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Christian Constanda
Editor
Computational
and Analytic
Methods in
Science and
Engineering
Computational and Analytic Methods in Science
and Engineering
Christian Constanda
Editor
Computational and Analytic

Methods in Science
and Engineering
Editor
Christian Constanda
The Charles W. Oliphant Professor of Mathematics
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa, OK, USA
ISBN 978-3-030-48185-8 ISBN 978-3-030-48186-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48186-5
Mathematics Subject Classification: 00B15, 74G10, 93E25
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020, corrected publication 2020

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Preface
The international conferences on Computational and Mathematical Methods in

Science and Engineering (CMMSE) are annual events where professionals of a
variety of denominations who use analytic and numerical methods of investigation
communicate the most recent results of their research.
The latest edition of this well-established series of meetings took place in the
resort of Costa Ballena, Rota, Cadiz, Spain, June 30–July 6, 2019, and included a
special session on the applications of integral methods to scientific developments
in a variety of fields, such as pure analysis, numerical techniques, mathematical
biology, petroleum engineering, and continuum mechanics. The chapters in this
volume, arranged alphabetically by first author’s name, represent a collection of
selected, peer-reviewed articles presented in that session.
On behalf of the participants, I wish to express my appreciation to the organizing
committee—in particular, to its chairman, Jesús Vigo Aguiar—for underwriting the
success of the conference by providing an environment conducive to the forging
of good interpersonal relationships and the creation of synergies that will lead to
further advancements in the construction and use of an essential class of techniques
for the qualitative and quantitative study of mathematical models.
Finally, I would also like to thank the reviewers for their thorough and timely
responses and Christopher Tominich and his team at Birkhäuser–New York for their
courteous and professional handling of the publication process.
Tulsa, OK, USA Christian Constanda

March 2020
v
Contents
1 New Numerical Results for the Optimization of Neumann

Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Daniel Abele and Andreas Kleefeld
2 Transient Convection-Diffusion-Reaction Problems with
Variable Velocity Field by Means of DRBEM with Different
Radial Basis Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Salam Adel Al-Bayati and Luiz C. Wrobel
3 On a Parametric Representation of the Angular Neutron Flux
in the Energy Range from 1 eV to 10 MeV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Luiz F. F. Chaves Barcellos, Bardo E. J. Bodmann,
and Marco T. Vilhena
4 A Boundary Integral Equation Formulation for
Advection–Diffusion–Reaction Problems with Point
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Luiz F. Bez, Rogério J. Marczak, Bardo E. J. Bodmann,
and Marco T. Vilhena
5 Displacement Boundary Value Problem for a Thin Plate
in an Unbounded Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Christian Constanda and Dale Doty
6 A Dirichlet Spectral Problem in Domains Surrounded by Thin
Stiff and Heavy Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Delfina Gómez, Sergey A. Nazarov, and Maria–Eugenia
Pérez-Martínez
7 Spectral Homogenization Problems in Linear Elasticity with
Large Reaction Terms Concentrated in Small Regions of the
Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Delfina Gómez, Sergey A. Nazarov,
and Maria-Eugenia Pérez-Martínez
vii
viii Contents
8 The Mathematical Modelling of the Motion of Biological Cells

in Response to Chemical Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Paul J. Harris
9 Numerical Calculation of Interior Transmission Eigenvalues
with Mixed Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Andreas Kleefeld and Jijun Liu
10 An Inequality for Hölder Continuous Functions Generalizing
a Result of Carlo Miranda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Massimo Lanza de Cristoforis
11 Two-Phase Three-Component Flow in Porous Media:
Mathematical Modeling of Dispersion-Free Pressure Behavior . . . . . . . 223
Luara K. S. Sousa, Luana C. M. Cantagesso, Adolfo P. Pires,
and Alvaro M. M. Peres
12 Error Analysis and the Role of Permutation in Dynamic
Iteration Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Barbara Zubik-Kowal
Correction to: An Inequality for Hölder Continuous Functions
Generalizing a Result of Carlo Miranda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Contributors
Daniel Abele Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich Supercomputing Centre, Jülich,

Germany
Salam Adel Al-Bayati College of Sciences, Department of Mathematics and
Computer Applications, AL-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
Luiz F. F. Chaves Barcellos Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, RS, Brazil
Luiz F. Bez Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
Bardo E. J. Bodmann Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
RS, Brazil
Luana C. M. Cantagesso Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Macaé,
RJ, Brazil
Christian Constanda The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, USA
Dale Doty The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, USA
Delfina Gómez Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Paul J. Harris The University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
Andreas Kleefeld Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich Supercomputing
Centre, Jülich, Germany
Massimo Lanza de Cristoforis Dipartimento di Matematica ‘Tullio Levi-Civita’,
Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
Jijun Liu School of Mathematics/Seu-Yau Center, Southeast University, Nanjing,
China
Rogério J. Marczak Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS,
Brazil
ix
x Contributors
Sergey A. Nazarov Saint-Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia

Institute of Problems of Mechanical Engineering RAS, St. Petersburg, Russia
Alvaro M. M. Peres Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Macaé, RJ,
Brazil
Maria-Eugenia Pérez-Martínez Universidad de Cantabria, Santander, Spain
Adolfo P. Pires Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Macaé, RJ, Brazil
Luara K. S. Sousa Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Macaé, RJ,
Brazil
Marco T. Vilhena Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS,
Brazil
Luiz C. Wrobel Institute of Materials and Manufacturing, Brunel University
London, Uxbridge, UK
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pontifical Catholic University
of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Brazil
Barbara Zubik-Kowal Department of Mathematics, Boise State University,
Boise, ID, USA
Chapter 1
New Numerical Results
for the Optimization of Neumann
Eigenvalues
Daniel Abele and Andreas Kleefeld
1.1 Introduction
We will discuss the optimization of interior Neumann eigenvalues with respect

to the shape of the domain. To state the problem precisely, consider an open,
possibly disconnected set Ω ∈ IR2 with smooth boundary ∂Ω. The normal onto the
boundary at point x ∈ ∂Ω directed into the exterior is ν := ν(x). Interior Neumann
eigenvalues are values λ = κ 2 ∈ IR for which the boundary value problem (BVP)
Δu + κ 2 u = 0 in Ω (1.1a)
∂u
= 0 on ∂Ω (1.1b)
∂ν
has non-trivial solutions. Precisely, Eq. (1.1a) is the Helmholtz equation with
wavenumber κ in the interior of Ω and Eq. (1.1b) is the homogeneous Neu-
mann boundary condition. The problem arises in the study of acoustic scattering
[CoKr13]. It is well-known that the eigenvalues are discrete, real, and nonnegative:
0 = λ 0 ≤ λ1 ≤ λ2 ≤ . . . .
The eigenvalues depend on the domain. The optimization problem for the k-th
eigenvalue is
max{λk (Ω)}
Ω
s.t. |Ω| = 1
D. Abele · A. Kleefeld ()

Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich Supercomputing Centre, Jülich, Germany
e-mail: d.abele@fz-juelich.de; a.kleefeld@fz-juelich.de
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

C. Constanda (ed.), Computational and Analytic Methods in Science
and Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48186-5_1
2 D. Abele and A. Kleefeld
Table 1.1 Recent results for k [AnFr12] [AnOu17] [Kl19]

the numerical optimization of
interior Neumann eigenvalue 1 – 10.66(2) –
λk 2 – 21.28(4) –
3 32.79 (3) 32.90(3) 32.9018 (3)
4 43.43 (5) 43.86(3) 43.8694 (3)
5 54.08 (7) 55.17(3) –
6 67.04 (4) 67.33(4) –
7 77.68 (6) 77.99(6) –
8 89.22 (4) 89.38(4) –
9 101.73 (4) 101.83(4) –
10 113.86 (5) 114.16(5) –
The value in parentheses is the multiplicity
with |Ω| denoting the area of the domain. The area must be constrained as the
eigenvalues are inversely proportional to the area. So the goal is to find the shape of
the domain that maximizes λk for k > 0 among all domains of constant area. The
eigenvalue λ0 , for which (1.1) has only constant solutions, is ignored here as it is
always zero.
There has been some theoretical and numerical work in this area. Szegö and a
little later Weinberger have shown that the first eigenvalue is maximized by a disk
[Sz54, We56]. The second eigenvalue is maximized by the union of two disjoint
disks of the same size [GiNaPo09]. It is so far unknown if maximizers for higher
eigenvalues exist. However, it has been shown that disjoint unions of disks do
not maximize all eigenvalues [PoRo10], so there is room for exploration. Recent
numerical results suggest that maximizers for the first ten eigenvalues exist and
follow a certain system [AnOu17, AnFr12]. That system has been exploited to
get more precise results for some eigenvalues [Kl19]. Those numerical results are
summarized in Table 1.1.
1.1.1 Contribution
This work expands on the idea of [Kl19]. We show that the parametrization of
shapes presented there is not very successful beyond the fourth eigenvalue. By
introducing additional parameters we managed to get improved optimization results
for some eigenvalues, while still using fewer parameters than a general Fourier
series approach. As the performance of the eigenvalue solver directly affects the
achievable precision, we discuss the employed methods and the implementation in
greater detail and explain some adaptations that make optimization feasible on a
larger scale than before: more eigenvalues, more degrees of freedom and greater
precision. In particular, we developed a strongly scaling parallelization scheme.
1 Optimization of Neumann Eigenvalues 3
1.1.2 Outline
In Sect. 1.2 we present the method of computing the eigenvalues and its imple-
mentation. The numerical methods—boundary element method to discretize the
BVP and the contour integral method of Beyn to solve the nonlinear eigenvalue
problem—are discussed in detail in Sects. 1.2.1 and 1.2.2. That discussion motivates
the parallelization scheme that is explained in Sect. 1.2.3. Section 1.3 is dedicated
to the actual optimization. After a quick summary of the shape parametrization
of [Kl19] we present the disappointing results of using that parametrization in the
maximization of further eigenvalues. We then extend the parameter space and show
the much improved results. Finally we will give our conclusion and a small outlook
in Sect. 1.4.
1.2 Computation of Eigenvalues
The process to compute eigenvalues is the same as in [Kl19] with the exception of
parallelization and some other important modifications that have major implications
on the required computational effort. First, the BVP (1.1) is discretized using
the boundary element method. The resulting homogeneous linear system is a
nonlinear eigenvalue problem that is solved with the method of Beyn. To motivate
the parallelization, we will give a quick summary of these methods while the
modifications are highlighted and discussed in detail.
1.2.1 The Boundary Element Method
The theory of this method is covered in [CoKr83]. Using a single layer potential
ansatz, the BVP (1.1) is first converted into the integral equation of the second kind

