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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN PHYSICS

José Antonio Oller

A Brief
Introduction
to Dispersion
Relations
With Modern
Applications
123
SpringerBriefs in Physics

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Xavier Calmet, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex,
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José Antonio Oller

A Brief Introduction
to Dispersion Relations
With Modern Applications

123
José Antonio Oller
Departamento de Física
Universidad de Murcia
Murcia, Spain

ISSN 2191-5423 ISSN 2191-5431 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-13581-2 ISBN 978-3-030-13582-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13582-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932717

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Contents

1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Crossing. Crossed-Channel Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Important Mathematical Results: Schwarz Reflection
Principle, Sugawara–Kanazawa Theorem and Herglotz
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5 Exact Dispersion Relations in Quantum Mechanics
for the Eigenvalues of the Scattering Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 General Results for Two-Meson Scattering in Partial Waves
After Neglecting the Crossed-Channel Cuts. N/D Method . . . . . . . . 43
7 Reaching the Unphysical Riemann Sheets. A Nonlinear
Integral Equation to Calculate a PWA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8 The Good (
), The Bad (‰) and the Difficult (LHC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9 SUð3Þ Analysis of the Subtraction Constants in gi ðsÞ . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10 Perturbative Introduction of Crossed-Channel Cut
Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11 The N / D Method with Perturbative Dðp2 Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
12 The First-Iterated N / D Solution with Perturbative Dðp2 Þ . . . . . . . 83
13 Final(Initial)-State Interactions. Unitarity and Analyticity
Requirements. Watson Final-State Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
14 The Omnès Solution. Reasoned Warnings on the Use
of the Omnès Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

v
vi Contents

15 The Muskhelishvili-Omnès Problem in Coupled-Channel

form Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
16 Near-Threshold Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
17 An Example of Application of Analyticity in the Nuclear
Medium: The Nuclear Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Appendix A: Numerical Method to Solve the Coupled Linear IEs
in Eq. (15.23). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Introduction

Abstract This is an introductory text on the vast and rich field of dispersion
relations in hadron physics, with some developments as well of direct interest in
nuclear physics. We typically consider the relativistic dynamics, but some chapters
are dedicated to the problem of nonrelativistic scattering. The latter has the peda-
gogical advantage of being a framework with a setup that can be stated in a less
abstract way than its relativistic counterpart. Needless to say that the basic prin-
ciples of dispersion relations, namely, analyticity and unitarity, overpass the stan-
dard fields of application of hadron and nuclear physics and, therefore, the
exposition here might be also of interest for a wider audience. In this regard, we
devote the first four chapters of the book on the basic aspects of the dispersion
relations for the scattering amplitudes and related process like production ones.
Special emphasis is given to analyticity, unitarity, partial-wave expansion of
dynamical amplitudes and the important mathematical theorem of Sugawara–
Kanazawa. The latter addresses the question of how many subtraction constants are
needed in a dispersion relation. Its demonstration also illustrates a method to
determine the asymptotic behavior of dispersive integrals. These results are
exemplified in Chap. 5 by developing the exact dispersion relations for the
eigenvalues of the scattering kernel in nonrelativistic scattering. As an outcome, it
also gives the requirement for the convergence of the Born series in potential
scattering. There is then the set of Chaps. 6–12, which deal with the application of
dispersion relations to study scattering in partial waves. In these chapters, resonance
scattering is also considered, and the examples of the
or f0 ð500Þ and ‰ð770Þ are
discussed in detail. There are several methods exposed to work out the partial-wave
amplitudes, depending on how the crossed-channel discontinuities required in the
resulting unitarized non-perturbative expression are implemented. Chapters 13–15
are dedicated to the problem of final-state interactions in production processes
(similar techniques could be used for initial-state interactions or for implementing
both simultaneously, if required). The exposition in this regard begins by deter-
mining the unitarity requirements, both in the uncoupled and coupled cases. The
former case is treated in detail in Chap. 14 when analyzing the Omnès solution. We
discuss a possible problem that could arise in this case by not taking properly into

