Vector Fields

Vector Fields

918 ■ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR CALCULUS

We will define vector fields on plane R2 and space R3
Other examples of velocity vector fields are illustrated in Figure 2: ocean currents
and flow past an airfoil.

Nova Scotia

(a) Ocean currents off the coast of Nova Scotia (b) Airflow past an inclined airfoil

FIGURE 2 Velocity vector fields

Another type of vector field, called a force field, associates a force vector with each
point in a region. An example is the gravitational force field that we will look at in
Example 4.
In general, a vector field is a function whose domain is a set of points in ⺢ 2 (or ⺢ 3 )
MATH 170 and whose range is a set ofII vectors in V2 (or V3 ).
Calculus 1 / 33
 Vector Fields
(a) Ocean currents off the coast of Nova Scotia (b)

FIGURE 2 Velocity vector fields

Another type of vector field, called a forc
point in a region. An example is the gravi
Definition 1 Example 4.
Let D be a region on R2 . A vector field F : RIn2whose
R2 → and general, a vector field is a function wh
is arange
function that
is a set of vectors in V2 (o
assigns to each point (x, y) in D a vector F (x, y) in the plane.
1 Definition Let D be a set in ⺢ (a pla
2

function F that assigns to each point 共x,

y F共x, y兲.
F(x, y)

(x, y) The best way to picture a vector field is

F共x, y兲 starting at the point 共x, y兲. Of cours
0 x 共x, y兲, but we can gain a reasonable impres
tive points in D as in Figure 3. Since F共x, y兲
it in terms of its component functions P a

F共x, y兲 苷 P共x, y兲 i
Q共x,

FIGURE 3
The rule of a vector field can befieldexpressed
Vector on R@ as or, for short, F苷Pi

F (x, y) = P (x, y)i + Q(x, y)j or Notice that P and Q are scalar functions o
scalar fields to distinguish them from vecto
F (x, y) =< P (x, y), Q(x, y) >. z F (x, y, z)

2 Definition Let E be a subset of ⺢ . A

3
(x, y, z)
0 that assigns to each point 共x, y, z兲 in E a
y
MATH 170 Calculus II 2 / 33
 Vector Fields y F共x, y兲.
F(x, y)

(x, y) The best way to picture a vector field is

F共x, y兲 starting at the point 共x, y兲. Of cours
Definition 2 0 x 共x, y兲, but we can gain a reasonable impres
tive3points in D as in Figure 3. Since F共x, y兲
Let E be a region on R3 .
A vector field F : → R3 is aoffunction
itRin terms its componentthat
functions P a
assigns to each point (x, y, z) in E a vector F (x, y, z) in the F共x,
space.
y兲 苷 P共x, y兲 i
Q共x,
FIGURE 3
Vector field on R@ or, for short, F苷Pi

Notice that P and Q are scalar functions o

z scalar fields to distinguish them from vecto
F (x, y, z)

2 Definition Let E be a subset of ⺢ . A

3
(x, y, z)
0 that assigns to each point 共x, y, z兲 in E a
y

x A vector field F on ⺢ 3 is pictured in Figu

ponent functions P, Q, and R as
FIGURE 4
Vector field on R# F共x, y, z兲 苷 P共x, y, z兲 i

The rule of a such function can be expressed as
F (x, y, z) = P (x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k or
F (x, y, z) =< P (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z) >.

MATH 170 Calculus II 3 / 33

 Vector Fields

Example 3
As with the vector functions in Section 10.
A vector field on R2 defined by F (x, y) = −yi + xj.and show that F is continuous if and only
continuous.
We sometimes identify a point 共x, y, z兲
Solution. write F共x兲 instead of F共x, y, z兲. Then F bec
to a vector x.
To understand the vector field we draw the image vectors F (x, y) on the
EXAMPLE 1 A vector field on ⺢ is defined 2

plane starting at the point (x, y). For example, F (1, 0) = j, F (0, 1) = −i,
F (0, 3) = −3i. F共x, y兲 苷

Describe F by sketching some of the vecto

F(0, 3)
y SOLUTION Since F共1, 0兲 苷 j, we draw the ve
(0, 3) in Figure 5. Since F共0, 1兲 苷 i, we draw
共0, 1兲. Continuing in this way, we draw a n
sent the vector field in Figure 5.
It appears that each arrow is tangent to
F (1, 0) this, we take the dot product of the positio
x
0 F共x兲 苷 F共x, y兲:

x ⴢ F共x兲 苷 共x i

苷 xy

This shows that F共x, y兲 is perpendicular to

FIGURE 5 tangent to a circle with center the origin an
F(x, y)=_y i+x j that
MATH 170 Calculus II 4 / 33
 Vector Fields

Example 4
Sketch the vector fields on R3 defined by F (x, y, z) = zk.