1 ∂
ψ(x) + Φκ (x, y)ψ(y) ds(y) = 0 , x ∈ ∂Ω (1.2)
2 ∂Ω ∂ν(x)
whose solution ψ ∈ C(∂Ω) is the density of the solution of the BVP. The kernel
i (1)
Φκ (x, y) := H (κ x − y)
4 0
(1)
with H0 the Hankel function of the first kind of order zero is the fundamental
solution of the PDE (1.1a). We choose n points xi , i = 1, . . . , n on the boundary
that form n/2 boundary elements with two endpoints and one midpoint. The integral
equation (1.2) is discretized using piecewise quadratic interpolation of ψ and the
boundary. Collocation results in a homogeneous linear system

1
I + M(κ) ψ = 0 (1.3)
2

T(κ)
with system matrix T(κ) and identity matrix I ∈ Cn×n . The entries of matrix
M(κ) ∈ Cn×n are integrals over the quadratic boundary elements of the form
1 ∂
Φκ (xi , gk (t))Lj (t) gk (t) dt (1.4)
0 ∂νi,k
with xi the collocation point, k = 1, . . . , n/2 the index of the boundary element,
gk : [0, 1] t → L1 (t)x2k−1 + L2 (t)x2k + L3 (t)x2k+1 the quadratic interpolation
polynomial of the k-th boundary element, νi,k some approximation of the normal
onto the boundary at xi that may depend on the boundary element (see below),
and Lj , j = 1, 2, 3 the j -th quadratic Lagrange basis polynomial. The integral
describes the influence of the j -th point of boundary element k on collocation point
xi , thus index i is the row index of the matrix entry and indices j and k depend
on the column index. Elements in odd indexed rows correspond to the endpoints of
boundary elements (x1 , x3 , . . .) and as such are the sum of two such integrals with
different j, k as they belong to two different boundary elements. The kernel
∂ iκ (1) 1
Φκ (x, y) = − H1 (κ x − y) x − y, νi,k (1.5)
∂νi,k 4 x − y
has a singularity at x = y the type of which depends on the choice of νi,k .
Handling of the Singular Kernel
The singularity of the kernel (1.5) must be handled correctly when evaluating the
integrals (1.4) numerically. Note first that there is only a singularity in integral (1.4)
if collocation point xi is part of boundary element k, i.e. gk (t0 ) = xi for some
t0 ∈ [0, 1]. Otherwise the integrand is continuous and does not present any specific
challenge to numerical quadrature. Let us now assume that there is a singularity in
the k-th boundary element. We will examine the limit of the kernel by isolating the
(1)
singular part. First the Hankel function is replaced by H1 (z) = J1 (z) + iY1 (z)
where J1 and Y1 are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind of order one.
As z → 0, J1 (z) tends to zero, so we have

iκ (1) x−y
lim − H1 (κ x − y) , νi,k
y→x 4 x − y

κ x−y
= lim Y1 (κ x − y) , νi,k . (1.6)
y→x 4 x − y
We replace Y1 with its power series expansion
2 2 1
Y1 (z) = − + ln( z)J1 (z)
πz π 2
∞ 2k+1
1 (−1)k 1
+ (ψ0 (k + 1) + ψ0 (k + 2)) z
π k!(k + 1)! 2
k=0
with ψ0 the digamma function. Of this expansion only the first summand is infinite.
The remaining summands again tend to zero as z → 0. This reduces (1.6) to

1 x−y
lim − , νi,k . (1.7)
y→x 2π x − y2
The limit does not exist for any general vectors x, y, and νi,k , so further constraints
are applied. The points x and y lie on the graph of gk with x = g(t0 ). By Taylor’s
theorem there exists a function h : IR → IR2 with limt→t0 h(t) = 0 such that
1
gk (t) = gk (t0 ) + gk (t0 )(t − t0 ) + gk (t0 )(t − t0 )2 + h(t)(t − t0 )2 .
2
Inserting this into (1.7), the remainder term vanishes as it tends to zero. Let νi,k
be the normal vector onto gk at t0 . Then, the linear term vanishes as gk (t0 ) is the
tangent onto gk at t0 and gk (t0 ), νi,k = 0. The constant terms cancel and only the
quadratic term remains. Hence, we are left with

1 gk (t0 )(t − t0 )2
lim , νi,k .
t→t0 4π gk (t0 ) − gk (t)2
The difference quotient tends to the derivative and we find the result

1 gk (t0 )
, νi,k .
gk (t0 )
4π 2
So under the assumptions from the beginning that xi is part of element k, the
singularity in the kernel (1.5) is removable and the integrals (1.4) are proper if
gk (t0 ), νi,k = 0. Note that the existence of the integral in (1.2) can be shown
with the same argument. In [Kl19], the normal onto the exact boundary, which is
generally not normal to gk , was used in the numeric computation. This results in
infinite singularities that are difficult to handle. Here, we will use normals onto
the interpolation polynomials. We denote the normal onto gk at t0 as gk⊥ (t0 ). For
even indices i (which correspond to the midpoint of element i/2), we always use
⊥ (1/2). For odd indices i, the point x is part of two boundary elements and we
gi/2 i
have g(i+1)/2−1 (1) = g(i+1)/2 (0) = xi . We have a choice of two different normals at
⊥
xi . When we integrate over element (i + 1)/2 − 1, we need to choose g(i+1)/2−1 (1)
and analogously for element (i + 1)/2. Otherwise the choice is arbitrary, so we
alternate to avoid introducing bias. In summary
⎧
⎪
⎪ ⊥ 1 if i mod 2 = 0
⎨gi/2 ( 2 )
⊥
= g(i+1)/2−1 if i mod 2 = 1 and k mod 2 = ( i+1
2 − 1) mod 2
νi,k (1) .
⎪
⎪
⎩g ⊥ (0) if i mod 2 = 1 and k mod 2 = i+1
mod 2
(i+1)/2 2
Now the integrals can be evaluated without any special handling of the singular-
ity. This makes the quadrature less expensive. We have used a routine that uses the
15 point Gauss–Kronrod rule to solve the integrals to within a relative and absolute
tolerance of 10−10 .
Exploiting Symmetries of the Domain
The shapes considered in this work are all symmetric to some degree. This fact can
be exploited to reduce the required work. In the integrand of the integrals (1.4) with
kernel (1.5), the collocation point xi , normal νi,k , and integration point y = gk (t)
exclusively exist in norms and scalar products. Those are invariant under rotation:
Rv = v
Rv, Rw = v, w
for all v, w ∈ IR2 and all rotation transformations R. Under reflection, scalar
products switch signs but this is compensated by the switching of the integration
bounds, so the resulting integral is again invariant. Thus, if xa is the image of xb and
xc is the image of xd under reflection or rotation, then M(κ)ac = M(κ)bd . For this
to work, n must be divisible by two times the degree of symmetry and the boundary
elements must have the same symmetries as the shape itself (Fig. 1.1).
As an example for what effect this has on matrix M(κ) we will discuss the
suspected shape maximizer of λ3 , which has degree of symmetry six (three rotations
times two for reflection symmetry, Fig. 1.1). For simplicity, we assume that the first
collocation point x1 lies on a symmetry axis. Threefold rotational symmetry and the
corresponding shifting of rows and columns by n/3 lead to the matrix having 3 × 3
xb xa
xc xf
xd xe
Fig. 1.1 Suspected shape maximizer of λ3 , discretized using n = 24 points that form 12 boundary
elements. Long ticks mark the endpoints, short ticks the midpoints. The shape has degree of
symmetry six, three rotations times two for reflection symmetry. The discretization parameter n is
divisible by 12, two times the degree of symmetry. The boundary elements have the same symmetry
as the shape itself. The points xa , xb , xc , xd , xe , and xf are images of each other
block structure
⎞ ⎛
ABC
M(κ) = ⎝C A B⎠
BCA
with some blocks A, B, C ∈ Cn/3×n/3 that each have to be evaluated only once,
reducing the required work to a third. Reflection symmetry and the corresponding
reflection of both rows and columns of the matrix lead to the matrix being centrally
symmetric with respect to the entry at row and column n/2 + 1, e.g. for n = 4 the
matrix
⎛ ⎞
a e b e
⎜f g h i⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝c j d j⎠
f i h g
is point symmetric with respect to entry (3, 3) using periodic indices. Note that this
example is just for illustration as n = 4 would not be valid for degree of symmetry
six due to the restrictions mentioned above. Each value repeats twice except where
row index and column index both correspond to fixed points of the reflection, i.e.
to points that lie on the symmetry axis. As the boundary elements are symmetric
and x1 lies on the axis, so does xn/2+1 . In our example, values of entries (1, 1),
(1, n/2 + 1), (n/2 + 1, 1), and (n/2 + 1, n/2 + 1) (or a, b, c, and d) do not repeat.
Rotation and reflection symmetry combine so that all values repeat six times, except
for the fixed points of reflection which only repeat three times.
Rotation symmetry of degree r reduces the number of matrix entries that must
be evaluated to n2 /r. Reflection symmetry further reduces the amount to n2 /2r + 4.
Except for infinitely symmetric shapes like a circle we usually have n r, so the
complexity of the method with respect to the number of collocation points does not
change, but the total amount of work is reduced by a factor approaching 2r.
1.2.2 Beyn’s Contour Integral Method
The eigenvalues of the nonlinear eigenvalue problem (1.3) are computed using the
contour integral method W.-J. Beyn presented in [Be12]. For simplicity, we assume
here that all eigenvalues are simple, but the method works identically for multiple
eigenvalues. Given an operator T : Γ → Cn×n that is holomorphic on a domain
Γ ⊂ C and a closed contour C ⊂ Γ with its interior int(C) ⊂ Γ , the method
computes all eigenvalues of T in the interior int(C).
Let κi , i = 1, . . . , k be the eigenvalues of T in the interior int(C) and vi
and wi the corresponding left and right eigenvectors that are normalized so that
wiH T (κi )vi = 1. Then the equation

k
1 −1
f (κ)T(κ) dκ = f (κi )vi wiH (1.8)
2π i C i=1
holds for all holomorphic functions f : Γ → C [Be12, Theorem 2.9]. We

additionally assume that k < n, which is sufficient for our purposes. Beyn describes
an extension to the method for k ≥ n. Applying (1.8) to the functions f0 (κ) = 1 and
f1 (κ) = κ and multiplying with a random matrix Z ∈ Cn×m from the right yields
two equations