vii
viii Introduction

account the presence of zeroes and poles in the Omnès function. This can happen
due to a transition from a region of parameters of the model into another one, which
could a pathological behavior in the Omnès function. An explicit example is
worked out. In Chap. 15, we treat the coupled channel version of the problem and
discuss the Muskhelishvili–Omnès problem. There is a pedagogical discussion
about the number of independent acceptable solutions to this problem, which is not
easy to find in the literature. Chapter 16 is dedicated to the near-threshold non-
relativistic scattering, and a comparison is given between general results derived
from analyticity and unitarity, with some specific models in potential scattering.
Finally, in the last chapter, we exemplify the application of dispersion relations in
the nuclear medium by evaluating the contribution of the in-medium nucleon–
nucleon interactions to the energy density in nuclear matter. The appendix provides
a numerical method for numerically evaluating dispersive integrals. This is par-
ticularly interesting when the dispersion relations give rise to a set of integral
equations that must be solved to obtain the desired response.

Murcia, Spain José Antonio Oller

Chapter 1
S and T Matrices. Unitarity

The typical situation of a scattering process that we deal in the subsequent is that
corresponding to short-range interactions. Therefore, in the asymptotic past and
future the initial and final states of particles, respectively, behave as free ones. The
corresponding states are given by the direct product of monoparticle states, each of
them being characterized by its three-momentum p, spin s, third component of spin
σ, mass m and other quantum numbers (like charges) are denoted globally by λ. The
corresponding state is written as

|p, σ, m, s, λ, (1.1)

with σ = −s, −s + 1, . . . , s − 1, s. These states have the relativistic invariant nor-

malization

p , σ  , m  , s  , λ |p, σ, m, s, λ = δs  s δσ σ δλ λ (2π)3 2 p 0 δ(p − p), (1.2)


where p 0 = m 2 + p2 is the on-shell energy.
The probability amplitude for an initial state |i at time t → −∞ to evolve into a
final state | f  at time t → +∞ is given by the matrix elements of a unitary operator
S denoted as the S matrix [1],

SS † = S † S = I. (1.3)

Its matrix elements S f i correspond to

S f i =  f |S|i. (1.4)

Because of the space-time homogeneity these matrix elements are always accom-
panied by an energy-momentum Dirac delta function, (2π)4 δ (4) ( p f − pi ), where pi
and p f are the initial an final four-momenta, in order. In linear relations a Dirac delta
function of total energy and momentum conservation factors out while, in nonlinear

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

J. A. Oller, A Brief Introduction to Dispersion Relations, SpringerBriefs in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13582-9_1
2 1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity

relations (like unitarity), others remain, multiplying S-matrix elements of clusters

of particles which control the momentum loops in the processes. We do not always
show explicitly the cancelation of the total energy-momentum Dirac delta functions,
though the context makes it clear.
In the Dirac or interacting picture of Quantum Field Theory (QFT), with Lint the
interacting Lagrangian, the S-matrix is given by the evaluation of the matrix elements

d 4 xLint
 f |ei |i
Sfi =  , (1.5)
0|ei d 4 xLint |0

with |0 the free state without any particle (or 0th -order perturbative vacuum). In the
previous equation U (+∞, −∞) = exp i d 4 xLint (x) is the evolution operator in the
interacting picture from/to asymptotic times and, therefore, S f i is its matrix element
between the pertinent final and initial states. The denominator is a normalization
factor that removes the disconnected contributions without involving any external
particle.
Associated with the S matrix we also have the T matrix, which at least requires
the presence of one interaction. Its relation with the S matrix is

S = I + i T. (1.6)

In terms of the T matrix the unitarity relation of Eq. (1.3) reads

T − T† = iT T† (1.7)
= i T T, †
(1.8)

by using either the first term or the second one from left to right in Eq. (1.3), respec-
tively. By including a resolution of the identity between the product of two T matrices,
we have for the matrix elements
 
 n n
d 3 qi
4 (4)
 f |T |i −  f |T |i = i
†
(2π) δ ( p f − qi ) (1.9)
i=1 i=1
(2π)3 2qi0
× f |T † |q1 , σ1 , m 1 , s1 , λ1 ; . . . ; qn , σn , m n , λn 
×q1 , σ1 , m 1 , λ1 ; . . . ; qn , σn , m n , λn |T |i,

where the total energy-momentum conservation, p f = pi , should be understood. We

also have the similar term in the right-hand side (rhs) but with T † and T exchanged.
The sum extends over all the possible intermediate states allowed by the appropriate
quantum numbers and with thresholds below the total center-of-mass (CM) energy
p 2f (otherwise the intermediate Dirac delta function would vanish).
1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity 3