Solution.
Again, to understand the vector field we draw the image vectors F (x, y, z)
in the space, starting at the point (x, y, z). For example, F (1, 0, 0) = 0,
F (0, 1, 1) = k, F (0, 3, −3) = −3k. Observe that vectors are perpendicular
to xy−plane.Closer to the 920plane
■ shorter vectors.
CHAPTER 13 VECTOR CALCULUS

z EXAMPLE 2 Sketch the vector field on ⺢ 3 give

SOLUTION The sketch is shown in Figure 9. No

point upward above the xy-plane or downwa
with the distance from the xy-plane.
0
We were able to draw the vector field in E
y
ularly simple formula. Most three-dimensio
x impossible to sketch by hand and so we need
Examples are shown in Figures 10, 11, and 1
10 and 11 have similar formulas, but all the
FIGURE 9 direction of the negative y-axis because their
F(x, y, z)=z k field in Figure 12 represents a velocity field,
MATH 170 Calculus II and would spiral around the z-axis in5the
/ 33clo
 Gradient Vector fields

If f (x, y) is a function of two variables then its gradient ∇f which is

defined by
∇f (x, y) = fx (x, y)i + fy (x, y)j
is a vector field on R2 and is called the gradient vector field of f .

Similarly, the gradient of a three variable function f (x, y, z) is a vector field

∇f (x, y, z) = fx (x, y, z)i + fy (x, y, z)j + fz (x, y, z)k

which is called the gradient vector field of f .

MATH 170 Calculus II 6 / 33

 Gradient Vector fields

Example 5
Find the gradient vector field of f (x, y) = x2 y − y 3 .

Solution.
Since ∇f (x, y) = fx (x, y)i + fy (x, y)j, we obtain

∇f (x, y) = (2xy)i + (x2 − 3y 2 )j

MATH 170 Calculus II 7 / 33

 Gradient Vector fields

Definition 6
A vector field F is called a conservative vector field if it is the gradient
vector field of some function f , i.e. F = ∇f . In this situation f is called a
potential function for F .

Note: Not every vector field is conservative. We will see how to determine
conservative vector fields.

MATH 170 Calculus II 8 / 33

 Line Integrals

We will define an integral with single variable which is not integrated over
an interval but along a curve both on the plane and in the space. For this
purpose we describe curves in parametric equations.

MATH 170 Calculus II 9 / 33

 Line Integrals grals are called line integrals, a
They were invented in the earl
forces, electricity, and magneti
We start with a plane curve
Let C be a plane curve given by x = x(t) and y = y(t) where
1
a ≤ t ≤ b xor苷 x共
in vector form r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j.
or, equivalently, by the vector
y P *i (x *i , y *i ) is a smooth curve. [This means
Pi-1
Pi If we divide the parameter int
C and we let x i 苷 x共ti 兲 and yi 苷
Pn into n subarcs with lengths
P™ Pi*共x i*, yi*兲 in the i th subarc. (
P¡ any function of two variables
P¸ the point 共x i*, yi*兲, multiply by
0 x

t i*
a t i-1 ti b t
which is similar to a Riemann
FIGURE 1 the following definition by ana

2 Definition If f is defined
the line integral of f along
MATH 170 Calculus II 10 / 33
 Line Integrals

If we divide the interval [a, b] into n sub-intervals [ti−1 , ti ], the

corresponding points on C, r(ti ) = Pi divide the curve into n sub-arcs
with length ∆si . We choose a point (x⋆i , yi⋆ ) in each sub-arc Pi−1 , Pi . If f
is a function whose domain contains the points of C then the sum
n
X
f (x⋆i , yi⋆ )∆si
i=1

is similar to Riemann sum.

