
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combination has attained a sufficient reliability level based on inservice experience.

Generally, the Authorities require about 100,000 to 250,000 engine flying hours of
experience in order to obtain statistically viable reliability analysis.
If these two conditions are met, the Certificate of Airworthiness specifies that the aeroplane can fly
beyond the threshold limit.
To obtain the ETOPS operational approval, the operator has to demonstrate his competence to his
Authority: the airline has to prove that it has the appropriate experience with the airframe/engine
combination, and that it is familiar with the intended area of ETOPS operations.
In particular, the operator must implement specific procedures (maintenance procedures, reliability
reporting, aircraft dispatch); the operator's training programme should instruct flight crews,
maintenance personnel and dispatchers with the specifics of ETOPS requirements; the operational
documentation (operations manual, MEL, etc.) must be adapted; and a validation flight has to be
performed in order to demonstrate and validate the effectiveness of the overall company
procedures for ETOPS.
Finally, ETOPS aircraft reliability trends must be continuously monitored in order to ensure that
they remain at the requested levels. The operator should therefore provide the reliability data
(events and analysis) to the Authority.
Following the ETOPS Type Design Approval for the aircraft and a satisfactory application of the
Operational Approval criteria by the applicant airline, the Authority will grant the airline an
Operational Approval to conduct ETOPS flights with a given maximum diversion time.
This diversion time may be first 90 minutes or 120 minutes, according to the operator's ETOPS
experience, with a possible extension by 15% after a few months. The maximum diversion time
may be increased up to 180 minutes, after one year of 120 minutes experience. Nevertheless, there
is a possibility to accelerate the sequence in case of experience with an other aeroplane of the
family, or in case of derivative aeroplane.
As a consequence, the maximum diversion distance is the distance covered in still air and ISA
conditions within the maximum diversion time at the selected one-engine-inoperative diversion
speed: this speed is selected by the operator, and approved by the Authority.
The ETOPS area of operation is the area in which it is authorized to conduct a flight under ETOPS
regulations and is defined by the maximum diversion distance from an adequate airport or set of
adequate airports. It is represented by circles, centred on the adequate aerodromes, whose radius is
the approved maximum diversion distance.
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The ETOPS Entry Point (EEP) is the point located on the aeroplane's outbound route which is one
hour flying time, at the approved one-engine-inoperative cruise speed (in still air and ISA
conditions), from an adequate airport.
The ETOPS segment starts at the EEP and finishes at the EXP.
The ETOPS Exit Point (EXP) is the point located on the aeroplane's inbound route which is one
hour flying time, at the approved one-engine-inoperative cruise speed (in still air and ISA
conditions), from an adequate airport.
The two following maps represent the area of operations for 120 minutes and 180 minutes
diversion times for a twin wide body like the A330.
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AIR-OPS SPA.ETOPS.110 ETOPS En-route alternate aerodrome

• (a) An ETOPS en-route alternate aerodrome shall be considered
adequate, if, at expected time of use, the aerodrome is available and
equipped with necessary ancillary services such as air traffic services
(ATS), sufficient lighting, communications, weather reporting,
navigation aids and emergency services and has at least one instrument
approach procedure available.
• (b) Prior to conducting an ETOPS flight, the operator shall ensure that
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on ETOPS enroute alternate is available, within either the approved

diversion time or a diversion time based on the MEL generated
serviceability status of the aeroplane, whichever is shorter.
An operator shall include in the Operations Manual the method for determining the operating
minima at the planned ETOPS en-route alternate aerodrome.
2.7. IN-FLIGHT CABIN PRESSURISATION FAILURE
2.7.1.Oxygen Systems
AIR-OPS CAT.IDE.A.235 Supplemental oxygen – pressurised aeroplanes

• (a) Pressurised aeroplanes operated at pressure altitudes above 10 000 ft
shall be equipped with supplemental oxygen equipment that is capable
of storing and dispensing the oxygen supplies.
After a cabin pressurization failure, oxygen is automatically supplied to passengers through

individual dispensing units, immediately available to each occupant. These units are automatically
deployed in case of a cabin pressurization loss, but they only supply oxygen for a limited period
of time.
The duration of passenger oxygen supply varies, depending on the system. Currently, two
mainoxygen system categories operate: chemical systems and gaseous systems. A new oxygen
system called OBOGS (On Board Oxygen Generation System) is under development; this system
will provide oxygen continuously.
2.7.1.1.Chemical systems
A chemical system has the following characteristics:
• there is an independent chemical generator, which is fired when the mask is pulled;
afterwards, it's not possible to stop the oxygen flow;
• the oxygen flow and supply pressure are independent of the cabin altitude;
• the oxygen is supplied to passengers for a specific period of time, which can either be 15 or
22 minutes;
• a maximum flight profile is predetermined for such a system
2.7.1.2.Gaseous Systems
A gaseous system has certain advantages over the chemical system:
• it is customizable by selecting the number of high pressure oxygen bottles (up to
14 cylinders on the A340);
• the oxygen flow and supply pressure depend on the altitude; the flow rate is controlled by
an altimetric flow regulation device in each mask container; it enables passenger oxygen
consumption to be optimized: the lower the altitude, the lower the oxygen flow;
• the oxygen supply time depends on the flight profile, and on the number of cylinders
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installed;
• there is no oxygen flow below a cabin pressure altitude of 10 000 ft.
2.7.2.Flight Profile
To help operators determine their needs in terms of supplementary oxygen, regulations provide the
minimum required oxygen quantity versus the flight altitude.
This information is given for flight crewmembers, cabin crewmembers, as well as for passengers.
Nevertheless, oxygen reserves for crewmembers are always much more significant than for
passengers and, consequently, the descent profile is always more limited by the passenger oxygen
system than by the crew oxygen system.??
Following a cabin pressurization failure, the cabin pressure altitude shall be considered the same
as the aircraft's pressure altitude, unless it can be demonstrated that this is highly unlikely. In the
studies, it is always assumed that the cabin pressure altitude is the same as the aircraft's pressure
altitude.
As a result, it is possible to establish a flight profile, in which the aircraft has always to stay, taking
into account the above-mentioned oxygen requirements. This profile depends on the installed
oxygen system:
• chemical system: fixed profile (published in the FCOM);
• gaseous system: customized profile (depends on the number of oxygen bottles and obstacle
location).
This flight profile represents the maximum level that can be flown with respect to the oxygen
system's capability.
Example
As an example, the following figure shows the descent profile of a 22 minute oxygen system.
For instance, the above profile shows that 7 minutes after the cabin depressurization, the aircraft
must fly at or below FL250.
The above descent profile only depends on the oxygen system's capability, and not on the aircraft's
performance capability.
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Nevertheless, this doesn't mean that the aircraft is always able to follow the oxygen profile,
particularly in descent. As a consequence, the performance profile must be established, and this
profile must always remain below the oxygen profile. The calculation is based on the following
assumptions:
• descent phase: emergency descent at MMO/VMO; airbrakes can be extended to increase
the rate of descent, if necessary;
• cruise phase: cruise at maximum speed (limited to VMO).
As a result, for a given initial weight and flight level, the oxygen profile, function of the time, is
transformed into a performance profile.
Remark
When establishing this performance profile, it is always assumed that the aircraft is able to fly at
MMO/VMO. Cases where speed should be decreased (structural damage, turbulence...) have not to
be taken into account.
2.7.3.Effect on Allowed Traffic Load

After a pressurization failure, the flight crew generally proceeds to an emergency descent to FL100
or to the minimum flight level compatible with the surrounding relief. Two cases may be
considered.
Without obstacle limitation: the flight being conducted at FL100, the fuel consumption highly
increases. Additional fuel may be necessary to reach a distant alternate aerodrome, thus the
allowed traffic load is decreased accordingly.
In case of high mountainous plateau (e.g. Himalaya) it will be necessary to plan gaseous oxygen
for the entire flight above FL140, increasing the aeroplane dry operating mass, and the allowed
traffic load will be reduced.
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DESCENT /
5-
HOLDING 5
FLIGHT MECHANICS IN DESCENT 167
INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS 171
DESCENT SPEEDS 175
DESCENT IN OPERATIONS 178
CABIN DESCENT 180
HOLDING 181
SUMMARY OF POLAR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS FOR TURBOJETS 184
1. FLIGHT MECHANICS IN DESCENT
1.1. DEFINITIONS
The following figure shows the different forces which apply on an aeroplane in descent. To make
simpler, aeroplane axis and aerodynamic axis are supposed to be superposed.
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• The descent gradient ( ) represents the angle between the horizontal axis and the
aerodynamic axis. During descent is negative.
• The rate of descent (RD) represents the vertical component of the aircraft's speed. It is
negative and expressed in feet per minute.
1.2. DESCENT EQUATIONS

While climb is due to excess thrust, descent is, on its part, caused by a lack of thrust. Therefore,
the descent gradient and the rate of descent, which depend on the difference (Thrust – Drag), are
negative.
During descent at constant speed, the balance of forces is achieved. Along the aerodynamic axis,
this balance can be expressed as :
The balance along the vertical axis, becomes :
1.3. DESCENT GRADIENT (ɣ)