The basic content of Hermitian unitarity (chapter 4.6 of Ref. [2]) is precisely to
show that the matrix elements of T † are also given by the same analytical function
as those of T itself but with a slightly negative imaginary part in the total energy
(or partial ones for subprocesses) along the real axis, instead of the slightly positive
imaginary part used for the matrix elements of T in Eq. (1.9). Therefore, the unitarity
relation of Eq. (1.9) gives rise to the presence of the right-hand cut (RHC) or unitarity
cut in the scattering amplitudes for the total energy real and larger than the smallest
threshold, typically a two-body state. It also embraces other singularities like pole
ones, while its iteration from the simplest singularities (pole and normal thresholds)
generates more complicated ones such as the anomalous thresholds (sections 4.10
and 4.11 of Ref. [2]).
The factor between square brackets on the rhs of Eq. (1.9) is the differential phase
space of the intermediate state |q1 , σ1 , m 1 , λ1 ; . . . ; qn , σn , m n , λn . We designate it
by d Q and it is worth writing it isolatedly, given its importance in collision theory,
  
n 
n
d 3 qi
dQ = (2π)4 δ (4) ( p f − qi ) . (1.10)
i=1 i=1
(2π)3 2qi0

Notice that the phase factor is Lorentz invariant.

In general the final and the initial states do not need to contain the same parti-
cles, even in nonrelativistic scattering. The latter is a valid limit as long as the three
momenta of the particles involved are much smaller than their masses. This condi-
tion is required because then the Compton wavelength is much smaller than the De
Broglie wavelength, /mc  /|p|, and we can consider that measuring position is
meaningful within good accuracy [3].
Given an initial state of two particles with four-momenta p1 and p2 , its cross
section to a final state | f , denoted by σ f i , is defined as the number of particles
scattered per unit time divided by the incident flux φ0 . The latter division is necessary
because the number of collisions rises in a given experiment as the number of incident
particles. In our normalization, Eq. (1.2), we have the following expression for σ f i
in the CM,

1
σfi = √ d Q f | f |T |p1 , σ1 , m 1 , s1 , λ1 ; p2 , σ2 , m 2 , s2 , λ2 |2 , (1.11)
4|p1 | s

where s is the Lorentz invariant s = ( p1 + p2 )2 .

For pedagogical reasons we explain how the different factors arise in the previous
formula. First, we take the modulus squared of the matrix element of the T matrix,
from where a factor [(2π)4 δ (4) ( p f − pi )]2 arises. One of this Dirac delta function is
included in the phase space d Q f , while the other gives rise to the diverging factor V T ,
with V the volume of space and T the interaction time. The latter cancels because
we have to divide by the time of interaction T , since we are seeking the transition
probability per unit time. On the other hand, the number of states corresponding
4 1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity

to the normalization of monoparticle states, Eq. (1.2), is V 2 p 0 . Therefore, the flux

factor φ0 = 4 p10 p20 vrel V , which takes into account that there are 4 p10 p20 V 2 interacting
particles with a relative velocity vrel . The latter is given in the CM (p1 + p2 = 0) by

p1 p2 |p1 |( p10 + p20 )

vrel = − = . (1.12)
p10 p20 p10 p20
√
Notice that in the CM p10 + p20 = s. As a result the factors of V cancel in the
calculation of σ f i and we are left with Eq. (1.11). In particular, the total cross section
from the initial state, σi , is given by the sum over all the possible final sates. From
Eq. (1.11) we then have

1 
σi = √ d Q f | f |T |p1 , σ1 , m 1 , s1 , λ1 ; p2 , σ2 , m 2 , s2 , λ2 |2 . (1.13)
4|p1 | s f

Needless to say that the sum over f could also involve continuous variables and then
instead of a discrete sum (as symbolically indicated in the previous equation) one
would have to perform the corresponding integrals.
In the following, for brevity in the notation, we designate the monoparticle states
by |p1 σ1 λ1 , omitting some labels that might be inferred from the information given.
We can relate the total cross section σi with the imaginary part of the forward
T -matrix element Tii by taking | f  = |i in the unitarity relation of Eq. (1.9). We
then have

1 √
Tii = d Q f |T f i |2 = 2|p1 | s σi . (1.14)
2 f

This result is usually referred as the optical theorem.