MATH 170 Calculus II 11 / 33

 Line Integrals
The value of the line integ
Definition 7 vided that the curve is tra
If s共t兲 is the length of
If f is a function which is defined on a smooth curve C (tangent vector is
non-zero), with parametric
▲ The equations above,
arc length function s is the line integral of f along
the curve C is defined discussed in Section 10.3.
as the following, if limit exists.
n
So the way to remember
Z X
f (x, y)ds = lim f (x⋆i , yi⋆ )∆st.i Use the parametric equ
C n→∞
i=1

z
In the special case wh
the parameter, we can w
a x b. Formula 3 th
0

C y
f(x, y)

(x, y) and so the line integral re

x
Just as for an ordinary
tive function as an area. I
MATH 170 Calculus II 12 / 33
 Line Integrals

We have the arc-length formula

s
Z b  2  2
dx dy
L= + dt
a dt dt

If f is continuous then the limit exists and the line integral can be
evaluated by the following formula:
s 
dx 2
Z Z b  2
dy
f (x, y)ds = f (x(t), y(t)) + dt
C a dt dt

MATH 170 Calculus II 13 / 33

 Line Integrals
(x, y)
and so the line integral
Just as for an ordina
Example 8 x
tive function as an area
Evaluate C (2 + x2 y)ds if C is the upper half of the unitside
R
of the “fence” or “
circle
2 2
x + y = 1. FIGURE 2 the point 共x, y兲 is f 共x, y

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate xC
Solution . x 2
y 2 苷 1.
The curve is given analytic equation but in order to apply the formula we
SOLUTION In order to use
need to express C in parametric equation. Unit circle can be parametrized
Recall that the unit circ
as x = cos t and y = sin t. Upper half circle is described by parameter
0 ≤ t ≤ θ.
y and the upper half of th
≈+¥=1 (See Figure 3.) Therefo
(y˘0)

y 共2
x 2 y
C

_1 0 1 x

FIGURE 3
MATH 170 Calculus II 14 / 33
 Line Integrals

Solution (Cont.)
dx dy
Also f (x(t), y(t)) = 2 + (cos t)2 sin t, and = sin t, = − cos t, then
dt dt
Z Z θ p
2
(2 + x y)ds = (2 + cos2 t sin t) (sin t)2 + (− cos t)2 dt
C 0

Z θ
2
= (2 + cos2 t sin t)dt = 2π +
0 3

MATH 170 Calculus II 15 / 33

 Line Integrals

Suppose that C is a piecewise smooth curve, it is a union of finite number

of smooth curves C1 , C2 , ..., Cn . Then we define the integral of f along C
Z Z Z Z
f (x, y)ds = f (x, y)ds + f (x, y)ds + ... + f (x, y)ds
C C1 C2 Cn
926 ■ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR CALCULUS

y
C¢
Suppose now that C is
number of smooth curves
point of Ci
1 is the termin
C∞
the sum of the integrals o
C£
C™

y f 共x, y兲 ds 苷 y
C¡ C C

0 x

EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate xC 2x
FIGURE 4 from 共0, 0兲 to 共1, 1兲 follow
A piecewise-smooth curve
SOLUTION The curve C is sh
MATH 170 y Calculus II can choose x as the16param
/ 33
 Line Integrals
926 ■ CHAPTER 13 VECTOR CALCULUS

y
C¢
Suppose now that C is a piecewis
Example 9 number of smooth curves C1, C2, . . .
point of Ci
1 is the terminal point of
R C∞ 2 from
Evaluate C 2xds if C consists of arc C1 of the the sum y
parabola of =
the x
integrals of f along ea
C£
C™
(0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by C2 vertical line segment from (1, 1) to (1, 2).
y f 共x, y兲 ds 苷 y f 共x, y兲 ds
C¡ C C1

0 x
Solution. EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate xC 2x ds, where
We can parametrize C1 by x=
FIGURE 4 t, y = t2 where 0 ≤ from
t ≤共0,
1.0兲 to 共1, 1兲 followed by the
A piecewise-smooth curve
SOLUTION The curve C is shown in Fig
y can choose x as the parameter and th

(1, 2) x苷x
C™
Therefore

冑冉 冊
(1, 1)
C¡ 1 dx
y 2x ds 苷 y 2x
C1 0 dx
(0, 0) x
1
苷 y 2xs1
4x 2
0
FIGURE 5
C=C¡ 傼 C™
On C2 we choose y as the parameter,
MATH 170 Calculus II 17 / 33
 Line Integrals

Solution (cont.)
Then, √
1
5 5−1
Z Z p
2xds = 2
2t 1 + 4t dt =
C1 0 6
We parametrize the curve C2 as x = 1, y = t where 1 ≤ t ≤ 2. Then,
Z Z 2 p
2xds = 2(1) 02 + 12 dt = 2
C2 1