As seen in the "Climb" chapter, the gradient can be expressed as:
Descent is carried out at the Flight Idle thrust (i.e. at a thrust close to zero).
Consequently:
By introducing L/D (the Lift to Drag ratio), and as the weight value is close to the lift one (
), the descent angle becomes:
Conclusion: At a given weight, the descent gradient is minimum when the drag is minimum,or
when the lift-to-drag ratio is maximum. The minimum descent angle speed is, therefore,the
green dot speed.
1.4. RATE OF DESCENT (RD)

The Rate of Descent (RD) corresponds to the vertical component of the TAS.
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Hence:
Conclusion: At a given aircraft weight, the rate of descent is minimum, when is

minimum.
As a rule of thumb :
1.5. SPEED POLAR

The example below illustrates both the thrust and the power variations versus the aeroplane speed.
The above equations indicate that, at a given weight:
• the descent angle ( ) is proportional to the drag force, which is at its minimum at green dot
speed ( );
• the rate of descent (RD) is proportional to the power required (power of the drag force). As
, the minimum rate of descent is obtained for a TAS lower than green dot,
the corresponding angle of attack is such that is maximun.
Therefore, the minimum rate of descent is obtained at a TAS lower than green dot. Otherwise, a
descent at maximum speed (VMO) allows the maximum rate of descent.
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As a consequence,
2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
2.1. MASS EFFECT

At given pressure altitude, the minimum descent gradient is independent of the mass value:
On the other hand, the minimum gradient (green dot) speed is a function of aeroplane mass: with a
heavier mass, green dot speed increases.
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The figure below shows that, in the standard descent speed range (from green dot to VMO), the
rate of descent is reduced at higher mass.
Indeed, the balance of forces during descent indicates that:
At a given TAS, a higher weight means that a higher lift coefficient ( ) is needed to maintain the
balance of forces. This is achieved by increasing the angle of attack ( ) and reducing the descent
gradient ( ). As , the rate of descent is reduced as well.
As a conclusion, in the standard descent speed range:
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2.2. ALTITUDE EFFECT

Descent being conducted at idle thrust, the altitude effect is insignificant on thrust, an thus on
aeroplane performance.
The following figure shows a descent profile for an A320 at two different top of descent (TOD)
masses.
2.3. TEMPERATURE EFFECT

As for pressure altitude, the temperature effect is difficult to assess. Indeed, at a given altitude, an
increase in temperature causes a reduction in air density. As a result, drag decreases as well, and it
could be convenient to conclude that the magnitude of the gradient and rate of descent are thus
reduced.
Nevertheless, the TAS is not constant during the descent. At a given Mach or IAS, TAS increases
with temperature, thus compensating for drag reduction. This is why descent parameter variations
versus temperature are not really significant.
2.4. WIND EFFECT

A constant wind component has no influence on the rate of descent, but changes the flight path.
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So, the fuel and time necessary to descend from the TOD to the final level remain unchanged.
2.5. SPOILERS / AIRBRAKES EFFECT

The use of spoilers or airbrakes increases the drag. The descent angle being proportional to drag
will increase as well.
2.6. THRUST EFFECT

During a descent at a given descent angle, if the thrust increases, the speed on the flight path
increases as well. To maintain the speed constant, it is necessary to reduce the descent angle.
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2.7. BLEED AIR EFFECT

The use of bleeds for air conditioning or anti-icing requires a higher power rating. The result is
that the thrust is higher than idle:
3. DESCENT SPEEDS
3.1. THRUST SETTING

The standard engine rating for descent is "Flight Idle Thrust". For fly-by-wire aircraft, the thrust
throttle position doesn't change when autothrust is engaged. The throttles remain on the "CL"
(climb) gate for the entire flight. The engine monitoring computer, or FADEC (Full Authority
Digital Engine Control), adjusts the thrust level to the required value.
In case of an altitude constraint or a repressurization segment (See Cabin Descent (see CABIN
DESCENT p 154)), the aircraft's vertical speed may have to be limited during descent. This is
achieved at a thrust called "Adapted Thrust". The adapted thrust may vary between flight idle
thrust and maximum cruise thrust. It is delivered by the engines, when autothrust is engaged, as
soon as the aircraft descent speed plus one of the two descent parameters (gradient or rate) have to
be maintained at fixed values.
3.2. DESCENT AT GIVEN MACH/IAS LAW

As for the climb, a standard descent is generally operated in three phases: constant Mach Number
and Indicated Air Speed (IAS), then IAS equal to 250 kt below FL100.
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For instance, a standard descent profile for the A320 family is:
TAS variations during descent are illustrated on the figure below.
Similarly to the climb, the crossover altitude depends only on the chosen Mach/IAS law. In this
case, the crossover altitude is 29,314 ft.
3.3. GRADIENT AND RATE OF DESCENT EVOLUTION DURING

DESCENT
The descent gradient is proportional to drag, and drag depends on air density and TAS. During the
descent phase, air density increases, but TAS first increases then decreases. Thus it is necessary to
distinguish two phases.
Above the crossover altitude: during descent, air density and TAS increase, the two effects tend
to cumulate:
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Below the crossover altitude: during descent, air density increases, but TAS decreases, the two
effects have a tendency to cancel out, the descent gradient stays basically constant. The rate of
descent being equal to will decrease with TAS:
4. DESCENT IN OPERATIONS
All these descents are performed at idle thrust.
4.1. DESCENT AT MINIMUM GRADIENT

The descent gradient at green dot speed (best L/D) is at its minimum. Descending at green dot
speed enables the highest possible altitude to be maintained over the longest distance.
A green dot speed descent is of no interest in normal operations, as it requires a too long time.
On the other hand, it is of great interest in case of an engine failure during cruise over a
mountainous area, since it offers more escape solutions than any other speed.
4.2. DESCENT AT MINIMUM RATE

The minimum rate of descent speed is lower than green dot. As a result, a descent at minimum rate
is of no interest in operations, compared to a descent at green dot. Indeed, the time needed to reach
a given altitude is longer than at green dot, whereas the distance covered is shorter.
For this reason, and as a general rule, it is not useful to descend at a speed lower than green
dot.
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4.3. DESCENT AT MINIMUM COST

The cost index aims at lowering direct operating costs for a given flight. For a given cost index, an
optimum descent Mach ( ) and an optimum descent speed ( ) are calculated
by the FMGS as a function of the aircraft's mass.
The descent is then carried out in managed mode, based on the following MACH/IAS law:
To minimize overall fuel consumption during flight, a low cost index must be used. As the
descent phase is performed at idle thrust, it is advantageous to maximize its duration, from a fuel
consumption standpoint. This is achieved at a low descent speed (close to L/Dmax speed), which
depends on the aircraft type (e.g. 250 knots for the A320 family). In any case, the descent speed
must remain above green dot.
On the other hand, a high cost index is required when the overall flight time needs to be reduced
for cost reasons. In this case, the descent must be as fast as possible (i.e. at the maximum rate of
descent speed). It is obtained at a speed, which is generally limited to
VMO – 10 kt in normal operations.
4.4. EMERGENCY DESCENT

In case of a cabin pressurisation failure An emergency descent has to be carried out in order to
reach FL100 as soon as possible due to oxygen constraints.
For this reason, MMO/VMO is the best speed schedule, as it enables the quickest possible rate of
descent. This rate can even be increased by extending the airbrakes. Depending on the aeroplane
type, the rate of descent is between 6,000 and 10,000 ft/min.
4.5. FCOM DESCENT TABLES

Descent performances are generally shown in tables.
The next figure shows an example of an A320 FCOM descent table.
Data: Results:
• Mass TOD : 45 t • Descent from FL330 to FL15:
• Temperature : ISA • Time : 11.7 min
• Distance : 69 NM
• Air conditioning : Normal
• Fuel consumed : 90 kg
• Anti-ice : Off
• Center of Gravity : 33%
• Speed : M0.78 / 300 kt / 250 kt
If the mass at TOD is 65 t instead of 45 t: time, fuel and distance values are increased by about
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30%. The mass effect is less significant than for climb phase.
5. CABIN DESCENT
The cabin pressure rate is optimized during descent, so that it reaches the landing field pressure
+ 0.1 psi just prior to landing.
Depending on the initial cabin and destination airport altitudes, the FMGS calculates the necessary
cabin descent time. This time is obtained from the selected cabin rate of descent, defaulted to
-350 feet per minute in the FMGS, but which can be modified up to a maximum of –750 feet per
minute.
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As the cabin descent time is longer than the aircraft descent time, a repressurization segment is
necessary, during which the aircraft vertical speed is limited to permit cabin repressurization.
The A320 descent table, at the top of the previous page, shows that to descend from FL390 at a
weight of 45 tons, the N1 parameter must be maintained at 73%, from the start of the descent, in
order to limit aircraft vertical speed.
Note that, in some particular cases (landing at high altitude airports) , the cabin pressure at cruise
level is higher than the pressure at the landing airport. Therefore, the cabin pressure has to
decrease during descent, which means that the cabin's vertical speed is positive while the aircraft's
vertical speed is negative.
6. HOLDING
6.1. HOLDING SPEED