Had we taken instead the other order T T † in the unitarity relation then we have

1
Tii = d Q f |Ti f |2 . (1.15)
2 f

Comparing with Eq. (1.14) we then have the reciprocity relation

 
d Q f |T f i |2 = d Q f |Ti f |2 . (1.16)
f f

As a consequence one could derive the important Boltzmann H -theorem in statistical

mechanics (chapter 3.6. of Ref. [4]). Let Pi be the probability distribution of having
a state i in an infinitesimal phase-space volume around this state, then its variation
1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity 5

in time is governed by the balance of states f ending in i and the evolution from i
to any other state f . Thus,
  
d Pi
= d Q f |Ti f |2 P f − Pi d Q f |T f i |2 . (1.17)
dt f f

By summing over all initial state i it is clear that

  d 4 pi  d Pi
d Qi = 0, (1.18)
i
(2π) 4 dt

where the first integration involves the total four-momentum of the state i, to remove
the extra factor of (2π)4 δ (4) ( pi − j q j ) included in d Q i in the next integral symbol.
Physically it represents to allow all possible CM motion, since we are summing over
all state i.
In order to simplify the derivation of the Boltzmann theorem, let us take the dis-
cretized version of the probability distribution function. Then, the entropy is defined
by S = − i Pi log Pi (there would be just a constant of difference with respect to
taking the continuum distribution probability function) and its derivative with respect
to time is
dS  d Pi  d Pi  d Pi
=− (log Pi + 1) =− − log Pi . (1.19)
dt i
dt i
dt i
dt

The term − i d Pi /dt = 0 because of Eq. (1.18), while for the last term we use the
balance Eq. (1.17)

dS  d Pi 
=− log Pi = − log Pi P j |Ti Dj |2 − Pi |T jiD |2 , (1.20)
dt i
dt i, j

with the superscript D indicating that the modulus squared of the matrix element
contains the factor (2π)4 δ (4) ( p j − pi ), which is symmetric under i ↔ j. Exchanging
the indices i and j in the last term of Eq. (1.20), we are left with

dS  Pj
= |Ti Dj |2 P j log . (1.21)
dt i, j
Pi

Now one makes use of the inequality for any two positive quantities Pi and P j ,
P j log(P j /Pi ) ≥ P j − Pi .1 Then, the rhs of Eq. (1.21) is larger or equal than

1 For P j ≥ Pi this is clear because then log P j /Pi ≥ 1. In the range P j ∈ [0, Pi ] the difference
P j log(P j /Pi ) − P j + Pi is ≥ 0, because it has a negative derivative with respect to P j and it is
zero at P j = Pi (it is Pi for P j = 0).
6 1 S and T Matrices. Unitarity

|Ti Dj |2 (P j − Pi ). Exchanging again the indices i and j in the last term we are
i, j
then left with the inequality

dS 
≥ P j |Ti Dj |2 − |T jiD |2 = 0, (1.22)
dt i, j

where in the last step we have taken into account the unitarity implication of
Eq. (1.18).
Chapter 2
Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave
Expansion

We focus mainly on the scattering between two particles of four-momenta p1 and p2

going into a final state of two other particles of four-momenta p3 and p4 . The types
of particles in the final and initial states might be different. For a two-body final state
the differential phase-space factor of Eq. (1.10) expressed with variables in the CM
is

d 3 p1 d 3 p2 |p1 |dΩ
dQ = (2π)4 δ( p1 + p2 ) = √ , (2.1)
(2π) 2 p1 (2π) 2 p2
3 0 3 0
16π 2 s

where dΩ is the differential of solid angle of p1 in the CM. Here we have also
introduced the Mandelstam variable s,

s = ( p 1 + p 2 )2 = ( p 3 + p 4 )2 , (2.2)

which is equal to the total energy squared in the CM [it was alluded above in connec-
tion with Eq. (1.11)]. The other standard Mandelstam variables t and u are defined
as

t = ( p 1 − p 3 )2 = ( p 2 − p 4 )2 , (2.3)
u = ( p1 − p4 ) = ( p2 − p3 ) .
2 2

From Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3) it follows that

s + t + u = m 21 + m 22 + m 23 + m 24 . (2.4)