Hence, √
5 5−1
Z
2xds = +2
C 6

MATH 170 Calculus II 18 / 33

 Line Integrals

If we replace ∆si with ∆xi or ∆yi in the definition of line integral, then
we obtain two new line integrals
Z n
X
f (x, y)dx = lim f (x⋆i , yi⋆ )∆xi
C n→∞
i=1
Z n
X
f (x, y)dy = lim f (x⋆i , yi⋆ )∆yi
C n→∞
i=1

MATH 170 Calculus II 19 / 33

 Line Integrals

These integrals are called the line integrals of f with respect to x and
y. Following formulas show how these integrals are evaluated
Z Z b
f (x, y)dx = f (x(t), y(t))x′ (t)dt
C a
Z Z b
f (x, y)dy = f (x(t), y(t))y ′ (t)dt
C a
where x′ (t)dt
= dx and y ′ (t)dt
= dy. Line integral with respect to x and
y may occur together.
Z Z Z
P (x, y)dx + Q(x, y)dy = P (x, y)dx + Q(x, y)dy
C C C

MATH 170 Calculus II 20 / 33

 Line Integrals It frequently happens that line
When this happens, it’s customary

y P共x, y兲 dx
y Q共
Example 10 C C

Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy if a) C is the arc of the parabola y 2 from

R
Whenxwe =are4−setting up a line
think of a parametric representation
(−5, −3) to (0, 2) and b) if C is the line segment from (−5, −3)
In particular, to (0,
we often need2).
to para
that a vector representation of the l
by
Solution.
8 r共t兲 苷 共1 
a) We can parametrize C by x = 4 − t2 , y = t where −3 ≤ t ≤ 2.
(See Equation 9.5.1 with v 苷 r1 

y EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate xC y 2 dx
x d
共5, 3兲 to 共0, 2兲 and (b) C 苷 C2
(0, 2) 共5, 3兲 to 共0, 2兲. (See Figure 7.)
C™
C¡ SOLUTION
0 x (a) A parametric representation fo
4

x=4-¥ x 苷 5t  5
(_5, _3) (Use Equation 8 with r0 苷 具5, 
and Formula 7 gives
FIGURE 7
y y 2 dx
x dy 苷
C1
MATH 170 Calculus II 21 / 33
 Line Integrals

Solution (cont.)
Then dx = −2tdt, dy = dt,
Z Z 2
2 5
y dx + xdy = t2 (−2t)dt + (4 − t2 )dt = 40
C −3 6

MATH 170 Calculus II 22 / 33

 Line Integrals

Solution (cont.)
b) We parametrize the line segment by r(t) = (1 − t)(−5, −3) + (0, 2)
which gives x = t − 5, y = 5t − 3 where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Z Z 1
2 5
y dx + xdy = (5t − 3)2 (5dt) + (5t − 5)(5dt) = −
C 0 6
.

Note: Observe that the result of a) and b) are different, although the
initial and terminal points of curves are the same.

MATH 170 Calculus II 23 / 33

 Line Integrals

Let C be a curve with parametrization x = x(t) and y = y(t) where

a ≤ t ≤ b. The curve C ′ parametrized as x = x(−t + aNotice + b)alsoandthat the answers in
′ of the curve. If C1 denotes the lin
y = y(−t + a + b). The curve C will have exactly the same
using points but in
the parametrization
′
reverse orientation. Observe that when t = a, C will have initial point
x 苷 5t
(x(b), y(b)) (terminal point of C) and for t = b, C ′ will have (x(a), y(a))
terminal point (initial point of C). This curve is called
thatreverse of C yC
denoted −C.
B In general, a given parametriza
C
orientation of a curve C, with the p
of the parameter t. (See Figure 8, w
A eter value a and the terminal point
If C denotes the curve consis
orientation (from initial point B to
a b t

B y f 共x, y兲 dx 苷 y f 共x, y
C C

_C But if we integrate with respect to

A
change when we reverse the orient

FIGURE 8 f共
y C

MATH 170 Calculus II 24 / 33

 Line Integrals

Then we have Z Z
f (x, y)dx = − f (x, y)dx
−C C
Z Z
f (x, y)dy = − f (x, y)dy
−C C
Z Z
f (x, y)ds = f (x, y)ds
−C C
Line integral with respect to x and y change sign because in the limit
definition ∆xi and ∆yi change sign but ∆si is always positive.