When holding is required, it is generally flown on a "race track pattern", composed of two straight
legs plus two 180 degree turns. As the aeroplane is turning around, the distance covered is not the
primary objective. On the contrary, the knowledge of the maximum holding time (maximum
endurance) is a determining factor for any diversion decision. As a result, it is important, during
holding, to try to minimize fuel consumption versus time as much as possible, or to simply
minimize fuel flow (kg or lb per hour).
For a jet engine
During cruise, and
thus:
The minimum fuel consumption speed corresponds to the minimum drag speed or the maximum
lift-to-drag ratio speed. As a result, in clean configuration, the standard holding speed is selected
equal to green dot.
As for cruise, an optimum holding altitude exists, and when the aeroplane mass decreases, the
optimum holding altitude increases, as shown on the figure below.
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Holding patterns may be quite limited around certain airports due to obstacle proximity.
Therefore, green dot is sometimes too high, especially during turn phases where the bank angle
can be too significant. As it is not possible to significantly reduce the speed below green dot in
clean configuration, slats may be extended and a holding done in CONF1 at "S" speed ("S" speed
is the minimum slat retraction speed from CONF1 to CONF CLEAN).
Note that green dot and S speeds are easy to fly in selected mode, as they are indicated on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD), as a function of aircraft weight and configuration:
• In clean configuration: "Green Dot"
• In configuration 1: "S speed"
6.2. HOLDING IN OPERATION

Climb holding at the optimum holding altitude is impossible due to ATC constraints. Moreover, at
the end of the flight the aeroplane mass is low, and the corresponding optimum altitude should be
high. Consequently, holding is carried out at the altitude set by ATC at green dot speed (best L/D
speed or minimum drag speed) for the considered aeroplane mass.
A holding pattern can be managed by the FMGS at a selected waypoint during flight. For that
purpose, it must be entered on the MCDU Flight-Plan page. Holding pattern data may come from
the navigation database, or may be defaulted to standard dimensions (which can be changed),
when no pattern is available.
6.3. FCOM HOLDING TABLES

Holding performances are generally shown in tables.
The next figure shows an example of an A320 FCOM holding table.
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Data: Results:
• Mass: 48 t • Race track holding pattern at
• Temperature: ISA FL100:
• N1: 56.1 %
• Air conditioning: Normal
• Fuel Flow: 805 kg/h per engine
• Anti-ice: Off
• Clean configuration
• Centre of Gravity: 33%
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7. SUMMARY OF POLAR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS FOR

TURBOJETS
All the characteristic points of the polar curve of an aircraft fitted with a turbojet engine are
summarised on the diagram below:
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APPROACH AND
6-
LANDING 6
MINIMUM AND OPERATIONAL SPEEDS 185
ACTUAL LANDING DISTANCE 189
GO-AROUND PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS 190
INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS 193
LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE 196
REGULATED LANDING MASS CALCULATION 198
IN-FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS 204
APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES 207
To dispatch an aircraft, an operator has to verify landing requirements based on airplane

certification (CS 25) and on operational constraints defined in AIR-OPS. In normal operations,
these limitations are not very constraining and, most of the time, authorize dispatch at the
maximum structural landing weight. This leads to a minimization of the importance of landing
checks during dispatch. However, landing performance can be drastically penalised in case of
inoperative items, adverse external conditions, or contaminated runways. Flight preparation is,
therefore, of utmost importance, to ensure a safe flight.
1. MINIMUM AND OPERATIONAL SPEEDS
1.1. MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED DURING APPROACH AND LANDING

VMCL
As for takeoff, CS 25 defines minimum control speeds associated to landing: VMCL and, for
aeroplanes with three or more engines, .

• (f) VMCL, the minimum control speed during approach and landing
with all engines operating, is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the
critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain
control of the aeroplane with that engine still inoperative, and maintain
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straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5°. VMCL must
be established with
• (1) The aeroplane in the most critical configuration (or, at the
option of the applicant, each configuration) for approach and
landing with all engines operating;
• (2) The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• (3) The aeroplane trimmed for approach with all engines operating;
• (4) The most unfavourable weight, or, at the option of the applicant,
as a function of weight;
• (5) For propeller aeroplanes, the propeller of the inoperative engine
in the position it achieves without pilot action, assuming the engine
fails while at the power or thrust necessary to maintain a 3°
approach path angle; and
• (6) Go-around power or thrust setting on the operating engine(s).
• (g) For aeroplanes with three or more engines, VMCL-2, the minimum
control speed during approach and landing with one critical engine
inoperative, is the calibrated airspeed at which, when a second critical
engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control
of the aeroplane with both engines still inoperative, and maintain
straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5°. VMCL-2 must
be established with
• (1) The aeroplane in the most critical configuration (or, at the
option of the applicant, each configuration) for approach and
landing with one critical engine inoperative;
• (2) The most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• (3) The aeroplane trimmed for approach with one critical engine
inoperative;
• (4) The most unfavourable weight, or, at the option of the applicant,
as a function of weight;
• (5) For propeller aeroplanes, the propeller of the more critical
engine in the position it achieves without pilot action, assuming the
engine fails while at the power or thrust necessary to maintain a 3°
approach path angle, and the propeller of the other inoperative
engine feathered;
• (6) The power or thrust on the operating engine(s) necessary to
maintain an approach path angle of 3° when one critical engine is
inoperative; and
• (7) The power or thrust on the operating engine(s) rapidly changed,
immediately after the second critical engine is made inoperative,
from the power or thrust prescribed in subparagraph (g)(6) of this
paragraph to
• (i) Minimum power or thrust; and
• (ii) Go-around power or thrust setting.
• (h) In demonstrations of VMCL and VMCL-2
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• (1) The rudder force may not exceed 667 N (150 lbf);
• (2) The aeroplane may not exhibit hazardous flight characteristics
or require exceptional piloting skill, alertness or strength;
• (3) Lateral control must be sufficient to roll the aeroplane, from an
initial condition of steady straight flight, through an angle of 20° in
the direction necessary to initiate a turn away from the inoperative
engine(s), in not more than 5 seconds. For propeller aeroplanes,
hazardous flight characteristics must not be exhibited due to any
propeller position achieved when the engine fails or during any
likely subsequent movements of the engine or propeller controls.
1.2. REFERENCE SPEED: VREF
CS 25.125 Landing
• (b)(2)(i) In non-icing conditions, VREF may not be less than:
• (A) 1.23 VSR0;
• (B) VMCL (...); and
• (C) a speed that provides the manoeuvring capability specified in
CS25.143(h).
• (b)(2)(ii) In icing conditions, VREF may not be less than:
• (A) the speed determined in paragraph (b)(2)(i)
• (B) 1.23 VSR0 with the landing ice accretion (...) if that speed
exceeds VREF for nonicing conditions by more than 5 kt CAS; and
• (C) a speed that provides the manoeuvring capability specified in
CS25.143(h) with the landing ice accretion(...).
CS 25. 143 General

normal manoeuvring.
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Configuration Speed Manoeuvring Thrust / Power

bank angle in a setting
coordinated turn
Landing VREF 40° Symmetric for
-3° flight path
angle
In case of failure in flight, emergency or abnormal configuration, performance computations are
based on a reference configuration and on a reference speed. VREF means the steady landing
approach speed at the 50 feet point for a landing in CONF FULL.
In case of a system failure affecting landing performance, Airbus operational documentation
indicates the correction to be applied to to take into account the failure.
1.3. LOWEST SELECTABLE SPEED: VLS

As a general rule, during flight phases, pilots should not select a speed below (Lowest
Selectable Speed), defined as of the actual configuration (VSR1).
This rule applies for landing. During landing, pilots have to maintain a stabilized approach, with a
calibrated airspeed of no less than VLS down to a height of 50 feet above the destination airport.
Note: in case of landing in CONF FULL:
1.4. FINAL APPROACH SPEED: VAPP

VAPP is the aircraft speed during landing, 50 feet above the runway surface. This speed is also
called Threshold speed: VT. The flaps/slats are in landing configuration, and the landing gears
are extended.
VAPP is limited by VLS:
It is very common to retain a margin on VLS to define VAPP. For Airbus aircraft, in normal
operations, the VAPP is defined by:
Wind correction is limited to a minimum of 5 knots, and a maximum of 15 knots. VAPP is

displayed on MCDU Approach page.
The FMGS and managed speed is used to define the VAPP TARGET. It gives efficient speed
guidance in approach with windy conditions, since it represents:
Actual headwind is measured by ADIRS, and the tower wind is entered on the MCDU.
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2. ACTUAL LANDING DISTANCE
CS 25.125 Landing
• (a)The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete
stop from a point 15 m (50 ft) above the landing surface must be
determined (for standard temperatures, at each weight, altitude and
wind within the operational limits established by the applicant for the
aeroplane):
• (1) In non-icing conditions; and
• (2) In icing conditions with the landing ice accretion (...) if VREF
for icing conditions exceeds VREF for non-icing conditions by
more than 5 kt CAS at the maximum landing weight.
• (b) In determining the distance in (a):
• (1) The aeroplane must be in the landing configuration;
• (2) A stabilized approach, with a calibrated airspeed of not less than
VREF must be maintained down to the 15 m (50 ft) height.
Thus, the actual landing distance is the distance measured between a point 50 feet above the
runway threshold, and the point where the aircraft comes to a complete stop.
To determine this actual landing distance, several conditions must be achieved:

• standard temperature;
• landing configuration;
• stabilized approach at for the landing configuration;
• non excessive vertical acceleration;
• calculation on a level, smooth, dry, hard-surfaced runway;
• acceptable pressures on the wheel braking systems;
• braking means other than wheel brakes: spoilers, reversers (except on dry runway), can be
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used when they are safe and reliable.