In terms of d Q the unitarity relation of Eq. (1.9) below the threshold of states with
three or more particles reads

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 7

J. A. Oller, A Brief Introduction to Dispersion Relations, SpringerBriefs in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13582-9_2
8 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

  |p1 |dΩ
 f |T |i −  f |T † |i = i √  f |T † |q1 , σ1 , m 1 , s1 , λ1 ; q2 , σ2 , m 2 , λ2 
16π 2 s
× q1 , σ1 , m 1 , λ1 ; q2 , σ2 , m 2 , λ2 |T |i. (2.5)

The differential cross section between two-body states is, cf. Eq. (1.11),

dσ |p | |p1 , σ1 , λ1 ; p2 , σ2 , λ2 |T |p1 , σ1 , λ1 ; p2 , σ2 , λ2 |2

= 1 . (2.6)
dΩ |p1 | 64π 2 s

We have employed here that because of energy conservation p10 + p20 = p1 0 + p2 0 .
Rotational symmetry implies the invariance of the S- and T -matrix operators
under any rotation R,

RS R † = S, (2.7)
RT R = T.
†
(2.8)

In the manipulation that follow we only show the active variables characterizing a
state and suppress any other label. If the particles involved in the scattering process
have zero spin, then we have that the matrix elements of T are scalars because

p1 . . . pn |T |p1 . . . pn  = p1 . . . pn |R † T R|p1 . . . pn  (2.9)

= Rp1 . . . Rpn |T |Rp1 . . . Rpn .

When the particles have nonzero spins the matrix elements of T are not invariant but
covariant.
It is convenient to expand these matrix elements in a series expansion of scattering
amplitudes between states with well-defined total angular momentum J , total spin
S and orbital angular momentum . One of the reasons is because the two-body
unitarity adopts a very simple form.
Let us consider a two-body state of particles with spins s1 and s2 , that is charac-
terized by the CM three-momentum p and the third components of spin σ1 and σ2
in their respective rest frames. This state is denoted by |p, σ1 σ2 . Associated with
this, we can define the two-body state with orbital angular momentum  and third
component of orbital angular momentum m, denoted by |m, σ1 σ2 , as

1
|m, σ1 σ2  = √ d p̂ Ym (p̂)|p, σ1 σ2 . (2.10)
4π

Let us show first that this definition is meaningful because the state |m, σ1 σ2  trans-
forms under the rotation group as the direct product of the irreducible representations
associated with the orbital angular momentum  and the spins s1 and s2 of the two
particles.
2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 9

We introduce a Lorentz transformation U (p) along the vector p that takes the
particle four-momentum at rest to its final value
   
m Ep
U (p) = , (2.11)
0 p

with E p = m 2 + p2 . We also introduce the rotation R(p̂) that takes ẑ to p̂,

R(p̂)ẑ = p̂. (2.12)

In terms of the polar (θ) and azimuthal (φ) angles of p̂ this rotation is defined as

R(p̂) = Rz (φ)R y (θ), (2.13)

with the subscripts z and y indicating the axis of rotation. For latter convenience we
write the Lorentz transformation U (p) as

U (p) = R(p̂)Bz (|p|)R(p̂)−1 , (2.14)

where Bz (|p|) is a boost along the ẑ axis with velocity v = −β and β = |p|/E p .
Namely,
⎛ ⎞
γ 0 0 γβ
⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟
Bz (|p|) = ⎜
⎝ 0
⎟ (2.15)
0 0 0 ⎠
γβ 0 0 γ

and
1
γ= . (2.16)
1 − β2

Notice that one could also include any arbitrary rotation around the ẑ axis to the right
end of Eq. (2.13). Of course, this does not have any affect on either Eqs. (2.12) and
(2.14) (for the latter one let us note that Bz (|p|) commutes with a rotation around the
ẑ axis).
Every monoparticle state |p, σ under the action of a rotation R transforms as

R|p, σ = RU (p)|0, σ = U (p )U (p )−1 RU (p)|0, σ, (2.17)

and p = Rp.1 It is straightforward to show that

R = U (p )−1 RU (p). (2.18)

1 For a general Lorentz transformation these manipulations give rise to the Wigner rotation [5].
10 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