MATH 170 Calculus II 25 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

Suppose C is a smooth space curve with parametrization

x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t) where a ≤ t ≤ b. Let f (x, y, z) be a
continuous function whose domain contains all the points of C then we
define the line integral of f along C with respect to arc-length
Z n
X
f (x, y, z)ds = lim f (x⋆i , yi⋆ , zi⋆ )∆si
C n→∞
i=1
.

MATH 170 Calculus II 26 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

Then we can evaluate it in a similar way we do for plane curves

Z Z b
f (x, y, z)ds = f (x, y, z)ds
C a
s 
dx 2
Z b  2  2
dy dz
= f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) + + dt
a dt dt dt

MATH 170 Calculus II 27 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

If we write the curve C in vector notation, then we rewrite the integral as

Z Z b
f (x, y, z)ds = f (r(t))|r′ (t)|dt
C a

For the special case f (x, y, z) = 1, we get

Z Z b
ds = |r′ (t)|dt = L.
C a
We add line integral of f with respect to z
Z n
X
f (x, y, z)dz = lim f (x⋆i , yi⋆ , zi⋆ )∆zi
C n→∞
i=1
.

MATH 170 Calculus II 28 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

Example 11
R
Evaluate C y sin zds if C is circular helix given by the parametrization
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution.
By the above formula
Z Z 2π p
y sin zds = sin t sin t sin2 t + cos2 t + 1dt
C 0
Z 2π √ √ Z 2π
1
= sin2 t 2dt = 2 (1 − cos 2t)dt
0 0 2
√
= 2π
.

MATH 170 Calculus II 29 / 33

 Line Integrals in space
y f 共x, y, z兲 dz
C

Solution. Therefore, as with line integrals in

10 yC
P共x, y, z兲 dx

by expressing everything 共x, y, z, d

6

EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate xC y sin z ds, w

4 tions x 苷 cos t, y 苷 sin t, z 苷 t, 0
z
SOLUTION Formula 9 gives
2
C 2
y y sin z ds 苷 y 共sin t兲 sin
0 C 0
_1 _1
2
0 0 苷y sin 2tssi
0
y x
1 1
2
苷 s2 y 共1 
1
2
FIGURE 9 0

EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate xC y dx
z dy
from 共2, 0, 0兲 to 共3, 4, 5兲 followed
MATH 170 Calculus II 共3, 4, 0兲. 30 / 33
 _1 Line Integrals in space_1
2
0 0 苷y sin 2tssin 2t
cos 2t

0
y x
Example 12 1 1
2
苷 s2 y 共1  cos 2t兲 dt 苷
R 1
2
Evaluate
FIGURE 9 ydx + zdy + xdz where C consists of the line segment
C
0 C1
from (2, 0, 0) to (3, 4, 5) followed by the vertical line segment C2 from
(3, 4, 5) to (3, 4, 0). EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate xC y dx
z dy
x dz, whe
from 共2, 0, 0兲 to 共3, 4, 5兲 followed by the vertica
共3, 4, 0兲.
Solution.
z SOLUTION The curve C is shown in Figure 10. Us
We write C1 as

(3, 4, 5)
苷 0⟩
r共t兲 0,
⃗r(t) = (1 − t)⟨2, 共1 +
 t⟨3, 0典
t具3, 4
t兲具2,4,0,5⟩

or, in = ⟨2 + t, 4t,
parametric 5t⟩ as
form,
C¡
C™
0 or, in parametric form,x 苷
as2
t
(2, 0, 0) y y 苷 4t z苷
(3, 4, 0) x =Thus
2+t y = 4t z = 5t 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
x
1
FIGURE 10 y y dx
z dy
x dz 苷 y 共4t兲 dt
共
C1 0

MATH 170 Calculus II 1 31 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

Solution (cont.)
Thus
Z Z1
ydx + zdy + xdz = (4t)dt + (5t)4dt + (2 + t)5dt
C1
0
Z1 1
t2
= (10 + 29t)dt = 10t + 29 = 24.5
2 0
0

MATH 170 Calculus II 32 / 33

 Line Integrals in space

Solution(cont.)
Likewise C2 can be written in the form

r(t) = (1 − t) < 3, 4, 5 > +t < 3, 4, 0 >=< 3, 4, 5 − 5t >

or
x = 3 y = 4 z = 5 − 5t 0⩽t⩽1
Then dx = 0 = dy, so

Z Z1
ydx + zdy + xdz = 3(−5)dt = −15
C2
0

Adding the values of these integrals, we obtain

Z
ydx + zdy + xdz = 24.5 − 15 = 9.5
C

MATH 170 Calculus II 33 / 33