Actual landing distance is also certified with degraded braking means (spoiler inoperative, one
brake inoperative...).
Actual landing distances are certified on dry runways for all Airbus aircraft, certified on
contaminated and icy runways for all fly-by-wire aircraft and published (for information) for wet.
Demonstrated landing distances will not account for reversers on dry runways. The reverse thrust
influence may be considered on contaminated runways.
On dry runways, landing distances are demonstrated with standard temperatures, according to CS
25. However, on contaminated runways, Airbus decided to take into account the influence of
temperature on landing distance demonstration. This choice ensures added safety as it gives a
conservative ALD.
Automatic Landing: the required landing distance must be established and scheduled in the
airplane Flight Manual, if it exceeds the scheduled manual landing distance.
3. GO-AROUND PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
A minimum climb gradient must be observed, in case of a go-around. The minimum air climb
gradients depend on the aircraft type.
3.1. APPROACH CLIMB

This corresponds to an aircraft's climb capability, assuming that one engine is inoperative. The
"approach climb" wording comes from the fact that go-around performance is based on approach
configuration, rather than landing configuration. For Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft, the available
approach configurations are CONF 2 and 3.
CS 25.121 Climb: one-engine-inoperative

• (d) Approach. In a configuration corresponding to the normal all-
engines-operating procedure in which VSR for this configuration does
not exceed 110% of the VSR for the related all-enginesoperating
landing configuration:
• (1) the steady gradient of climb may not be less than 2.1% for two-
engined aeroplanes, 2.4% for three-engined aeroplanes and 2.7%
for four-engined aeroplanes, with:
• (i) The critical engine inoperative, the remaining engines at the
go-around power or thrust setting;
• (ii) The maximum landing weight;
• (iii) A climb speed established in connection with normal
landing procedures, but not more than 1.4 VSR; and
• (iv) Landing gear retracted.
• (2) The requirements of sub-paragraph (d)(1) of this paragraph
must be met:
• (i) in non-icing conditions; and
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• (ii) in icing conditions with the approach ice accretion (...). The
climb speed selected for non-icing conditions may be used if
the climb speed for icing conditions, computed in accordance
with sub-paragraph (d)(1)(iii) of this paragraph, does not
exceed that for non-icing conditions by more than the greater of
3 kt CAS or 3%.
An approach configuration can be selected, as long as the stall speed ( ) of this

configuration does not exceed 110% of VSR of the related "all-engines-operating" landing
configuration.
3.2. LANDING CLIMB

The objective of this constraint is to ensure aircraft climb capability in case of a missed approach
with all engines operating. The "Landing climb" wording comes from the fact that goaround
performance is based on landing configuration. For Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft, the available
landing configurations are CONF 3 and FULL.
CS 25.119 Landing climb: all-engines operating

In the landing configuration, the steady gradient of climb may not be less than
3.2%, with the engines at the power or thrust that is available 8 seconds after
initiation of movement of the power or thrust controls from the minimum flight
idle to the go-around power or thrust setting; and
• (a) In non-icing conditions, with a climb speed of VREF determined in
[non-icing conditions]; and
• (b) In icing conditions with the landing ice accretion (...), and with a
climb speed of VREF determined in [icing conditions].
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For all Airbus aircraft, this constraint is covered by the approach climb requirement. In its
operational documentation (FCOM), Airbus publishes the maximum weight limited by the
approach climb gradient only. Landing climb performance is found in the AFM.
4. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS
4.1. TEMPERATURE
Actual landing distance is calculated in ISA conditions, so the temperature has no influence on it.
Engine thrust decreases when the temperature exceeds the reference temperature. Therefore, in
case of a go-around, the air climb gradients will decrease.
4.2. PRESSURE ALTITUDE

Approach speed is equal to 1.23 VSR. But the corresponding TAS increases with the pressure
altitude. Consequently, the landing distance will increase as well.
TOGA thrust, used for go-around, decreases when pressure altitude increases.
Therefore, in the event of a go-around, a decrease in engine thrust implies a decrease in the air
climb gradients, which means that:
4.3. WIND
The wind component along the runway axis affects the landing ground speed and, therefore, the
landing distance, which is reduced in case of headwind and increased in case of tailwind.
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Landing distance data must include correction factors for no more than 50% of the nominal wind
components along the landing path opposite to the landing direction, and no less than 150% of the
nominal wind components along the landing path in the landing direction. This is already taken
into account in published figures and corrections.
4.4. RUNWAY SLOPE

From a performance standpoint, an upward slope improves the aeroplane's stopping capability,
and, consequently, decreases landing distance. It is the opposite in case of downward slope.
In fact, operators must only take into account the runway slope when its value is greater than %.
4.5. RUNWAY CONDITIONS

The definition of runway conditions is the same as for takeoff. When the runway is contaminated,
landing performance is affected by the runway's friction coefficient, and the precipitation drag due
to contaminants.
Depending on the type of contaminant and its thickness, landing distance can either increase or
decrease. So, it is not unusual to have a shorter ALD on 12.7 mm of slush than on 6.3 mm.
As for an accelerate-stop during takeoff, hydroplaning can occur in similar conditions. A pilot can
reduce the effects of hydroplaning by the following procedures:
• approach to land at the slowest airspeed consistent with safety;
• land firmly;
• lower the nose wheel to the surface as soon as the main wheels are firmly on the surface;
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• retract the flaps immediately after landing to place more weight on the tyres.
4.6. BRAKE TEMPERATURE

During the braking phase of landing, the brake temperature raises. Thus, it is necessary to let the
temperature reduce under a maximum acceptable value before starting for a new takeoff: the
brakes must be fully available in case of accelerate-stop. This may lead to limit a quick turn
around.
4.7. ENGINE AIR BLEED

Engine air bleed for de-icing or air conditioning, implies a decrease in engine thrust. As a result,
go-around air climb gradients will decrease.
4.8. FLAP SETTING

An increase in flap deflection implies an increase in the lift coefficient (CL), and in the wing
surface. It is therefore possible to reduce speed such that the aircraft will need a shorter distance to
land (VS1g CONF FULL < VS1g CONF 3).
When wing flap deflection increases, landing distance decreases.
However, when flap deflection increases, drag increases thus penalising the aeroplane's climb
performance.
When landing at a high altitude airport with a long runway, it might be better to decrease the flap
setting to increase the go-around air climb gradient.
5. LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE

• (68) Landing distance available (LDA).
The length of the runway which is declared available by the appropriate
Authority and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
With no obstacle under landing path, the Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the runway length
(TORA). The stopway cannot be used for landing calculation.
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With obstacles under landing path, the landing distance available (LDA) may be shortened, due to
the presence of obstacles under the landing path.
Annex 8 of ICAO recommendations specifies the dimension of the protection surfaces for landing
and approach (Approach funnel).
If there is an obstacle within the approach funnel, a displaced threshold is defined considering a
2% plane tangential to the most penalizing obstacle plus a 60 m margin.
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In this case, the Landing Distance Available (LDA) is equal to the length measured from the
displaced threshold to the end of the runway.
6. REGULATED LANDING MASS CALCULATION
6.1. REGULATED LANDING MASS (RLM)

The regulated landing mass (RLM) is the maximum landing mass taking into account:
• the effect of external parameters (temperature, pressure altitude, wind) on aeroplane
performance;
• the available infrastructure: effective length, runway condition; and is optimised by the
choice of operational parameters: flaps, air conditioning.
In other words, RLM is the smallest mass between:
• the maximum structural landing mass; and
• the maximum landing mass related to performance:
• runway length limited landing mass;
• climb limited landing mass (approach climb with one-engine-inoperative and landing
climb with all engines operating).
6.2. MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL LANDING MASS (MSLM)
AIR-OPS GM1 Annex 1 - Definitions

• (l) Maximum Structural Landing Mass. The maximum permissible total
aeroplane mass upon landing under normal circumstances
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For large aeroplanes, it is calculated so that aeroplane and landing gear structure can support the
efforts resulting from landing at this mass at a vertical speed of 3.05 m/s or 10 ft/s, i.e. 600 ft/min
(CS 25.473).
6.3. RUNWAY LENGTH LIMITED LANDING MASS
6.3.1.Dry Runways
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.230 Landing – Dry runways

• (a) The landing mass of the aeroplane (...) for the estimated time of
landing at the destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome
shall allow a full stop landing from 50 ft above the threshold:
• (1) For turbo-jet powered aeroplanes, within 60% of the landing
distance available (LDA); or
• (2) For turbo-propeller powered aeroplanes, within 70% of the
LDA.
On dry runways:
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6.3.2.Wet Runways
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.235 Landing – Wet and contaminated runways

• (a) When the appropriate weather reports and/or forecasts indicate that
the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be wet, the LDA shall
be at least 115% of the required landing distance, determined in
accordance with CAT.POL.A.230.
On wet runways :
A landing distance on a wet runway, shorter than that above but no less than that required on a dry
runway, may be used if the Airplane Flight Manual includes specific additional information about
landing distances on wet runways. This generally does not apply to Airbus aircraft.
6.3.3.Contaminated Runways
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.235 Landing – Wet and contaminated runways