For that we explicitly write the Lorentz transformations U (p ) and U (p) as in
Eq. (2.14) so that

U (p )−1 RU (p) =R(p̂ )Bz (|p|)−1 R(p̂ )−1 R R(p̂)Bz (|p|)R(p̂)−1 . (2.19)

Next, the product of rotations R(p̂ )−1 R R(p̂) is a rotation around the z axis, Rz (γ),
since it leaves invariant ẑ. Thus,

R(p̂ )−1 R R(p̂) = Rz (γ), (2.20)

or, in other terms,

R(p̂ ) = R R(p̂)Rz (γ)−1 , (2.21)

Taking into account Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21) in Eq. (2.19) it follows the result of
Eq. (2.18) because Bz (|p|) and Rz (γ) commute. Then, Eq. (2.17) implies that

R|p, σ = U (p )R|0, σ = D (s) (R)σ σ |p , σ  , (2.22)
σ

with D (s) (R) the rotation matrix in the irreducible representation of the rotation
group with spin s.
Now, it is clear from this result that the action of the rotation R on the state
|p, σ1 σ2 , which is the direct product of the states |p, σ1  and | − p, σ2 , is

R|p, σ1 σ2  = D (s1 ) (R)σ1 σ1 D (s2 ) (R)σ2 σ2 |p , σ1 σ2 . (2.23)
σ1 ,σ2

We are now ready to derive the action of R on |m, σ1 σ2 ,

 
1
R|m, σ1 σ2  = D (s1 ) (R)σ1 σ1 D (s2 ) (R)σ2 σ2 √ d p̂ Ym (R −1 p̂ )|p , σ1 σ2 
σ1 ,σ2
4π

= D () (R)m  m D (s1 ) (R)σ1 σ1 D (s2 ) (R)σ2 σ2 |m  , σ1 σ2 . (2.24)
σ1 ,σ2 ,m 

In this equation we have made use of the invariance of the solid-angle measure under
rotations and the following property of the spherical harmonics:
 
Ym (R −1 p̂ ) = D () (R)m  m Ym (p̂ ). (2.25)
m
2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 11

This property can be easily derived by noticing that

Ym (p̂) = p̂|m, (2.26)

where |p and |m are two generic states, the former having a well-defined orien-
tation and the latter well-defined spin  and third component of angular momentum
m. Thus,
 () 
Ym (R −1 p̂ ) = R −1 p̂|m = p̂|R|m = Dm  m (R)Ym (p̂). (2.27)
m

Equation (2.24) shows that under a rotation the states defined in Eq. (2.10) has the
right transformation under the action of a rotation R, and our proposition above
[below Eq. (2.10)] is shown to hold.
Now, because of the transformation in Eq. (2.24), corresponding to the direct
product of the spins s1 , s2 and the orbital angular momentum , we can combine
these angular momentum indices and end with the L S J basis. In the latter every
state is labeled by the total angular momentum J , the third component of the total
angular momentum μ, the orbital angular momentum  and the total spin S (resulting
from the composition of the spins s1 and s2 ). Namely, we use the notation |J μ, S
for these states, which are then given by

|J μ, S = (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )|m, σ1 σ2 , (2.28)
σ1 ,σ2 ,m,M

where we have introduced the standard Clebsch–Gordan coefficients for the com-
position of two angular momenta.2 Next we introduce the isospin indices α1 and
α2 corresponding to the third components of the isospins τ1 and τ2 . This does not
modify any of our previous considerations since isospin does not transform under
the action of spatial rotations, although it is convenient for latter use. One can invert
Eq. (2.10) and give the momentum-defined states in terms of those with well-defined
orbital angular momentum,
√  m ∗
|p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  = 4π Y (p̂) |m, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  (2.29)
,m
√ 
= 4π Ym (p̂)∗ (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )(α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )|J μ, S, I t3 ,
J, μ, , m
S, M, I, t3

with I the total isospin of the particle pair and t3 is the third component. The inversion
of Eq. (2.29) provides us with the states |J μ, S, I t3 ,

2 The Clebsch–Gordan coefficient (m 1 m 2 m 3 | j1 j2 j3 ) is the composition for j1 + j2 = j3 , with m i

referring to the third components of the spins.
12 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

1 
|J μ, S, I t3  = √ d p̂Ym (p̂)(σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J ) (2.30)
4π σ , σ
1 2
M, m
α1 , α2

× (α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )|p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 .