A0 = T(κ)−1 Z dκ = VWH Z (1.9a)
C

A1 = κT(κ)−1 Z dκ = VKWH Z (1.9b)
C
with V = (v1 , . . . , vm ), W = (w1 , . . . , wm ), and K = diag(κ1 , . . . , κm ). The

dimension m is an initial guess for k with k ≤ m ≤ n. Therefore, the matrix Z
reduces the dimensions of A0 and A1 without reducing the rank k. Singular value
decomposition (SVD) of A0 in reduced form yields
A0 = V0 S0 WH
0
with matrices V0 ∈ Cn×k and W0 ∈ Cm×k and the diagonal matrix of singular
values S0 = diag(σ1 , . . . , σk ). With this, the correctness of the initial guess m can
be confirmed by comparing it with the actual computed rank. In case the check is
failed, the method is started again with a higher guess m. Finally a matrix
−1 −1
B = VH
0 A1 W0 S0 = QKQ
is computed. The matrix is diagonalizable by construction with Q = VH 0 V and has

eigenvalues κi , i = 1, . . . , k. Thus, the nonlinear eigenvalue problem is converted
into a linear eigenvalue problem. If the eigenvalues are not simple, the method
works identically but K will have Jordan normal form. The structure of multiplicity
is preserved. We have enough knowledge about the location of eigenvalues to
make the choice of C trivial. All that is left is the discretization of the contour
integrals (1.9). Let the contour be described by a smooth mapping h : [0, 2π ] → C
with h(0) = h(2π ), e.g. the simplest contour, a circle with center μ and radius r,
is described by h(t) = μ + reit . The interval [0, 2π ] is partitioned by the equally
spaced nodes tj = 2πj/N, j = 1, . . . , N with N a chosen discretization parameter.
The approximations
1
N
A0 ≈ T(h(tj ))−1 Zh (tj ) (1.10a)
Ni
j =1
1
N
A1 ≈ h(tj )T(h(tj ))−1 Zh (tj ) (1.10b)
Ni
j =1
are obtained by transforming the integrals onto the partitioned interval and applying
the trapezoidal quadrature rule. Beyn shows that the error in the eigenvalues decays
exponentially with N [Be12, Corollary 4.8].
The operator T must be evaluated N times. This is by far the most expensive
part of the algorithm. As k is usually much smaller than n, the introduction of the
random matrix Z makes the matrices small enough so that the effort required for
linear algebra operations is small. While the solving of linear systems T(h(tj ))−1 Z
is still noticeable, the other operations (SVD, solving the linear eigenvalue problem)
are completely negligible.
1.2.3 Parallelization
For optimization with many iterations, the eigenvalue solver is required to be fast.
The evaluation of both the matrix M(κ) and the contour integrals in Beyn’s method
are well suited for parallelization. This covers almost the entire computation. In
our implementation for n = 1152 and N = 48, almost 100% of the time is spent
Fig. 1.2 Time required to

evaluate each entry of M(κ) 1.00 ·10−4
for a domain with threefold
60
rotational symmetry. Vertical 0.80
stripes correspond to
time [s]
Rows
alternating end- and 40
midpoints of boundary 0.60
elements. The singularity of
the kernel of the integral 20 0.40
equation causes a band
around the diagonal whose
boundary follows the shape of 0 0.20
the domain 0 20 40 60
Columns
on the evaluation of the contour integrals (1.10), of which the evaluation of M(κ)
requires 98.8% and solving the linear systems T(κ)−1 Z requires 1.2%. Everything
else is completely negligible. While the exact gains that can be expected depend
on the implementation and the system, the principles outlined here are universal.
Most relevant for performance are the routines that evaluate the Hankel function
and perform quadrature. Our program is implemented in C, using GNU Scientific
Library (GSL) [Ga09] as a general framework and for quadrature specifically. For
the Hankel function we use the FORTRAN routine provided by Amos [Am86].
Each entry of the n × n matrix can be evaluated independently without any syn-
chronization or communication. Row cyclical distribution is a simple and effective
way to balance the workload (Fig. 1.2). Columns that correspond to an endpoint
of a boundary element require the evaluation of two integrals, whereas columns
that correspond to a midpoint require only one. Additionally, the time necessary to
evaluate a single integral depends strongly on the distance from the singularity of
the kernel, i.e. the diagonal. Row distribution removes both these imbalances. For
shapes less regular than a disk and collocation points that are not perfectly evenly
spaced, the number of collocation points that are close to the singularity varies
smoothly between rows. So the rows need to be distributed cyclically. Without any
communication or synchronization and with 98.8% of the computation parallelized,
strong scaling is expected for this strategy. The implementation, e.g. using OpenMP,
is trivial.
Each of the N summands of the trapezoidal rule that approximates the contour
integrals in Beyn’s method can also be evaluated independently without any
communication except for one sum reduce operation at the end. In regards to
workload balancing, the time to evaluate T(κ) in our implementation depends
mainly on the sign of the imaginary part of wave number κ (Fig. 1.3). The integrals
involving the Hankel function are more expensive for Im(κ) < 0. The eigenvalues
are real, so a contour that is centered on the real axis is used. Cyclical distribution
of summands is generally solid, although not very flexible regarding the number of
tasks. Some tasks may end up with fewer summands from one half space than the
other. The parallelized part is slightly larger than for the first strategy as basically
4.00 ·10−2
1
3.00
time [s]
Im( )
0
2.00
-1 1.00
0.00
0 1 2 3
Re( )
Fig. 1.3 Time required to evaluate T(κ) for different wave numbers κ. The evaluation of integrals
(1)
involving the Hankel function H1 is significantly more expensive for arguments with negative
imaginary part. The singularity at the origin is of no concern as we are not interested in zero
eigenvalues
100% of the computation is covered. This improves scaling compared to the first
strategy. However, the parameter N is typically not very high (<50) so the degree
of parallelism is severely constrained. It is advisable to employ both strategies,
e.g. in a hybrid (mixed shared memory and distributed memory) application. Our
implementation achieves a speedup of ~520 with 576 physical/1152 virtual cores
on the JURECA cluster [Ju18] which likely can be further improved. The time to
evaluate the eigenvalues is reduced to below one second, which allows large scale
optimization.
1.3 Optimization of Eigenvalues
Recall that the constrained optimization problem we are trying to solve is
max{λk (Ω)}
Ω
(1.11)
s.t. |Ω| = 1
for some fixed k ∈ IN with |Ω| denoting the area of the domain Ω. By applying the
known relations
λk (aΩ) = a −2 λk (Ω)
|aΩ| = a 2 |Ω|
with aΩ denoting the homothety of Ω by the factor a, we can convert (1.11) into
the equivalent unconstrained problem
max{λk |Ω|} .
Ω
In the numeric treatment, it is sufficient to consider connected domains. The

spectrum of a disconnected domain Ω1 ∪ Ω2 with Ω1 ∩ Ω2 = ∅ is the ordered
union of the spectrums of the component domains Ω1 and Ω2 . If the maximums
λ∗i = maxΩ {λi } and corresponding maximizers Ωi∗ (connected or disconnected) for
i = 1, . . . , k − 1 are known, then the maximum of λk over disconnected domains is
λ∗k = maxn {λ∗i + λ∗k−i } (1.12)

1≤i≤ 2
and the corresponding disconnected maximizer is

⎛
⎞ ⎛
⎞
λ∗j λ∗k−j
Ωk =
∗ ⎝ Ω ∗ ⎠ ⎝
∪ ∗ ⎠
Ωk−j
λ∗j + λ∗k−j j
λ∗j + λ∗k−j
where j is the integer that maximizes (1.12). If the maximum over all domains is
greater than (1.12), then the maximizer must be connected [PoRo10].
In [Kl19], Kleefeld introduced equipotentials to parametrize the domain. They
are described by the implicit function

m
1
=c (1.13)
i=1
x − pi 2α
with m fixed base points pi and free parameters c and α. To match the shapes
reported in [AnOu17, Fig.√ 2], the base points are chosen so they form equilateral
triangles of side length 3/2, three points on one triangle to maximize λ3 and four
points on two triangles to maximize λ4 (see first row of Fig. 1.4). Points on the
boundary required by the boundary element method are generated by transforming
the equation into polar coordinates and using a root finding algorithm to compute the
radiuses ri for evenly spaced angles φi . The points (ri , φi ) are then transformed back
into Cartesian coordinates. The area of the domain is computed to high accuracy
by approximating the domain as a polygon with 100 · n sides. With this method,
Kleefeld improved on the values found by Antunes and Oudet with the maximum
of λ3 to 32.9018 over 32.90 and the maximum of λ4 to 43.8694 over 43.86.
With the improvements for the method of computation presented above, we can
now try the scheme on the higher eigenvalues. Unless otherwise noted, we have
used discretization parameters n = 1152 and N = 48. Convergence experiments
suggest this is generally enough for six significant digits in the eigenvalues. To
be safe, we check the results of optimization with finer discretization. As the
Fig. 1.4 Arrangement of base points for equipotentials to maximize λ3 , λ4 , λ5 , and λ6 . The points
form a regular triangular grid. A cross marks the origin and rotation center
gradient of the objective function is not trivially computable, we use a routine