• (b) When the appropriate weather reports and/or forecasts indicates that
the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be contaminated, the
LDA shall be at least the landing distance determined in accordance
with (a), or at least 115% of the landing distance determined in
accordance with approved contaminated landing distance data or
equivalent, whichever is greater. The operator shall specify in the
operations manual if equivalent landing distance data are to be applied.
On contaminated runways:
A landing distance on a specially prepared contaminated runway, shorter than that above but no
less than that required on a dry runway, may be used if the Airplane Flight Manual includes
specific additional information about landing distances on contaminated runways. This generally
does not apply to Airbus aircraft.
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For contaminated runways, the manufacturer must provide landing performance for speed V at 50
feet above the airport, such that:
In some specific contaminated runway cases, the manufacturer can provide detailed instructions
such as antiskid, reverse, airbrakes, or spoilers. And, in the most critical cases, landing can be
prohibited.
6.3.4.Example: A320 landing table

The following table gives the actual landing distances function of the aeroplane landing mass and
runway conditions.
Data: Results:
• Landing mass: 62 t • Landing distance on:
• Configuration FULL • Dry runway: 840 m
• Runway contaminated by
• Pressure altitude = 0ft
compacted snow: 1450 m
• No wind
Therefore, the minimum runway length is:
• on dry runway:
• on wet runway:
• on a runway covered with compacted snow:

Note that, in case of wet runway, the calculation must be made with the actual distance on dry
runway (840 m) and not the one for wet runway (1160 m).
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6.3.5.Effect of operational parameters
6.3.6.Required Landing Distance (RLD)

Although it is not defined by the regulations, the required landing distance (RLD), based on
certified landing performance (ALD actual landing distance), has been introduced to assist
operators in defining the minimum distance required at destination, and allow flight dispatch.
Before departure, operators must check that the Landing Distance Available (LDA) at destination
is at least equal to the Required Landing Distance (RLD) for the forecasted landing weight and
conditions.
In all cases, the requirement is :
In the event of an aircraft system failure, known prior to dispatch and affecting the landing
distance, the available runway length must at least be equal to the required landing distance with
failure. This distance is equal to the required landing distance without failure multiplied by the
coefficient given in the MMEL, or to the performance with failure given by the Flight Manual.
6.3.6.1.RLD Dry Runways
The aircraft's landing weight must permit landing within 60% of the Landing Distance Available at
both the destination and any alternate airport. That gives:
6.3.6.2.RLD Wet Runways

If the surface is wet, the required landing distance must be at least 115% of that of a drysurface.
6.3.6.3.RLD Contaminated Runways

If the surface is contaminated, the required landing distance must be at least the greater of the
required landing distance on a wet runway and 115% of the landing distance determined in
accordance with approved contaminated landing distance data.
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6.3.6.4.RLD with automatic landing

Regulations define the required landing distance for automatic landing as the actual landing
distance in automatic landing multiplied by 1.15. This distance must be retained for automatic
landing, whenever it is greater than the required landing distance in manual mode.
6.4. CLIMB LIMITED LANDING MASS

In a normal approach, the required climb gradient, in case of go-around, is 2.1% for twin, 2.4% for
three and 2.7% for four engine aeroplanes, independently of airport configuration and obstacles.
During dispatch, operators can account for the gradient published in the airport approach chart.
AIR-OPS AMC2 CAT.POL.A.225 Landing – Destination and Alternate

aerodromes
• (c) For instrument approaches with decision heights below 200 ft, the
operator should verify that the expected landing mass of the aeroplane
allows a missed approach gradient of climb, with the critical engine
failed and with the speed and configuration used for go around of at
least 2.5%, or the published gradient, whichever is the greater.
In case of a CAT II / III approach, the gradient is 2.5% (all aeroplane types) or more if the
approach charts require a higher value for obstacle consideration.
Thus, the climb limited landing mass is the maximum mass allowing to comply with the minimum
required climb gradient in case of go-around, according to operational parameters:
7. IN-FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
7.1. IN-FLIGHT FAILURE
AIR-OPS CAT.OP.MPA.300 Approach and landing conditions

Before commencing an approach to land, the commander shall be satisfied that,
according to the information available to him/her, the weather at the aerodrome
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and the condition of the runway (...) intended to be used should not prevent a
safe approach, landing or missed approach, having regard to the performance
information contained in the Operations Manual.
The in-flight calculation of the landing distance should be based on the latest available report,
preferably not more than 30 minutes before the expected landing time. In the event of an aircraft
system failure occurring in flight, and affecting landing performance, the runway length to be
considered for landing is the actual landing distance without failure multiplied by the landing
distance coefficient associated to the failure.
These coefficients, as well as the LDs for each runway state, are published in Airbus' operational
documentation (Flight Crew Operating Manual and Quick Reference Handbook).
Note that the required landing distance concept no longer applies and the margins retained for
alternate airport selection are at the captain's discretion.
7.2. OVERWEIGHT LANDING REQUIREMENTS

In exceptional conditions (in-flight turn-back or diversion), an immediate landing at a mass
above the Maximum Landing Mass is permitted, provided pilots follow the abnormal overweight
procedure.
The aircraft's structural resistance is protected for a landing at the maximum structural takeoff
mass, with a rate of descent of -360 feet per minute.
Nevertheless, the minimum required air climb gradients, in the case of a go-around, must be
complied with. For certain aircraft types, the go-around can be performed in CONF 1+F if the
climb gradient cannot be achieved in CONF 2. The landing configuration is then CONF 3. That's
possible when (CONF 1+F) < 110% (CONF 3).
7.3. FUEL JETTISONING CONDITIONS
CS 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system

• (a) A fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless
it is shown that the aeroplane meets the climb requirements of
[Approach Climb gradient and Landing Climb gradient] at maximum
take-off weight, less the actual or computed weight of fuel necessary
for a 15-minute flight comprised of a take-off, go-around, and landing
at the airport of departure with the aeroplane configuration, speed,
power, and thrust the same as that used in meeting the applicable take-
off, approach, and landing climb performance requirements of this CS-
25.
When the maximum takeoff mass (RTOM), less the weight of fuel necessary for a 15-minute flight
(including takeoff, approach, and landing at the departure airport) is more than the maximum go-
around weight, a fuel jettisoning system must be available.
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CS 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system

• (b) If a fuel jettisoning system is required it must be capable of
jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes, starting with the weight
given in subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, to enable the aeroplane to
meet the climb requirements of [Approach Climb gradient and Landing
Climb gradient], assuming that the fuel is jettisoned under the
conditions, except weight, found least favourable during the flight tests
prescribed in sub-paragraph (c) of this paragraph.
• (c) Fuel jettisoning must be demonstrated beginning at maximum take-
off weight with wingflaps and landing gear up and in –
• (1) A power-off glide at 1.3 VSR1;
• (2) A climb at the one-engine inoperative best rate-of-climb speed,
with the critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines at
maximum continuous power; and
• (3) Level flight at 1.3 VSR1, if the results of the tests in the
condition specified in subparagraphs (c)(1) and (2) of this
paragraph show that this condition could be critical.
• (d) During the flight tests prescribed in subparagraph (c) of this
paragraph, it must be shown that –
• (1) The fuel jettisoning system and its operation are free from fire
hazard;
• (2) The fuel discharges clear of any part of the aeroplane;
• (3) Fuel or fumes do not enter any parts of the aeroplane;
• (4) The jettisoning operation does not adversely affect the
controllability of the aeroplane.
• (e) Reserved.
• (f) Means must be provided to prevent jettisoning the fuel in the tanks
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used for take-off and landing below the level allowing climb from sea
level to 3048 m (10 000 ft) and thereafter allowing 45 minutes cruise at
a speed for maximum range. However, if there is an auxiliary control
independent of the main jettisoning control, the system may be
designed to jettison the remaining fuel by means of the auxiliary
jettisoning control.
• (g) The fuel jettisoning valve must be designed to allow flight
personnel to close the valve during any part of the jettisoning operation.
• (h) Unless it is shown that using any means (including flaps, slots and
slats) for changing the airflow across or around the wings does not
adversely affect fuel jettisoning, there must be a placard, adjacent to the
jettisoning control, to warn flight-crew members against jettisoning fuel
while the means that change the airflow are being used.
• (i) The fuel jettisoning system must be designed so that any reasonably
probable single malfunction in the system will not result in a hazardous
condition due to unsymmetrical jettisoning of, or inability to jettison,
fuel.
8. APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES

8.1. NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURE
During approach, the noise emission is mainly due to the aerodynamic noise of the extended flaps
and landing gear. The noise abatement procedure consists in maintaining as long as possible the
aeroplane in clean configuration.
The approach is made at an altitude higher than 2000 ft and flaps and gear extensions are done
during final descent: the objective is that the aeroplane must be stabilised on its path in landing
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configuration not later than 1000 ft above ground.
8.2. GO-AROUND PROCEDURE

The following figure represents a standard go-around procedure:
8.3. STEEP APPROACH PROCEDURE
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.230 Landing – Dry runways