From the normalization of the monoparticle states, Eq. (1.2), a two-body particle
state with definite three-momentum satisfies the normalization
√
     16π 2 s
p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  = δ(p̂ − p̂), (2.31)
|p|

where we have dropped out a factor (2π)4 δ (4) ( p  − p). The total energy conservation
guarantees that the moduli of the final and initial three-momenta in Eq. (2.31) are
the same, that we denote by |p|. In terms of this result and Eq. (2.30) it follows
straightforwardly by taking into account the orthogonality properties of Clebsch–
Gordan coefficients and spherical harmonics that
√
    4π s
J μ ,  S , I  t3 |J μ, S, I t3  = δ J  J δμ μ δ  δ S  S δ I  I δt3 t3 . (2.32)
|p|

We are interested in the partial-wave amplitude (PWA) corresponding to the tran-

sition between states with quantum numbers J ¯S̄ I to states J S I , that is given by
the matrix element
(J I )
TS; ¯S̄
= J μ, S, I t3 |T |J μ, ¯S̄, I t3 . (2.33)

Here we take the convention that the quantum numbers referring to the initial state
are barred. Of course, the matrix element in Eq. (2.33) is independent of μ and t3
because of the invariance under rotations in ordinary and isospin spaces, respectively.
We can calculate this scattering matrix element in terms of those in the basis with
definite three-momentum by replacing in Eq. (2.33) the states in the L S J basis as
given in Eq. (2.30). We then obtain in a first step
 
(J I ) 1 
TS;¯S̄
= d p̂ d p̂ Ym (p̂ )∗ Y¯m̄ (p̂)(σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )(α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )
4π
× (σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄|s̄1 s̄2 S)(m̄ M̄μ|¯S̄ J )(ᾱ1 ᾱ2 t3 |τ̄1 τ̄2 I ) S p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T |p, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2  S ,
(2.34)

Here we have not shown the explicit indices over which the sum is done in order not to
overload the notation.3 We use next the rotation invariance of the T -matrix operator
T to simplify the previous integral so that, at the end, we have just the integration
over the final three-momentum solid angle. There are several steps involved that

3 They correspond to those indicated under the summation symbol in Eq. (2.30) both for the initial
and final states.
2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 13

we discuss in detail. The referred rotational invariance of T implies that it remains

invariant under the transformation T → R(p̂)T R(p̂)† , which implies at the level of
the matrix elements that

p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T |p, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2  = p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |R(p̂)T R(p̂)† |p, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2 .
(2.35)

Under the action of the rotation R(p̂)† (R(p̂)† p̂ = ẑ and R(p̂)† p̂ = p̂ ) the final and
initial states transform as, cf. Eq. (2.23),

R(p̂)† |p, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2  = Dσ̄(s̄1σ̄)1 (R † )Dσ̄(s̄2σ̄)2 (R † )|ẑ, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2 ,
1 2
σ̄1 ,σ̄2

R(p̂)† |p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  = Dσ(s1σ)1 (R † )Dσ(s2σ)2 (R † )|p̂ , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 , (2.36)
1 2
σ1 ,σ2

with the convention that R inside the argument of the rotation matrices refers to
R(p̂). We insert Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36) into Eq. (2.34), and next transform p̂ → p̂
as integrations variables, take into account the invariance of the solid angle measure
under such rotation and use Eq. (2.25) for
 ¯
Dm̄() m̄ (R † )Y¯m̄ (ẑ),

Y¯m̄ (p̂) = Y¯m̄ (R(p̂)ẑ) =
m̄ 

Dm() m (R † )Ym (p̂ ).