provided by GSL that implements the Nelder–Mead simplex method. To avoid local
maximums, we try different starting values. For two parameters, it is possible to
exhaustively probe the parameter space to find good starting values. The extended,
higher dimensional parameter space that is presented later is randomly probed
instead. Simplex algorithms are known to terminate prematurely even without the
presence of local minimums. So after the optimization routine terminates, it is
restarted with the step size reset to its initial value. If the previous result is indeed the
maximum (or close enough), the restarted optimization routine quickly terminates
again. Eigenvalues are truncated to six significant digits. Shape parameters are given
with more significant digits so that the results can be reliably reproduced. The
precise error propagation is unknown.
We use the results of Antunes and Oudet [AnOu17] as references for comparison.
But there is some uncertainty regarding the precision of those values. The first
eigenvalue λ1 has been proven to be maximized by a disk. The spectrum for the
disk can be stated analytically. It is composed of values πjpq 2 where j is the
pq

q-th positive zero of Jp , the first derivative of the Bessel function of the first
kind of order p. These values can be computed very accurately with root finding
algorithms. The first eigenvalue is approximately 10.649866. The second eigenvalue
λ2 is maximized by the union of two disks of the same size. Following the rules for
spectrum of disconnected shapes outlined above, the maximum is precisely 2λ1 or
approximately 21.299733. However, the values given in [AnOu17] are 10.66 for λ1
and 21.28 for λ2 . This discrepancy is not discussed in their paper. While a value
lower than the analytical value could be simply caused by incomplete optimization,
a higher value calls into question the precision of the eigenvalue solver. This has
direct implications for λ7 as well, for which the maximizer found by Antunes and
Oudet is a disjoint union of the maximizers of λ1 and λ6 . The maximum value for λ7
therefore should be the sum of maximums for λ1 and λ6 . It appears like the authors
used their own inaccurate value for λ1 , so λ7 is inaccurate as well. Of course all
their results could be affected by an inaccurate solver, so any comparison can only
be tentative.
The base points for the maximizers of λk , k = 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 are k points on a
regular equilateral triangular grid as they were for k = 3, 4 (see Fig. 1.4). For λ7 ,
Antunes and Oudet did not find a connected shape maximizer. The maximizer can
then be constructed from the maximizers for k < 7, so it is improved automatically
with those. The positive results from [Kl19] have been confirmed with 32.9018,
32.9018, 32.9018 for λ3 and 43.8693, 43.8693, 43.8693 for λ4 . The parameters
differ slightly from [Kl19] with c = 1.687730810, α = 2.019822714 and c =
2.084610015, α = 2.541256146, respectively. This might be explained by the finer
discretization used. Unfortunately, equipotentials work less and less well for higher
k and less symmetric shapes. For λ5 , which in [AnOu17] has multiplicity three,
we have 54.5401, 54.5401, 56.0889 for c = 2.380671137 and α = 3.914738607.
This is significantly lower than the reference value 55.17 and the multiplicity is
not reproduced. For λ6 (multiplicity four), where the suspected shape is more
regular, we get 67.0440, 67.0440, 67.0440, 67.0440 with c = 2.849410261, α =
0.660868556, which is a bit closer to the reference value of 67.33 but still some
distance away. For λ10 (multiplicity five), we even get 109.988 109.988 109.988
118.955 118.955 instead of the previous value 114.16 with c = 1.567009307, α =
5.196376634. The eigenvalues for k = 7, 8, 9 that have been skipped have not been
tried as there was no reason to believe they would fare better.
The results strongly suggest that equipotentials as they are in (1.13) are not
general representations of the shape maximizers. They have shown potential but
need refinement. So far, the base points of the equipotentials have been arranged
on a completely regular triangular grid and all base points are weighted equally. As
there is no particular reason for this regularity other than visual intuition, breaking
it might prove beneficial. So the base points will be allowed to deviate slightly from
their regular position. The weight for the base points in the sum of potentials will
be allowed to deviate from the regular weight of one. The imagined balls around
base points expand as their weight increases. In general, the boundary of the shape
moves away from such points. This final equation reads

m
1 + δ̂i
2α
=c
i=1 x − (pi + î )
where î ∈ IR2 is the irregularity of position and δ̂i ∈ IR is the irregularity of weight
of base point i.
Some of the new parameters are fixed so that the shapes are unique and there
are no dependencies between parameters. The eigenvalues do not depend on the
absolute position of the domain in space, only on the relative position of its
base points, so at least one base point should remain fixed during optimization.
One weight should remain fixed to avoid a dependency between the weights and
parameter c. It is always possible to normalize one weight to a value of one without
changing the shape by dividing all weights and c by that weight. The degrees
of freedom are further reduced by a requirement that no rotation or reflection
symmetries of the regular base points are broken. It must be said that at this point
the conjecture that the symmetries are meaningful is unproven. However, based on
the results of Antunes and Oudet, the conjecture seems reasonable and it keeps the
number of parameters low. So most of the parameters δ̂i and î will be fixed to
zero. For example, the shape for λ3 will have no additional free parameters. One
point must be fixed for uniqueness, the others to preserve rotation symmetry. The
shape for λ4 consists of two pairs of points that are images of each other. One pair
must be fixed. The other is free but can only move along the symmetry axis. So
there is one free coordinate and one free weight. The free, non-zero parameters will
be denoted as i , i = 1, . . . , f and δi , i = 1, . . . , fδ with fδ and f the number
of degrees of freedom (Table 1.2). The free parameters can be assigned to base
points almost arbitrarily as long as symmetry is conserved. We included our chosen
assignment in the tables of results (Tables 1.3 and 1.4). Due to rotation symmetry,
some irregularities of position i are not axis aligned but point toward the rotation
center. For convenience of implementation we avoided irregularities of position that
point away from the domain so that a positive first optimization step does not tear
the shape apart.
The introduction of and δ drastically improves the results over just two
parameters. Figure 1.5 shows the shapes and optimized eigenvalues. Tables 1.3
and 1.4 show the full numerical results including parameters. The maximum for
λ3 remains unchanged as it did not gain any additional free parameters. The
value of λ4 got another small boost to 43.8700. For k = 4, 6, 8, 10, we achieved
Table 1.2 Degree of k f fδ f

freedom of positions f (each
coordinate is counted 3 0 0 2
separately) and weights fδ 4 1 1 4
and total degree of freedom f 5 3 2 7
(including c, α) of the 6 1 1 4
equipotential that is used to 8 6 4 12
maximize λk after symmetry
and uniqueness of the shape 9 7 4 13
and independence of 10 1 2 5
parameters is handled Degree of freedom
is generally greater
for shapes with
fewer symmetries
or more base points
Table 1.3 Optimization results for interior Neumann eigenvalues λk , k = 3, . . . , 7 using