• (a) (3) For Steep Approach procedures the Authority may approve the
use of landing distance (...) based on a screen height of less than 50 ft,
but not less than 35 ft.
Appendix 1 to EU-OPS 1.515(a)(3) Steep Approach Procedures

• (a) The Authority may approve the application of Steep Approach
procedures using glide slope angles of 4.5° or more and with screen
heights of less than 50 ft but not less than 35 ft, provided that the
following criteria are met:
• (1) The Aeroplane Flight Manual must state the maximum
approved glide slope angle, any other limitations, normal, abnormal
or emergency procedures for the steep approach as well as
amendments to the field length data when using steep approach
criteria;
• (2) A suitable glide path reference system comprising at least a
visual glide path indicating system must be available at each
aerodrome at which steep approach procedures are to be conducted;
and
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• (3) Weather minima must be specified and approved for each

runway to be used with a steep approach. Consideration must be
given to the following:
• (i) The obstacle situation;
• (ii) The type of glide path reference and runway guidance such
as visual aids, MLS, 3D–NAV, ILS, LLZ, VOR, NDB;
• (iii) The minimum visual reference to be required at DH and
MDA;
• (iv) Available airborne equipment;
• (v) Pilot qualification and special aerodrome familiarisation;
• (vi) Aeroplane Flight Manual limitations and procedures; and
• (vii) Missed approach criteria.
8.4. SHORT LANDING OPERATIONS
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.250 Approval of short landing operations

• (a) Short landing operations require prior approval by the competent
authority.
AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.250 Short Landing Operations

• (b) To obtain the approval, the operator shall provide evidence that the
following conditions are met:
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• (1) the distance used for the calculation of the permitted landing
mass may consist of the usable lenght of the declared safe area plus
declared LDA;
• (2) the state of the aerodrome has determined a public interest and
operational necessity for the operation, either due to the remoteness
of the aerodrome or to physical limitations relating to extending the
runway;
• (3) the vertical distance between the path of the pilot's eye and the
path of the lowest part of the wheels, with the aeroplane established
on the normal glide path, does not exceed 3 m;
• (4) RVR/VIS minimum shall not be less than 1 500 m and wind
limitations are specified in the operations manual;
• (5) minimum pilot experience, training and special aerodrome
familiarisation requirements are specified and met;
• (6) the crossing height over the beginning of the usable lenght of
the declared safe area is 50 ft;
• (...)
• (12) additional conditions, if specified by the competent authority,
taking into account aeroplane type characteristics, orographic
characteristics in the approach area, available approach aids and
missed approach/balked landing considerations.
For short landing operations:
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The declared safe area has to meet the following requirements (AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.250):
• its useable length must not exceed 90 metres;
• its width shall not be less than twice the runway width or twice the wing span, whichever is
the greater, centred on the extended runway centre line;
• it must be clear of obstructions or depressions which would endanger an aeroplane
undershooting the runway and no mobile object shall be permitted on the declared safety
area while the runway is being used for short landing operations;
• its slope must not exceed 5% upward nor 2% downward in the direction of landing;
• it is not necessary that its bearing strength is able to support a ground run of an aeroplane
landing.
The use of this area must be approved by the airport authority.
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PERFORMANCE
7-
CLASS B 7
AEROPLANES
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 213
TAKE-OFF 214
EN ROUTE LIMITATIONS 220
LANDING 221
FLIGHT MECHANICS OF PISTON ENGINE AIRCRAFT 223
1. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
1.1. CERTIFICATION REGULATION

The CS 23 applies to:
• aeroplanes in the normal, utility and aerobatic categories with a seating configuration,
excluding the pilot's seat(s), of 9 or less, and a maximum certified take-off weight of 5,670
kg (12,500 lb) or less;
• propeller twin-engine aeroplanes in the commuter category with a seating configuration,
excluding the pilot's seat(s), of 19 or less, and a maximum certified take-off weight of
8,618 kg (19,000 lb) or less.
1.2. OPERATION REGULATION

The AIR-OPS defines aircraft belonging to the performance B class (AIR-OPS Annex 1 (91)) as:
"Propeller aeroplanes with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 9 or less,
and a maximum take-off mass of 5,700 kg or less".
Note
By comparing with the CS 23, we can observe that all the performance class B aircraft are CS 23
certified aircraft. On the contrary, some commuters, which can be certified according to the CS 23,
belong to the performance class A: their maximum takeoff weight is higher than 5,700 kg without
exceeding 8,618 kg, or the maximum passenger seating configuration of which is comprised
between 10 and 19. Consequently, and for simplification purposes, this chapter will not deal with
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PERFORMANCE CLASS B AEROPLANES
commuter case.
A single-engine aircraft must not be operated for passenger transport, neither in VFR during night,
nor in IFR.
The regulation is expected to be less strict for flights in VFR (AIR-OPS ORO.CC.120).
Most of operation requirements concerning aircraft of performance B class are specified in subpart
H of AIR-OPS CAT.POL.A.3xx (Chapter 3)
2. TAKE-OFF
2.1. TAKE-OFF DISTANCE (TOD)

The take-off of CS 23 certified aircraft is measured from the brake release up to the point where
the aircraft reaches a height of 15 m (50 ft) above the take-off surface (CS 23.53).
Take-off is composed of two phases: a ground run phase until the aircraft reaches the rotation
speed ( ) or take-off speed, followed by the take-off phase until the aircraft reaches the height of
50 ft at the take-off safety speed ( ) or speed at 50 ft.
Although there is no requirement in terms of acceleration-stop for the aircraft of normal, utility or
aerobatic categories, some twin-engine aircraft flight manuals can supply the corresponding data,
for information purposes.
2.2. TAKE-OFF RELATED SPEEDS
2.2.1.Minimum speeds measured during flight tests

2.2.1.1.Stall speed VS
and are stall speeds (respectively: in landing configuration and in a different
configuration), or the minimum speeds in stabilised flight, at which the aircraft can be controlled,
with the engine(s) at idle, the propeller (or the propellers) in take-off position, and the most
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unfavourable centre of gravity (CS 23.49).

At the maximum weight, VS0 must not exceed 61 kt for
• single-engine aircraft
• twin-engine aircraft of maximum weight 2,721 kg (6,000 lb), which can not comply with
minimum climb gradient defined at Performance required after take-off (see TAKE-OFF p
184).
2.2.1.2.Minimum control speed VMC
For twin-engine aircraft, VMC is the calibrated air speed at which, in case of sudden critical
engine failure, it is possible to take the aircraft control back and maintain a straight flight with a
maximum bank angle of 5° (CS 23.149).
VMC has to be determined with:
• the most unfavourable weight;
• the most unfavourable centre of gravity;
• the maximum power on both engines before failure;
• the aircraft trimmed for take-off;
• the flaps in take-off position;
• the propellers in take-off position;
• the landing gear up.
In these conditions, one must check that
2.2.2.Rotation speed VR
VR is the speed at which the pilot pulls the control stick to initiate the aircraft take-off. The speed
VR has to be at least equal to (CS 23.51):
• for single-engine aircraft, VS1 (stall speed in the configuration used)
• for twin-engine aircraft, the greater of:
•
•
2.2.3.Speed at 50 ft
The speed at 50 ft must be not less than (CS 23.51):
• for single-engine aeroplanes, the greater of:
• a speed that is shown to be safe under all reasonably expected conditions, including
turbulence and complete engine failure;
•
• for twin-engine aircraft, the highest between
• a speed that is shown to be safe for continued flight (or land-back, if applicable) under
all reasonably expected conditions, including turbulence and complete failure of the
critical engine;
•
•
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2.3. AVAILABLE DISTANCES FOR TAKE-OFF

The operator must ensure that the take-off distance, to which no factor has been applied, specified
in the airplane flight manual is such that:
• in the absence of clearway or stopway:
• or, in the case where a clearway or a stopway is available:
2.4. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

So as to calculate the take-off distance, the operator has to take into account:
• the aircraft mass at brake release;
• the pressure altitude;
• the temperature;
• the wind:
• 50% of the head wind component;
• 150% of the tail wind component;
• the condition and type of runway surface:
• unless otherwise specified in the airplane flight manual, the following factors are to be
applied on the TOD, according to the type of surface and its condition:
Surface type Conditions Factor

Grass (on firm soil) Dry 1.20 Dry 1.20
up to 20 cm long Wet 1.30
Hard surface Wet 1.00
• the soil is firm when there are wheel impressions but no rutting;
• because of inherent risks, the take-off on contaminated runway is not advised;
• the runway slope in the take-off direction:
• unless otherwise specified in the airplane flight manual, increase the TOD by 5% for
each 1% of upward runway;
• in the case of runway slope , the correction factors have to be approved by the
Authority.
2.5. TAKE-OFF FLIGHT PATH
2.5.1.Definition
The take-off flight path begins at a height of 50 ft above the surface at the end of the TOD and
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ends at a height of 1,500 ft above the surface.
2.5.2.Performance required after take-off