extended equipotentials
k Reference Maximum Parameters Base points and irregularities
3 32.90 (3) 32.9018 c = 1.687730810
32.9018 α = 2.019822714
32.9018
4 43.86 (3) 43.8700 c = 1.942568636
ε1 ε1
43.8700 α = 2.751523202 δ1 δ1
43.8700 1 = −1.314531646 ·10−2
δ1 = −4.623467053 ·10−2
5 55.17 (3) 55.1498 c = 1.548694899
δ1 ε 1 ε 1 δ1
55.1498 α = 2.231247849 ε2 ε2
55.1498 1 = −8.845230330 ·10−2
ε3
2 = −4.509337199 ·10−2
δ2
3 = −4.354727490 ·10−2
δ1 = −1.979312992 ·10−1
δ2 = −1.671890335 ·10−1
6 67.33 (4) 67.3364 c = 2.027170345 δ1
67.3364 α = 1.706097040
ε1
67.3364 1 = 1.577407017 ·10−1
67.3364 δ1 = 6.001214705 ·10−3
ε1 ε1
δ1 δ1
7 77.99 (6) 77.9862 – –
77.9862
77.9862
77.9862
77.9862
77.9862
The second column gives the reference value of [AnOu17] with multiplicity in parentheses. The
third column contains the maximal eigenvalue that was found by us and as many of the following
eigenvalues as the multiplicity requires. The third column contains the equipotential parameters of
the shape maximizer. The figures in the fourth column show the base points of the equipotential and
the assignment of free irregularity parameters and δ. The shape maximizer for λ7 in [AnOu17] is
a disconnected shape that is a union of the shape for λ6 with a disk and we did not run numerical
optimization on it. The values are the sum of the analytical maximum for λ1 and our new maximum
for λ6
Table 1.4 Optimization results for interior Neumann eigenvalues λk , k = 8, 9, 10 using extended
equipotentials
k ReferenceMaximum Parameters Base points and irregularities
8 89.38 (4)89.8620 c = 1.942964474 δ1
89.8620 α = 1.810828390 ε1
89.8620 1 = 1.219776174 ·10−1
89.8621 2 = −9.776658965 ·10−2 δ2 ε 2 ε 2 δ2
ε3 ε3
3 = −4.652290511 ·10−2
4 = −6.000769737 ·10−2 δ3 ε 4 ε 4 δ3
5 = −7.584457864 ·10−2 ε5 ε5
6 = −2.247915505 ·10−1 ε6 ε6
δ1 = 5.396514489 ·10−1 δ4 δ4
δ2 = 2.082674393 ·10−1
δ3 = 1.353703658 ·10−1
δ4 = 9.643159176 ·10−2
9 101.83 (4) 101.752 c = 1.506287804
δ1 ε 1 ε 1 δ1
101.752 α = 1.928595020 ε2 ε2
101.752 1 = −2.021261311 ·10−1
101.752 2 = −1.184995442 ·10−1 δ2 ε 3 ε 3 δ2
ε4 ε4
3 = −1.272843752 ·10−1
4 = −1.075608953 ·10−1
ε6 ε7 ε7 ε6
5 = −3.596435931 ·10−2 δ3 ε 5 δ4 δ4 ε 5 δ3
6 = 7.343083116 ·10−3
7 = 8.586462162 ·10−2
δ1 = −3.306712889 ·10−2
δ2 = 5.598216794 ·10−1
δ3 = 7.664620451 ·10−3
δ4 = 1.043695363 ·100
10 114.16 (5) 114.187 c = 0.899837214 δ2
114.187 α = 2.708323325 ε1
114.187 1 = −4.458971106 ·10−2
114.187 δ1 = 1.150148658 ·100 δ1 δ1
114.187 δ2 = −2.824155602 ·10−1
δ1 δ1
ε1 ε1
δ2 δ1 δ1 δ2
The second column gives the reference value of [AnOu17] with multiplicity in parentheses. The
third column contains the maximal eigenvalue that was found by us and as many of the following
eigenvalues as the multiplicity requires. The third column contains the equipotential parameters of
the shape maximizer. The figures in the fourth column show the base points of the equipotential
and the assignment of free irregularity parameters and δ
λ 1 = 10.6498 λ 2 = 21.2997 λ 3 = 32.9018 λ 4 = 43.8700 λ 5 = 55.1498∗
λ 6 = 67.3364 λ 7 = 77.9862 λ 8 = 89.8620 λ 9 = 101.752∗ λ 10 = 114.187
Fig. 1.5 Shape maximizers for interior Neumann eigenvalues λk , k = 1, . . . , 10. An asterisk
marks values where the reference value by [AnOu17] has not been matched or exceeded.
The first two eigenvalues, which are proven theoretically, are included for completeness. For
k = 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 the maximizers were found by optimizing the (extended) parameters of
equipotentials. The maximizer for the seventh eigenvalue is a union of the scaled maximizers for
the first and sixth eigenvalues and was not optimized on its own. All shapes have been scaled so
they have the same area
higher maximums than the reference value, sometimes by a small amount like
λ6 = 67.3364 over 67.33 that could be interpreted as just an increase in precision,
sometimes significantly so with λ8 = 89.8620 over 89.38 and λ10 = 114.187 over
114.16. Using the improved value for λ6 and the precise value for λ1 (see above),
λ7 can also be considered improved even though the reference value is higher. The
result for λ5 is now much closer than it was using just two parameters but is still
short of the reference value by about 2 · 10−2 . The difference is small enough that it
may still be caused by an inaccurate reference value. For λ9 , which is also too small,
the distance to the reference value is almost certainly too big to be explained in that
way. Maybe coincidentally, similar trapezoid shapes are used in both cases (λ9 and
λ5 ) where the reference value has not been matched or exceeded.
The multiplicities given in [AnOu17] have not been precisely reproduced in all
cases. For example there is a small gap in between the values for λ8 . For almost all
shapes, the eigenvalues have multiplicities one or two. With changing shapes, some
of those groups of identical eigenvalues increase, others decrease. In most cases,
both Antunes and Oudet and us have found the optimum where two groups merge,
producing multiplicities of three or four. Note that for unions of disjoint shapes,
higher multiplicities are expected, as the multiplicities of the component shapes
accumulate. Connected shapes where more than two groups merge may not exist
and the values for λ8 may simply be a near miss, where three groups almost merge.
On the other hand it is possible that we are simply not able to represent such shapes
with the chosen parametrization or that the optimization routine missed them.
1.4 Conclusion
We have presented a way to efficiently and precisely compute interior Neumann

eigenvalues for two dimensional domains. Along the way, we highlighted a few
techniques to reduce the time to solution. The strongly scaling parallelization in
particular allowed us to use the implemented solvers in the optimization of the
eigenvalues with respect to the shape of the domain. We refined the parametrization
of the shapes developed by previous research and found improved maximums for
most of the first ten eigenvalues.
The very specialized parametrization we presented requires fewer parameters
than more general approaches like Fourier series. This makes numerical optimiza-
tion much cheaper. But the new parametrization is unfortunately far from compact,
especially for higher eigenvalues. It is therefore unlikely to be helpful in any
theoretical proof of shape maximizers. Numerical optimization was also not equally
successful in all cases. The general idea seems promising, but further adaptations
will be necessary. Ultimately, an entirely new idea might be called for.
It should prove insightful to study even higher eigenvalues than in this work.
Both the method of solution and the parametrization can also be extended without
great modifications to three dimensions. Similar results as for the interior Neumann
problem also exist for Dirichlet boundary conditions. So research similar to the one
in this work is possible in that area. We have concentrated on acoustic scattering.
One could also study electromagnetic or elastic problems.
The source code for the program is available at the URL below. We invite
researchers to check the program, extend it, or use it in their own research.
https://gitlab.version.fz-juelich.de/abele2/shapeopt
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the computing time provided on the
supercomputer JURECA at Jülich Supercomputing Centre (JSC).
References
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argument and nonnegative order. ACM Trans. Math. Softw. 12(3), 265–273 (1986)
[AnFr12] Antunes, P.R.S., Freitas, P.: Numerical optimization of low eigenvalues of the
Dirichlet and Neumann Laplacians. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 154, 235–257 (2012)
[AnOu17] Antunes, P.R.S., Oudet, E.: Numerical results for extremal problem for eigenvalues
of the Laplacian. In: Henrot, A. (ed.) Shape Optimization and Spectral Theory,
pp. 398–412. De Gruyter, Warzow/Berlin (2017)
[Be12] Beyn, W.-J.: An integral method for solving nonlinear eigenvalue problems. Linear
Algebra Appl. 436, 3839–3863 (2012)
[CoKr83] Colton, D., Kress, R.: Integral Equation Methods in Scattering Theory (Wiley, New
York, 1983)
[CoKr13] Colton, D., Kress, R.: Inverse Acoustic and Electromagnetic Scattering Theory.
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[Ga09] Galassi, M., Davies, J., Theiler, J., Gough, B., Jungman, G., Alken, P., Booth, M.,
Rossi, F.: GNU Scientific Library Reference Manual, 3rd edn. Network Theory
Ltd., Bristol (2009)
[GiNaPo09] Girouard, A., Nadirashvili, N., Polterovich, I.: Maximization of the second positive
Neumann eigenvalue for planar domains. J. Differ. Geom. 83, 637–662 (2009)
[Ju18] Jülich Supercomputing Centre: JURECA: Modular supercomputer at Jülich Super-
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Engineering, pp. 185–196. Birkhäuser, Cham (2019)
[PoRo10] Poliquin, G., Roy-Fortin, G.: Wolf-Keller theorem for Neumann eigenvalues. Ann.
Sci. Math. Québec 36, 169–178 (2012)
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overestimated his friends,—I may well say it,—and sometimes vexed
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the ebb which follows unfounded praise. He was capable, it must be
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especially if he had any jealousy that they did not stand with the
Boston public as highly as they ought. His commanding merit as a
reformer is this, that he insisted beyond all men in pulpits—I cannot
think of one rival—that the essence of Christianity is its practical
morals; it is there for use, or it is nothing; and if you combine it with
sharp trading, or with ordinary city ambitions to gloze over municipal
corruptions, or private intemperance, or successful fraud, or immoral
politics, or unjust wars, or the cheating of Indians, or the robbery of
frontier nations, or leaving your principles at home to follow on the
high seas or in Europe a supple complaisance to tyrants,—it is a
hypocrisy, and the truth is not in you; and no love of religious music
or of dreams of Swedenborg, or praise of John Wesley, or of Jeremy
Taylor, can save you from the Satan which you are.
His ministry fell on a political crisis also; on the years when
Southern slavery broke over its old banks, made new and vast
pretensions, and wrung from the weakness or treachery of Northern
people fatal concessions in the Fugitive Slave Bill and the repeal of
the Missouri Compromise. Two days, bitter in the memory of Boston,
the days of the rendition of Sims and of Burns, made the occasion of
his most remarkable discourses. He kept nothing back. In terrible
earnest he denounced the public crime, and meted out to every
official, high and low, his due portion.[159] By the incessant power of
his statement, he made and held a party. It was his great service to
freedom. He took away the reproach of silent consent that would
otherwise have lain against the indignant minority, by uttering in the
hour and place wherein these outrages were done, the stern protest.
But whilst I praise this frank speaker, I have no wish to accuse the
silence of others. There are men of good powers who have so much
sympathy that they must be silent when they are not in sympathy. If
you don’t agree with them, they know they only injure the truth by
speaking. Their faculties will not play them true, and they do not wish
to squeak and gibber, and so they shut their mouths. I can readily
forgive this, only not the other, the false tongue which makes the
worse appear the better cause. There were, of course, multitudes to
censure and defame this truth-speaker. But the brave know the
brave. Fops, whether in hotels or churches, will utter the fop’s
opinion, and faintly hope for the salvation of his soul; but his manly
enemies, who despised the fops, honored him; and it is well known
that his great hospitable heart was the sanctuary to which every soul
conscious of an earnest opinion came for sympathy—alike the brave
slave-holder and the brave slave-rescuer. These met in the house of
this honest man—for every sound heart loves a responsible person,
one who does not in generous company say generous things, and in
mean company base things, but says one thing, now cheerfully, now
indignantly, but always because he must, and because he sees that,
whether he speak or refrain from speech, this is said over him; and
history, nature and all souls testify to the same.
Ah, my brave brother! it seems as if, in a frivolous age, our loss
were immense, and your place cannot be supplied. But you will
already be consoled in the transfer of your genius, knowing well that
the nature of the world will affirm to all men, in all times, that which
for twenty-five years you valiantly spoke; that the winds of Italy
murmur the same truth over your grave; the winds of America over
these bereaved streets; that the sea which bore your mourners
home affirms it, the stars in their courses, and the inspirations of
youth; whilst the polished and pleasant traitors to human rights, with
perverted learning and disgraced graces, rot and are forgotten with
their double tongue saying all that is sordid for the corruption of man.
The sudden and singular eminence of Mr. Parker, the importance
of his name and influence, are the verdict of his country to his
virtues. We have few such men to lose; amiable and blameless at
home, feared abroad as the standard-bearer of liberty, taking all the
duties he could grasp, and more, refusing to spare himself, he has
gone down in early glory to his grave, to be a living and enlarging
power, wherever learning, wit, honest valor and independence are
honored.[160]
XIII
AMERICAN CIVILIZATION
To the mizzen, the main, and the fore

Up with it once more!—
The old tri-color,
The ribbon of power,
The white, blue and red which the nations adore!
It was down at half-mast
For a grief—that is past!
To the emblem of glory no sorrow can last!
AMERICAN CIVILIZATION
Use, labor of each for all, is the health and virtue of all beings. Ich
dien, I serve, is a truly royal motto. And it is the mark of nobleness to
volunteer the lowest service, the greatest spirit only attaining to
humility. Nay, God is God because he is the servant of all. Well, now
here comes this conspiracy of slavery,—they call it an institution, I
call it a destitution,—this stealing of men and setting them to work,
stealing their labor, and the thief sitting idle himself; and for two or
three ages it has lasted, and has yielded a certain quantity of rice,
cotton and sugar. And, standing on this doleful experience, these
people have endeavored to reverse the natural sentiments of
mankind, and to pronounce labor disgraceful, and the well-being of a
man to consist in eating the fruit of other men’s labor. Labor: a man
coins himself into his labor; turns his day, his strength, his thought,
his affection into some product which remains as the visible sign of
his power; and to protect that, to secure that to him, to secure his
past self to his future self, is the object of all government. There is no
interest in any country so imperative as that of labor; it covers all,
and constitutions and governments exist for that,—to protect and
insure it to the laborer. All honest men are daily striving to earn their
bread by their industry. And who is this who tosses his empty head
at this blessing in disguise, the constitution of human nature, and
calls labor vile, and insults the faithful workman at his daily toil? I see
for such madness no hellebore,—for such calamity no solution but
servile war and the Africanization of the country that permits it.
At this moment in America the aspects of political society absorb
attention. In every house, from Canada to the Gulf, the children ask
the serious father,—“What is the news of the war to-day, and when
will there be better times?” The boys have no new clothes, no gifts,
no journeys; the girls must go without new bonnets; boys and girls
find their education, this year, less liberal and complete.[161] All the
little hopes that heretofore made the year pleasant are deferred. The
state of the country fills us with anxiety and stern duties. We have
attempted to hold together two states of civilization: a higher state,
where labor and the tenure of land and the right of suffrage are
democratical; and a lower state, in which the old military tenure of
prisoners or slaves, and of power and land in a few hands, makes an
oligarchy: we have attempted to hold these two states of society
under one law. But the rude and early state of society does not work
well with the later, nay, works badly, and has poisoned politics, public
morals and social intercourse in the Republic, now for many years.
The times put this question, Why cannot the best civilization be
extended over the whole country, since the disorder of the less-
civilized portion menaces the existence of the country? Is this
secular progress we have described, this evolution of man to the
highest powers, only to give him sensibility, and not to bring duties
with it? Is he not to make his knowledge practical? to stand and to
withstand? Is not civilization heroic also? Is it not for action? has it
not a will? “There are periods,” said Niebuhr, “when something much
better than happiness and security of life is attainable.” We live in a
new and exceptionable age. America is another word for
Opportunity. Our whole history appears like a last effort of the Divine
Providence in behalf of the human race; and a literal, slavish
following of precedents, as by a justice of the peace, is not for those
who at this hour lead the destinies of this people. The evil you
contend with has taken alarming proportions, and you still content
yourself with parrying the blows it aims, but, as if enchanted, abstain
from striking at the cause.[162]
If the American people hesitate, it is not for want of warning or
advices. The telegraph has been swift enough to announce our
disasters. The journals have not suppressed the extent of the
calamity. Neither was there any want of argument or of experience. If
the war brought any surprise to the North, it was not the fault of
sentinels on the watch-tower, who had furnished full details of the
designs, the muster and the means of the enemy. Neither was
anything concealed of the theory or practice of slavery. To what
purpose make more big books of these statistics? There are already
mountains of facts, if any one wants them. But people do not want
them. They bring their opinion into the world. If they have a
comatose tendency in the brain, they are pro-slavery while they live;
if of a nervous sanguineous temperament, they are abolitionists.
Then interests were never persuaded. Can you convince the shoe
interest, or the iron interest, or the cotton interest, by reading
passages from Milton or Montesquieu? You wish to satisfy people
that slavery is bad economy. Why, the Edinburgh Review pounded
on that string, and made out its case, forty years ago. A democratic
statesman said to me, long since, that, if he owned the state of
Kentucky, he would manumit all the slaves, and be a gainer by the
transaction. Is this new? No, everybody knows it. As a general
economy it is admitted. But there is no one owner of the state, but a
good many small owners. One man owns land and slaves; another
owns slaves only. Here is a woman who has no other property,—like
a lady in Charleston I knew of, who owned fifteen sweeps and rode
in her carriage. It is clearly a vast inconvenience to each of these to
make any change, and they are fretful and talkative, and all their
friends are; and those less interested are inert, and, from want of
thought, averse to innovation. It is like free trade, certainly the
interest of nations, but by no means the interest of certain towns and
districts, which tariff feeds fat; and the eager interest of the few
overpowers the apathetic general conviction of the many. Banknotes
rob the public, but are such a daily convenience that we silence our
scruples and make believe they are gold. So imposts are the cheap
and right taxation; but, by the dislike of people to pay out a direct tax,
governments are forced to render life costly by making them pay
twice as much, hidden in the price of tea and sugar.
In this national crisis, it is not argument that we want, but that rare
courage which dares commit itself to a principle, believing that
Nature is its ally, and will create the instruments it requires, and more
than make good any petty and injurious profit which it may disturb.
There never was such a combination as this of ours, and the rules to
meet it are not set down in any history. We want men of original
perception and original action, who can open their eyes wider than to
a nationality, namely, to considerations of benefit to the human race,
can act in the interest of civilization. Government must not be a
parish clerk, a justice of the peace. It has, of necessity, in any crisis
of the state, the absolute powers of a dictator. The existing
administration is entitled to the utmost candor. It is to be thanked for
its angelic virtue, compared with any executive experiences with
which we have been familiar. But the times will not allow us to
indulge in compliment. I wish I saw in the people that inspiration
which, if government would not obey the same, would leave the
government behind and create on the moment the means and
executors it wanted. Better the war should more dangerously
threaten us,—should threaten fracture in what is still whole, and
punish us with burned capitals and slaughtered regiments, and so
exasperate the people to energy, exasperate our nationality. There
are Scriptures written invisibly on men’s hearts, whose letters do not
come out until they are enraged. They can be read by war-fires, and
by eyes in the last peril.
We cannot but remember that there have been days in American
history, when, if the free states had done their duty, slavery had been
blocked by an immovable barrier, and our recent calamities forever
precluded. The free states yielded, and every compromise was
surrender and invited new demands. Here again is a new occasion
which heaven offers to sense and virtue. It looks as if we held the
fate of the fairest possession of mankind in our hands, to be saved
by our firmness or to be lost by hesitation.
The one power that has legs long enough and strong enough to
wade across the Potomac offers itself at this hour; the one strong
enough to bring all the civility up to the height of that which is best,
prays now at the door of Congress for leave to move. Emancipation
is the demand of civilization. That is a principle; everything else is an
intrigue. This is a progressive policy, puts the whole people in
healthy, productive, amiable position, puts every man in the South in
just and natural relations with every man in the North, laborer with
laborer.
I shall not attempt to unfold the details of the project of
emancipation. It has been stated with great ability by several of its
leading advocates. I will only advert to some leading points of the
argument, at the risk of repeating the reasons of others. The war is
welcome to the Southerner; a chivalrous sport to him, like hunting,
and suits his semi-civilized condition. On the climbing scale of
progress, he is just up to war, and has never appeared to such
advantage as in the last twelvemonth. It does not suit us. We are
advanced some ages on the war-state,—to trade, art and general
cultivation. His laborer works for him at home, so that he loses no
labor by the war. All our soldiers are laborers; so that the South, with
its inferior numbers, is almost on a footing in effective war-population
with the North. Again, as long as we fight without any affirmative step
taken by the government, any word intimating forfeiture in the rebel
states of their old privileges under the law, they and we fight on the
same side, for slavery. Again, if we conquer the enemy,—what then?
We shall still have to keep him under, and it will cost as much to hold
him down as it did to get him down. Then comes the summer, and
the fever will drive the soldiers home; next winter we must begin at
the beginning, and conquer him over again. What use then to take a
fort, or a privateer, or get possession of an inlet, or to capture a
regiment of rebels?
But one weapon we hold which is sure. Congress can, by edict, as
a part of the military defence which it is the duty of Congress to
provide, abolish slavery, and pay for such slaves as we ought to pay
for. Then the slaves near our armies will come to us; those in the
interior will know in a week what their rights are, and will, where
opportunity offers, prepare to take them. Instantly, the armies that
now confront you must run home to protect their estates, and must
stay there, and your enemies will disappear.
There can be no safety until this step is taken. We fancy that the
endless debate, emphasized by the crime and by the cannons of this
war, has brought the free states to some conviction that it can never
go well with us whilst this mischief of slavery remains in our politics,
and that by concert or by might we must put an end to it. But we
have too much experience of the futility of an easy reliance on the
momentary good dispositions of the public. There does exist,
perhaps, a popular will that the Union shall not be broken,—that our
trade, and therefore our laws, must have the whole breadth of the
continent, and from Canada to the Gulf. But since this is the rooted
belief and will of the people, so much the more are they in danger,
when impatient of defeats, or impatient of taxes, to go with a rush for
some peace; and what kind of peace shall at that moment be easiest
attained, they will make concessions for it,—will give up the slaves,
and the whole torment of the past half-century will come back to be
endured anew.
Neither do I doubt, if such a composition should take place, that
the Southerners will come back quietly and politely, leaving their
haughty dictation. It will be an era of good feelings. There will be a
lull after so loud a storm; and, no doubt, there will be discreet men
from that section who will earnestly strive to inaugurate more
moderate and fair administration of the government, and the North
will for a time have its full share and more, in place and counsel. But
this will not last;—not for want of sincere good will in sensible
Southerners, but because Slavery will again speak through them its
harsh necessity. It cannot live but by injustice, and it will be unjust
and violent to the end of the world.[163]
The power of Emancipation is this, that it alters the atomic social
constitution of the Southern people. Now, their interest is in keeping
out white labor; then, when they must pay wages, their interest will
be to let it in, to get the best labor, and, if they fear their blacks, to
invite Irish, German and American laborers. Thus, whilst Slavery
makes and keeps disunion, Emancipation removes the whole
objection to union. Emancipation at one stroke elevates the poor-
white of the South, and identifies his interest with that of the Northern
laborer.
Now, in the name of all that is simple and generous, why should
not this great right be done? Why should not America be capable of
a second stroke for the well-being of the human race, as eighty or
ninety years ago she was for the first,—of an affirmative step in the
interests of human civility, urged on her, too, not by any romance of
sentiment, but by her own extreme perils? It is very certain that the
statesman who shall break through the cobwebs of doubt, fear and
petty cavil that lie in the way, will be greeted by the unanimous
thanks of mankind. Men reconcile themselves very fast to a bold and
good measure when once it is taken, though they condemned it in
advance. A week before the two captive commissioners were
surrendered to England, every one thought it could not be done: it
would divide the North. It was done, and in two days all agreed it
was the right action.[164] And this action, which costs so little (the
parties injured by it being such a handful that they can very easily be
indemnified), rids the world, at one stroke, of this degrading
nuisance, the cause of war and ruin to nations. This measure at
once puts all parties right. This is borrowing, as I said, the
omnipotence of a principle. What is so foolish as the terror lest the
blacks should be made furious by freedom and wages? It is denying
these that is the outrage, and makes the danger from the blacks. But
justice satisfies everybody,—white man, red man, yellow man and
black man. All like wages, and the appetite grows by feeding.
But this measure, to be effectual, must come speedily. The
weapon is slipping out of our hands. “Time,” say the Indian
Scriptures, “drinketh up the essence of every great and noble action
which ought to be performed, and which is delayed in the
execution.”[165]
I hope it is not a fatal objection to this policy that it is simple and
beneficent thoroughly, which is the tribute of a moral action. An
unprecedented material prosperity has not tended to make us Stoics
or Christians. But the laws by which the universe is organized
reappear at every point, and will rule it. The end of all political
struggle is to establish morality as the basis of all legislation. It is not
free institutions, it is not a republic, it is not a democracy, that is the
end,—no, but only the means. Morality is the object of government.
[166] We want a state of things in which crime shall not pay. This is
the consolation on which we rest in the darkness of the future and
the afflictions of to-day, that the government of the world is moral,
and does forever destroy what is not. It is the maxim of natural
philosophers that the natural forces wear out in time all obstacles,
and take place: and it is the maxim of history that victory always falls
at last where it ought to fall; or, there is perpetual march and
progress to ideas. But in either case, no link of the chain can drop
out. Nature works through her appointed elements; and ideas must
work through the brains and the arms of good and brave men, or
they are no better than dreams.
Since the above pages were written, President Lincoln has