2.5.2.1.All engines operating (CS 23.65)
All engines operating (CS 23.65)
Piston engine aeroplane of maximum mass lower than or equal to 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) have to be
able to maintain at sea level, a minimum climb slope of 8.3% for landplanes and of 6.7% for
amphibians and seaplanes with the following configuration:
• continuous maximum power on each engine;
• landing gear retracted;
• flaps in take-off position;
• without ground effect;
• speed V such as:
• for single-engine aeroplanes;
• the greater of and for twin-engine aeroplanes.
The piston engine aeroplanes of maximum mass higher than 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) and turbine
engine aeroplanes of normal, utility or aerobatic categories, have to be able to maintain after take-
off, a minimum climb slope of 4% with the following configuration:
• take-off power on each engine;
• landing gear extended, or landing gear retracted if it can be retracted in 7 seconds or less;
• flaps in take-off position;
• without ground effect;
• speed V such as:
• for single-engine aeroplanes;
• the greater of and for twin-engine aeroplanes.
2.5.2.2.Critical engine inoperative (CS 23.67)
Piston engine aeroplanes of maximum mass lower than or equal to 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) and the stall
speed of which is higher than 61 kt must be able to maintain at a pressure altitude of 5,000 ft, a
minimum climb gradient of 1.5% with the following configuration:
• critical engine inoperative with its propeller in minimum drag position
• remaining engine at continuous maximum power
• landing gear up
• flaps in take-off position
•
Piston engine aeroplanes of maximum mass higher than 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) and turbine engine
aeroplanes of normal, utility or aerobatic categories must be able to maintain
• at 400 ft above take-off surface, a steady gradient of climb positive with the following
configuration:
• critical engine inoperative, with its propeller in minimum drag position
• remaining engine at take-off power
• landing gear up
• flaps in take-off position
• speed equal to the speed at 50 ft
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• at 1,500 ft above take-off surface, a minimum climb gradient of 0.75% with the following
configuration:
• critical engine inoperative, with its propeller in minimum drag position
• remaining engine at continuous maximum power
• landing gear up
• flaps retracted
•
2.6. OBSTACLE CLEARANCE AFTER TAKE-OFF (MULTI-ENGINE

AIRCRAFT)
2.6.1.Take-off funnel
Dimensions of the take-off funnel - Departure Sector (see INFRASTRUCTURE AND
ENVIRONMENT p 56)are the same as for aircraft of performance class A.
In case of curved funnel, the aircraft must not bank before reaching a height of 50 ft above takeoff
surface and then, the maximum bank angle must not exceed 15°.
2.6.2.Net take-off flight path

The critical engine failure is supposed to occur at the very point on the all engines take-off flight
path where the visual reference, enabling to avoid obstacles, is considered as lost.
Between the point of reach of 50 ft and the point where the critical engine failure is supposed to
occur, the net gradient of the takeoff flight path is equal to the average all engines gradient
multiplied by 0.77.
From the point where the failure is supposed to occur, the net gradient of the takeoff flight path is
equal to the en-route climb gradient, with one inoperative engine, specified in the airplane flight
manual.
This enables to distinguish two cases of construction of net take-off flight paths, according to the
visibility:
• 1st case: good visibility up to 1,500 ft
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• 2nd case: cloud base lower than 1,500 ft
2.6.3.Obstacle Clearance Margin

The net take-off flight path has to clear all the obstacles of the take-off funnel with a clearance
margin of 50 ft.
2.7. CALCULATION OF THE MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF MASS

The maximum take-off mass will be the lowest between:
• the maximum structural take off mass;
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• the maximum mass due to performance:

• runway limited takeoff mass;
• climb limited takeoff mass ;
• obstacle limited takeoff mass.
3. EN ROUTE LIMITATIONS
3.1. SINGLE-ENGINE AEROPLANES

Considering forecast meteorological conditions, in case of engine failure, the aircraft has to be able
to reach a place enabling an emergency landing in good conditions.
For landplanes, a place on land is required, unless the Authority approves otherwise.
The emergency landing area has to be determined, in relation with the followed track, at a
maximum distance calculated in the following conditions:
• the aircraft is supposed to fly at an altitude which does not exceed its service ceiling at 300
ft/min at the continuous maximum power;
• the net descent slope after the engine failure is equal to the gross descent slope increased
by 0.5%
3.2. MULTI-ENGINE AEROPLANES

Unless it has an ETOPS authorisation, a twin-engine aircraft of performance class B must not fly
away further from an adequate aerodrome than:
• the distance flown in 120 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed, in ISA, still
air; or
• 300 NM,
whichever is less.
Considering forecast meteorological conditions for the flight and in case of engine failure, the
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aircraft has to be able to reach a point located at 1,000 ft above an aerodrome, where the
requirements in terms of performance can be met.
The construction of the drift-down path has to be performed in the following conditions:
• the aircraft is supposed to fly at an altitude not exceeding its service ceiling at 300 ft/min
all engines at the continuous maximum power;
• the net take-off slope (or climb) after engine failure is equal to the gross slope increased (or
respectively decreased) by 0.5%.
4. LANDING
4.1. REFERENCE SPEED

VREF, reference speed for the approach and the landing has to be at least equal to the greater of:
• VMC in landing configuration (take-off power on all engines before the setting to failure
mode, aircraft trimmed for the approach, landing gear down, flaps extended, propellers in
approach position); and
• 1.30 VS0
4.2. LANDING DISTANCE

The landing distance is the distance measured between a point 50 ft above the runway threshold,
and the point where the aeroplane comes to a complete stop, as the aircraft speed when it reaches
50 ft is at least equal to VREF.
Landing has to be carried out in the 70% of the available distance for landing:
The Authority may approve approach procedures with strong slope and short landing in the same
conditions as for the aircraft of performance class A. (§ Steep Approach Procedure (see
APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES p 178) and § Short Landing Operations (see
APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES p 178))
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4.3. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

So as to calculate the landing distance, the operator has to take into account:
• the aircraft weight;
• the pressure altitude;
• the wind:
• 50% of the head wind component;
• 150% of the tail wind component;
• the condition and the type of runway surface:
• unless otherwise specified in the airplane flight manual, a coefficient of 1.15 is to
apply to the LD when landing occurs on a firm soil covered by grass up to 20-cm long;
• in case of wet runway, unless additional information specified in the airplane flight
manual, the LD has to be multiplied by a factor of 1.15;
• in case of landing on wet short grass, and on a firm soil, distances can be increased by
60% (factor 1.60);
• in case of runway expected to be contaminated at the estimated arrival time, the
required LD, by referring to data that can be approved by the Authority, must not
exceed the available landing distance;
• the runway slope:
• unless otherwise specified in the airplane flight manual, the landing distance has to be
increased by 5% per 1% of downward runway; for runways of more than 2% of slope,
the correction factors have to be approved by the Authority.
4.4. PERFORMANCE REQUIRED IN CASE OF GO-AROUND
4.4.1.All engines operating (CS 23.77)

Piston engine aeroplanes of maximum mass lower than or equal to 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) must be
able to maintain at sea level, a minimum climb gradient of 3.3% with the following configuration:
• take-off power on each engine;
• landing gear retracted;
• flaps in landing position, or retracted if they can be retracted in 2 seconds or less without
loss of altitude and without sudden changes of angle of attack;
• speed.
Piston engine aeroplanes of maximum mass higher than 2,721 kg (6,000 lb) and turbine engine
aircraft from normal, utility or aerobatic categories must be able to maintain a minimum climb
gradient of 2.5% with the following configuration:
• not more than the power or thrust that is available 8 seconds after initiation of movement of
the power controls from the minimum flight-idle position;
• landing gear extended;
• flaps in landing position;
• speed.
4.4.2.One engine inoperative (CS 23.67)

In case of go-around with one engine inoperative, the requirements in climb slope are identical to
those required after take-off with critical engine inoperative, and dealt with at § 2.2.5.2.2.
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5. FLIGHT MECHANICS OF PISTON ENGINE AIRCRAFT
5.1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Whereas jet engines directly supply a force (thrust), piston engines are characterised by the power
they transmit to the propeller. Therefore, reference graphs, which will be used for flight
mechanics, will be representative of these different characteristics.
The Power is equal to the product of thrust by speed: .

We distinguish:
• the power required for the level flight, which is equal to the product of drag by speed:
;
• the power available, , which is the power supplied by the power plant, and which
can be therefore adapted through the throttle control.
If we represent the evolution of the power required depending on speed, we obtain the curve
below, where the power required reaches a minimum for a speed comprised between stall speed
and maximum speed which must never be exceeded, .
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The minimum of the curve corresponds to a flight angle of attack (AoA), for which the ratio is
maximum.
We will consider that the aircraft is fitted with a variable pitch propeller, for which it is possible to
maintain an almost constant power available on a large range of speed (for a fixed pitch propeller,
the power decreases very quickly with the speed). On the same graph, we can then put the curve of
power available, corresponding to different positions of the throttle control, from the full throttle
position up to the idle position:
Depending on throttle reduction, we can observe the progressive evolution of the relative position
of both curves: at full throttle, the power available is higher than the power required on a large
range of speed, which corresponds to the climb phase, whereas at idle, the descent phase is
characterised by a power available lower than the power required for the level flight.
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5.2. POWER CURVES IN CLIMB
On a large range of speed, the power excess will enable to obtain a rate of climb:
which is reciprocally proportional to the aircraft weight.