proposed to Congress that the government shall coöperate with any
state that shall enact a gradual abolishment of slavery. In the recent
series of national successes, this message is the best. It marks the
happiest day in the political year. The American Executive ranges
itself for the first time on the side of freedom. If Congress has been
backward, the President has advanced. This state-paper is the more
interesting that it appears to be the President’s individual act, done
under a strong sense of duty. He speaks his own thought in his own
style. All thanks and honor to the Head of the State! The message
has been received throughout the country with praise, and, we doubt
not, with more pleasure than has been spoken. If Congress accords
with the President, it is not yet too late to begin the emancipation; but
we think it will always be too late to make it gradual. All experience
agrees that it should be immediate.[167] More and better than the
President has spoken shall, perhaps, the effect of this message be,
—but, we are sure, not more or better than he hoped in his heart,
when, thoughtful of all the complexities of his position, he penned
these cautious words.
XIV
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION
AN ADDRESS DELIVERED IN BOSTON IN

SEPTEMBER, 1862
To-day unbind the captive,

So only are ye unbound;
Lift up a people from the dust,
Trump of their rescue, sound!
Pay ransom to the owner

And fill the bag to the brim.
Who is the owner? The slave is owner,
And ever was. Pay him.
O North! give him beauty for rags,

And honor, O South! for his shame;
Nevada! coin thy golden crags
With freedom’s image and name.
Up! and the dusky race

That sat in darkness long,—
Be swift their feet as antelopes,
And as behemoth strong.
Come, East and West and North,

By races, as snow-flakes,
And carry my purpose forth,
Which neither halts nor shakes.
My will fulfilled shall be,

For in daylight or in dark,
My thunderbolt has eyes to see
His way home to the mark.
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

In so many arid forms which states encrust themselves with, once
in a century, if so often, a poetic act and record occur. These are the
jets of thought into affairs, when, roused by danger or inspired by
genius, the political leaders of the day break the else insurmountable
routine of class and local legislation, and take a step forward in the
direction of catholic and universal interests. Every step in the history
of political liberty is a sally of the human mind into the untried Future,
and has the interest of genius, and is fruitful in heroic anecdotes.
Liberty is a slow fruit. It comes, like religion, for short periods, and in
rare conditions, as if awaiting a culture of the race which shall make
it organic and permanent. Such moments of expansion in modern
history were the Confession of Augsburg, the plantation of America,
the English Commonwealth of 1648, the Declaration of American
Independence in 1776, the British emancipation of slaves in the
West Indies, the passage of the Reform Bill, the repeal of the Corn-
Laws, the Magnetic Ocean Telegraph, though yet imperfect, the
passage of the Homestead Bill in the last Congress, and now,
eminently, President Lincoln’s Proclamation on the twenty-second of
September. These are acts of great scope, working on a long future
and on permanent interests, and honoring alike those who initiate
and those who receive them. These measures provoke no noisy joy,
but are received into a sympathy so deep as to apprise us that
mankind are greater and better than we know.[168] At such times it
appears as if a new public were created to greet the new event. It is
as when an orator, having ended the compliments and pleasantries
with which he conciliated attention, and having run over the
superficial fitness and commodities of the measure he urges,
suddenly, lending himself to some happy inspiration, announces with
vibrating voice the grand human principles involved;—the bravos
and wits who greeted him loudly thus far are surprised and
overawed; a new audience is found in the heart of the assembly,—
an audience hitherto passive and unconcerned, now at last so
searched and kindled that they come forward, every one a
representative of mankind, standing for all nationalities.
The extreme moderation with which the President advanced to his
design,—his long-avowed expectant policy, as if he chose to be
strictly the executive of the best public sentiment of the country,
waiting only till it should be unmistakably pronounced,—so fair a
mind that none ever listened so patiently to such extreme varieties of
opinion,—so reticent that his decision has taken all parties by
surprise, whilst yet it is just the sequel of his prior acts,—the firm
tone in which he announces it, without inflation or surplusage,—all
these have bespoken such favor to the act that, great as the
popularity of the President has been, we are beginning to think that
we have underestimated the capacity and virtue which the Divine
Providence has made an instrument of benefit so vast. He has been
permitted to do more for America than any other American man. He
is well entitled to the most indulgent construction. Forget all that we
thought shortcomings, every mistake, every delay. In the extreme
embarrassments of his part, call these endurance, wisdom,
magnanimity; illuminated, as they now are, by this dazzling success.
When we consider the immense opposition that has been
neutralized or converted by the progress of the war (for it is not long
since the President anticipated the resignation of a large number of
officers in the army, and the secession of three states, on the
promulgation of this policy),—when we see how the great stake
which foreign nations hold in our affairs has recently brought every
European power as a client into this court, and it became every day
more apparent what gigantic and what remote interests were to be
affected by the decision of the President,—one can hardly say the
deliberation was too long. Against all timorous counsels he had the
courage to seize the moment; and such was his position, and such
the felicity attending the action, that he has replaced government in
the good graces of mankind. “Better is virtue in the sovereign than
plenty in the season,” say the Chinese. ’Tis wonderful what power is,
and how ill it is used, and how its ill use makes life mean, and the
sunshine dark. Life in America had lost much of its attraction in the
later years. The virtues of a good magistrate undo a world of
mischief, and, because Nature works with rectitude, seem vastly
more potent than the acts of bad governors, which are ever
tempered by the good nature in the people, and the incessant
resistance which fraud and violence encounter. The acts of good
governors work a geometrical ratio, as one midsummer day seems
to repair the damage of a year of war.
A day which most of us dared not hope to see, an event worth the
dreadful war, worth its costs and uncertainties, seems now to be
close before us. October, November, December will have passed
over beating hearts and plotting brains: then the hour will strike, and
all men of African descent who have faculty enough to find their way
to our lines are assured of the protection of American law.
It is by no means necessary that this measure should be suddenly
marked by any signal results on the negroes or on the rebel masters.
The force of the act is that it commits the country to this justice,—
that it compels the innumerable officers, civil, military, naval, of the
Republic to range themselves on the line of this equity. It draws the
fashion to this side. It is not a measure that admits of being taken
back. Done, it cannot be undone by a new administration. For
slavery overpowers the disgust of the moral sentiment only through
immemorial usage. It cannot be introduced as an improvement of the
nineteenth century. This act makes that the lives of our heroes have
not been sacrificed in vain. It makes a victory of our defeats. Our
hurts are healed; the health of the nation is repaired. With a victory
like this, we can stand many disasters. It does not promise the
redemption of the black race; that lies not with us: but it relieves it of
our opposition. The President by this act has paroled all the slaves in
America; they will no more fight against us: and it relieves our race
once for all of its crime and false position. The first condition of
success is secured in putting ourselves right. We have recovered
ourselves from our false position, and planted ourselves on a law of
Nature:—
“If that fail,
The pillared firmament is rottenness,
And earth’s base built on stubble.”[169]
The government has assured itself of the best constituency in the

world: every spark of intellect, every virtuous feeling, every religious
heart, every man of honor, every poet, every philosopher, the
generosity of the cities, the health of the country, the strong arms of
the mechanic, the endurance of farmers, the passionate conscience
of women, the sympathy of distant nations,—all rally to its support.
Of course, we are assuming the firmness of the policy thus
declared. It must not be a paper proclamation. We confide that Mr.
Lincoln is in earnest, and as he has been slow in making up his
mind, has resisted the importunacy of parties and of events to the
latest moment, he will be as absolute in his adhesion. Not only will
he repeat and follow up his stroke, but the nation will add its
irresistible strength. If the ruler has duties, so has the citizen. In
times like these, when the nation is imperilled, what man can,
without shame, receive good news from day to day without giving
good news of himself? What right has any one to read in the journals
tidings of victories, if he has not bought them by his own valor,
treasure, personal sacrifice, or by service as good in his own
department? With this blot removed from our national honor, this
heavy load lifted off the national heart, we shall not fear
henceforward to show our faces among mankind. We shall cease to
be hypocrites and pretenders, but what we have styled our free
institutions will be such.[170]
In the light of this event the public distress begins to be removed.
What if the brokers’ quotations show our stocks discredited, and the
gold dollar costs one hundred and twenty-seven cents? These tables
are fallacious. Every acre in the free states gained substantial value
on the twenty-second of September. The cause of disunion and war
has been reached and begun to be removed. Every man’s house-lot
and garden are relieved of the malaria which the purest winds and
strongest sunshine could not penetrate and purge. The territory of
the Union shines to-day with a lustre which every European emigrant
can discern from far; a sign of inmost security and permanence. Is it
feared that taxes will check immigration? That depends on what the
taxes are spent for. If they go to fill up this yawning Dismal Swamp,
which engulfed armies and populations, and created plague, and
neutralized hitherto all the vast capabilities of this continent,—then
this taxation, which makes the land wholesome and habitable, and
will draw all men unto it, is the best investment in which property-
holder ever lodged his earnings.
Whilst we have pointed out the opportuneness of the
Proclamation, it remains to be said that the President had no choice.
He might look wistfully for what variety of courses lay open to him;
every line but one was closed up with fire. This one, too, bristled with
danger, but through it was the sole safety. The measure he has
adopted was imperative. It is wonderful to see the unseasonable
senility of what is called the Peace Party, through all its masks,
blinding their eyes to the main feature of the war, namely, its
inevitableness. The war existed long before the cannonade of
Sumter, and could not be postponed. It might have begun otherwise
or elsewhere, but war was in the minds and bones of the
combatants, it was written on the iron leaf, and you might as easily
dodge gravitation. If we had consented to a peaceable secession of
the rebels, the divided sentiment of the border states made
peaceable secession impossible, the insatiable temper of the South
made it impossible, and the slaves on the border, wherever the
border might be, were an incessant fuel to rekindle the fire. Give the
Confederacy New Orleans, Charleston, and Richmond, and they
would have demanded St. Louis and Baltimore. Give them these,
and they would have insisted on Washington. Give them
Washington, and they would have assumed the army and navy, and,
through these, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. It looks as if the
battle-field would have been at least as large in that event as it is
now. The war was formidable, but could not be avoided. The war
was and is an immense mischief, but brought with it the immense
benefit of drawing a line and rallying the free states to fix it
impassably,—preventing the whole force of Southern connection and
influence throughout the North from distracting every city with
endless confusion, detaching that force and reducing it to handfuls,
and, in the progress of hostilities, disinfecting us of our habitual
proclivity, through the affection of trade and the traditions of the
Democratic party, to follow Southern leading.[171]
These necessities which have dictated the conduct of the federal
government are overlooked especially by our foreign critics. The
popular statement of the opponents of the war abroad is the
impossibility of our success. “If you could add,” say they, “to your
strength the whole army of England, of France and of Austria, you
could not coerce eight millions of people to come under this
government against their will.” This is an odd thing for an
Englishman, a Frenchman or an Austrian to say, who remembers
Europe of the last seventy years,—the condition of Italy, until 1859,
—of Poland, since 1793,—of France, of French Algiers,—of British
Ireland, and British India. But granting the truth, rightly read, of the
historical aphorism, that “the people always conquer,” it is to be
noted that, in the Southern States, the tenure of land and the local
laws, with slavery, give the social system not a democratic but an
aristocratic complexion; and those states have shown every year a
more hostile and aggressive temper, until the instinct of self-
preservation forced us into the war. And the aim of the war on our
part is indicated by the aim of the President’s Proclamation, namely,
to break up the false combination of Southern society, to destroy the
piratic feature in it which makes it our enemy only as it is the enemy
of the human race, and so allow its reconstruction on a just and
healthful basis. Then new affinities will act, the old repulsion will
cease, and, the cause of war being removed, Nature and trade may
be trusted to establish a lasting peace.
We think we cannot overstate the wisdom and benefit of this act of
the government. The malignant cry of the Secession press within the
free states, and the recent action of the Confederate Congress, are
decisive as to its efficiency and correctness of aim. Not less so is the
silent joy which has greeted it in all generous hearts, and the new
hope it has breathed into the world. It was well to delay the steamers
at the wharves until this edict could be put on board. It will be an
insurance to the ship as it goes plunging through the sea with glad
tidings to all people. Happy are the young, who find the pestilence
cleansed out of the earth, leaving open to them an honest career.
Happy the old, who see Nature purified before they depart. Do not let
the dying die: hold them back to this world, until you have charged
their ear and heart with this message to other spiritual societies,
announcing the melioration of our planet:—
“Incertainties now crown themselves assured,

And Peace proclaims olives of endless age.”[172]
Meantime that ill-fated, much-injured race which the Proclamation

respects will lose somewhat of the dejection sculptured for ages in
their bronzed countenance, uttered in the wailing of their plaintive
music,—a race naturally benevolent, docile, industrious, and whose
very miseries sprang from their great talent for usefulness, which, in
a more moral age, will not only defend their independence, but will
give them a rank among nations.[173]

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Computational and Analytic Methods in

Science and Engineering Christian

Computational and Analytic Methods in Science and

Differential Equations A Primer for Scientists and

Approximation Methods in Science and Engineering Reza

Mathematical and Computational Approaches in Advancing

Domain Decomposition Methods in Science and Engineering

Mathematical Methods in Science and Engineering 2nd

Essentials of Mathematical Methods in Science and

Computational Intelligence and Optimization Methods for

Computational and Analytic

ISBN 978-3-030-48185-8 ISBN 978-3-030-48186-5 (eBook)

Mathematics Subject Classification: 00B15, 74G10, 93E25

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020, corrected publication 2020

The international conferences on Computational and Mathematical Methods in

Tulsa, OK, USA Christian Constanda

1 New Numerical Results for the Optimization of Neumann

8 The Mathematical Modelling of the Motion of Biological Cells

Daniel Abele Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich Supercomputing Centre, Jülich,

Sergey A. Nazarov Saint-Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia

Daniel Abele and Andreas Kleefeld

We will discuss the optimization of interior Neumann eigenvalues with respect

D. Abele · A. Kleefeld ()

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Table 1.1 Recent results for k [AnFr12] [AnOu17] [Kl19]

1.2 Computation of Eigenvalues

1.2.1 The Boundary Element Method

boundary. Collocation results in a homogeneous linear system

has a singularity at x = y the type of which depends on the choice of νi,k .

Handling of the Singular Kernel

As z → 0, J1 (z) tends to zero, so we have

We replace Y1 with its power series expansion

Exploiting Symmetries of the Domain

1.2.2 Beyn’s Contour Integral Method

holds for all holomorphic functions f : Γ → C [Be12, Theorem 2.9]. We

with V = (v1 , . . . , vm ), W = (w1 , . . . , wm ), and K = diag(κ1 , . . . , κm ). The

is computed. The matrix is diagonalizable by construction with Q = VH 0 V and has

Fig. 1.2 Time required to

1.3 Optimization of Eigenvalues

Recall that the constrained optimization problem we are trying to solve is

In the numeric treatment, it is sufficient to consider connected domains. The

λ∗k = maxn {λ∗i + λ∗k−i } (1.12)

and the corresponding disconnected maximizer is

gradient of the objective function is not trivially computable, we use a routine

Table 1.2 Degree of k f fδ f

Table 1.3 Optimization results for interior Neumann eigenvalues λk , k = 3, . . . , 7 using

λ 1 = 10.6498 λ 2 = 21.2997 λ 3 = 32.9018 λ 4 = 43.8700 λ 5 = 55.1498∗

λ 6 = 67.3364 λ 7 = 77.9862 λ 8 = 89.8620 λ 9 = 101.752∗ λ 10 = 114.187

We have presented a way to efficiently and precisely compute interior Neumann

To the mizzen, the main, and the fore

Since the above pages were written, President Lincoln has

AN ADDRESS DELIVERED IN BOSTON IN

To-day unbind the captive,

Pay ransom to the owner

O North! give him beauty for rags,

Up! and the dusky race

Come, East and West and North,

My will fulfilled shall be,

THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

The government has assured itself of the best constituency in the

“Incertainties now crown themselves assured,

Meantime that ill-fated, much-injured race which the Proclamation

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Table 1.2 Degree of k f fδ f