The curve below represents the evolution of the rate of climb depending on speed for a given
pressure altitude and aeroplane mass:
The rate of climb is maximum at speed VY for an angle of attack corresponding to the maximum
ratio
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The maximum climb gradient is obtained through drawing, from the origin, a tangent to the curve:
we thus observe that the maximum gradient speed is lower than the maximum RC speed .
Remark
The speed corresponding to the maximum ratio (or max. L/D) is higher than .
5.3. POWER CURVES IN CRUISE FLIGHT

At a cruise power, when the power available is equal to the power required, we obtain a level
flight point (see the figure below).
In most cases, we can thus highlight two points of level flight:
• a point corresponding to a high speed, located at the region of normal command;
• a point located at the region of reversed command, characterised by a low speed and a high
angle of attack.
Reminder
• the region of normal command is characterised by a high speed, a low angle of attack, and
a stability in speed: a slight speed variation around the equilibrium point is expressed
through a difference between power available and power required, which tends to bring the
speed back to the equilibrium point;
• as for the region of reversed command, it is characterised by a low speed, a high angle of
attack, and instability in speed: any disturbance on speed is expressed through a difference
between power available and power required, which tends to amplify the variation.
The separation between both flight regimes is performed at the minimum of required thrust.
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During cruise, the specific consumption of piston engine aircraft is equal to the hourly
consumption, reduced to the power unit:
The specific range is equal to the speed divided by the hourly consumption:
By replacing the hourly consumption depending on the specific consumption, we obtain;
As:
Therefore, for a given SFC and weight, SR is maximum for the angle of attack for which L/D is
maximum.
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5.4. POWER CURVES IN DESCENT

In descent, the throttle control is on the idle position. This time, the rate of descent depends on the
power deficit:
We obtain in this case: . The minimum rate of descent corresponds to the angle of
attack for which the ratio is maximum. By representing the evolution of the rate of descent
with speed, we observe that the speed corresponding to the minimum descent gradient is higher
than the speed of minimum rate of descent.
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5.5. CHARACTERISTIC POINTS ON THE POLAR CURVE

All the characteristic points of the polar curve of an aircraft fitted with a piston engine are
summarised on the diagram below:
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ABBREVIATIONS
MEANING
- a Sound velocity
- A/D Aerodrome
- ACN Aircraft classification number
- AFM Aeroplane flight manual
- AoA Angle of attack
- ASD Accelerate-stop distance
- ASDA Accelerate-stop distance available
- ATC Air traffic control
- ATS Air traffic services
- C(d) Coefficient of drag
- C(l) Coefficient of lift
- CAS Calibrated Air Speed
- CL Climb thrust
- CR Cruise thrust
- CS25 Certification specifications part 25
- CWY Clearway
- D Drag
- DA Decision altitude
- DH Decision height
- DHR Down hill rule
- EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
- EEP ETOPS entry point
- EFFRA Engine failure flaps retraction altitude
- EGT Exhaust gas temperature
- ETOPS Extended range operations for two engine aeroplanes
- EXP ETOPS exit point
- FAR Federal Aviation Regulations
- FBW Fly by wire
- FCOM Flight crew operating manual
- FF Fuel flow
- FMGS Flight management and guidance system
- GS Ground speed
- IAS Indicated Air Speed
- ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
- IFSD In flight shut down
- ILS Instrument landing system
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ABBREVIATIONS MEANING
- ISA International standard atmosphere

- JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
- JAR Joint Aviation Regulations
- L Lift
- LD Landing distance
- LDA Landing distance available
- LPC Less paper in the cockpit
- LRC Long range cruise
- M Mach number
- MCDU Multipurpose control and display unit
- MCT Maximum continuous thrust
- MDA Minimum descent altitude
- MDH Minimum descent height
- MEA Minimum en-route altitude
- MLS Microwave landing system
- MMO Maximum Mach number in operations
- MORA Minimum off-route altitude
- MRC Maximum range cruise
- MSLM Maximum structural landing mass
- MSTOM Maximum structural take off mass
- N All engine operating N = number of engines
- N-1 One engine inoperative N = number of engines
- NADP Noise abatement departure procedure
- OAT Outside air temperature
- OBOGS On board oxygen generator system
- OPS 1 European technical requirements and administrative procedures applicable
- Pa Available power
- PA Pressure altitude
- PCN Pavement classification number
- PFD Primary flight display
- Pr Required power
- Ps Static pressure
- Pt Total pressure
- q Dynamic pressure
- QFU Magnetic orientation of the runway
- RC Rate of climb
- RD Rate of descent
- RFFS Rescue and fire fighting service
- RLD Required landing distance
- RLM Regulated landing mass
- RTOM Regulated take off mass
- S Wing reference area
- SFC Specific fuel consumption
- SR Specific range
- SWY Stopway
- T Temperature
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ABBREVIATIONS MEANING
- T(a) Available thrust

- T(Flex) Flexible temperature
- T(r) Required thrust
- T(REF) Reference temperature (engine)
- TAS True Air Speed
- TOD Take off distance
- TODA Take off distance available
- TOGA Take off & go around thrust
- TOR Take off run
- TORA Take off run available
- V(1) Decision speed
- V(2) Take-off climb speed
- V(APP) Final approach speed
- V(EF) Engine failure speed
- V(FTO) Final Take Off speed
- V(GO) Minimum value of the range (when available) of V1
- V(LOF) Lift off speed
- V(LS) Lowest selectable speed
- V(MBE) Maximum brake energy speed
- V(MC) Minimum control speed
- V(MCG) Minimum control speed on ground
- V(MCL) Minimum control speed during approach and landing
- V(MO) Maximum speed in operations
- V(MU) Minimum unstick speed
- V(R) Rotation speed
- V(REF) Reference speed
- V(S) Stall speed
- V(S0) Stall speed in landing configuration
- V(S1) Stall speed in a given configuration
- V(SR) Reference stall speed
- V(SR0) Reference stall speed in landing configuration
- V(SR1) Reference stall speed in a given configuration
- V(STOP) Maximum value of the range (when available) of V1
- V(SW) Stall Warning speed
- V(T) Threshold speed
- V(TYRE) Maximum tyre speed
- V(X) Maximum climb gradient speed
- V(Y) Maximum rate of climb speed
- ɣ Climb/descent gradient - climb/descent angle
- α Angle of attack
- β Flaps setting
- μ Friction coefficient
- ρ Air density
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Yves PLAYS

2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT..............................................................................65

3. CALCULATION OF REGULATED TAKE OFF MASS AND SELECTION OF AEROPLANE

2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS..............................................105

2. EN-ROUTE ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE...............................................................................147

5 - DESCENT / HOLDING 167

2. INFLUENCE OF MASS AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS..............................................171

7. SUMMARY OF POLAR CHARACTERISTIC POINTS FOR TURBOJETS.............................184

6 - APPROACH AND LANDING 185

2. ACTUAL LANDING DISTANCE...............................................................................................189

4. INFLUENCE OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS...................................................................193

5. LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE.........................................................................................196

8. APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES..........................................................................207

7 - PERFORMANCE CLASS B AEROPLANES 213

5. FLIGHT MECHANICS OF PISTON ENGINE AIRCRAFT........................................................223

Abbreviations meaning 233

angle of bank is not more than 60°.

4. OPERATING SPEEDS UNITS

4.1. CALIBRATED AIR SPEED (CAS)

4.2. INDICATED AIR SPEED (IAS)

4.3. TRUE AIR SPEED (TAS)

Effect of altitude: at given CAS when

4.4. GROUND SPEED (GS)

4.5. MACH NUMBER

where represents the speed of sound at the flight altitude.

Effect of altitude in the at given Mach number when

5.1. STANDARD EQUATIONS

5.2. EQUATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER

6.1. TOTAL FUEL FLOW

6.2. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

where is the available thrust, supplied by the engines.

6.3. SPECIFIC RANGE

And, considering air distance,

CS 25.1527 Ambient air temperature and operating altitude

8. ATMOSPHERIC ICING CONDITIONS

8.2. TAKE-OFF MAXIMUM ICING

8.3. ICE ACCRETIONS

1. TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

1.2. MINIMUM SPEEDS

CS 25.103 Stall speed

CS 25.201 Stall demonstration

At minimum weight (37 t) in clean configuration:

CS 25.207 Stall warning

• (c) When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding (1

1.2.2.Minimum Control Speed on the Ground: VMCG

CS 25.149 Minimum control speed

must be established, with:

1.2.3.Minimum Control Speed: VMC

CS 25.149 Minimum control speed

• The aeroplane in the most critical take-off configuration existing

1.2.4.Minimum Unstick Speed: VMU

CS 25.107 Take-off speeds

device). Afterwards, the pitch is maintained until lift-off.

1.3. OPERATIONAL TAKEOFF SPEEDS

CS 25.107 Takeoff Speeds

is entered in the MCDU by the crew during the flight preparation.

1.3.3.Lift Off Speed: VLOF

CS 25.107 Takeoff Speeds

Therefore, it is the speed at which the lift overcomes the weight.

CS 25.107 Takeoff Speeds

CS 25.107 Takeoff Speeds

Airbus aircraft, as most commercial airplanes, are generally geometrically limited.

1.3.4.Takeoff Climb Speed: V2