Ym (p̂ ) = Ym (R(p̂)p̂ ) = (2.37)
m

(J I )
Then, Eq. (2.34) for TS; ¯S̄
can be rewritten as

(J I ) 1  
(s )
T = d p̂ d p̂ (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )(α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )Dσ 1σ (R † )∗
S;¯S̄ 4π 1 1
(s2 ) ∗ () ∗   ∗
×Dσ  σ (R ) Dm  m (R ) Y (p̂ ) (σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄|s̄1 s̄2 S̄)(m̄ M̄μ|¯S̄ J )(ᾱ1 ᾱ2 t3 |τ̄1 τ̄2 I )
† † m
2 2
(s̄ ) (s̄ ) ¯
()      
×Dσ̄ 1σ̄ (R † )Dσ̄ 2σ̄ (R † )Dm̄  m̄ (R † )Y m̄
¯ (ẑ)p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T̂ | |p|ẑ, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2 . (2.38)
1 1 2 2 

From the composition of two rotation matrices it follows the result [5, 6]
 
(m 1 m 2 M|1 2 L)Dm(1m) 1 (R)Dm(2m) 2 (R) = (m 1 m 2 M  |1 2 L)D (L)
M  M (R).
1 2
m 1 ,m 2 M
(2.39)

We apply this rule first to the following two combinations in Eq. (2.38):
14 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion
 
(σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)Dσ(s1σ)1 (R † )Dσ(s2σ)2 (R † ) = (σ1 σ2 M  |s1 s2 S)D (S)
M  M (R )
†
1 2
σ1 ,σ2 M
 
(σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄|s̄1 s̄2 S̄)Dσ̄(s̄1σ̄)1 (R † )Dσ̄(s̄2σ̄)2 (R † ) = (σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄  |s̄1 s̄2 S̄)D (M̄S̄) M̄ (R † ), (2.40)
1 2
σ̄1 ,σ̄2 M̄ 

so that Eq. (2.38) becomes

 
(J I ) 1 
TS; ¯S̄
= d p̂ d p̂ (σ1 σ2 M  |s1 s2 S)D (S) † ∗ () † ∗
M  M (R ) Dm  m (R ) (m Mμ|S J )
4π
¯
× (α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )Ym (p̂ )∗ (σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄  |s̄1 s̄2 S̄)D (M̄S̄) M̄ (R † )Dm̄() m̄ (R † )(m̄ M̄μ|¯S̄ J )



× (ᾱ1 ᾱ2 t3 |τ̄1 τ̄2 I )Y¯m̄ (ẑ)p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T | |p|ẑ, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2 . (2.41)

The same relation in Eq. (2.39) is applied once more to the combinations in Eq. (2.41):
 
(m Mμ|S J )D (S) ()
M  M (R )Dm  m (R ) =
† †
(m  M  μ |S J )Dμ(J μ) (R † ),
m,M μ
 ¯ 
(m̄ M̄μ|¯S̄ J )D (M̄S̄) M̄ (R † )Dm̄() m̄ (R † ) = (m̄  M̄  μ̄ |¯S̄ J )Dμ̄(J μ) (R † ). (2.42)
m̄, M̄ μ̄

We take Eq. (2.42) into Eq. (2.41) which now reads

 
(J I ) 1  
TS; ¯S̄
= d p̂ d p̂ (σ1 σ2 M  |s1 s2 S)(m  M  μ |S J )(α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )Ym (p̂ )∗
4π
× (σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄  |s̄1 s̄2 S̄)(m̄  M̄  μ̄ |¯S̄ J )(ᾱ1 ᾱ2 t3 |τ̄1 τ̄2 I )Y ¯m̄ (ẑ)Dμ(J μ) (R † )∗ Dμ̄(J μ) (R † )



× p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T | |p|ẑ, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2 . (2.43)

(J I )
Now, the partial-wave amplitude TS; ¯S̄
is independent of μ and then

(J I ) 1 J
TS; ¯S̄
= T (J I ) . (2.44)
2J + 1 μ=−J S;¯S̄

Thus, the same result in Eq. (2.43) is obtained with the product Dμ(J μ) (R † )∗ Dμ̄(J μ) (R † )
replaced by

1 J
δμ̄ μ
Dμ(J μ) (R † )∗ Dμ̄(J μ) (R † ) = , (2.45)
2J + 1 μ=−J 2J + 1

as follows from the unitarity character of the rotation matrices. As a consequence

any dependence in p̂ present in the integrand of Eq. (2.43) disappears in the average
of Eq. (2.44), the integration in the solid angle p̂ is trivial and gives a factor 4π.
2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 15

Taking into account the Kronecker delta in Eq. (2.45) for the third component of the

total angular momentum, and a new one that arises because Y¯m̄ (ẑ) is not zero only
(J I )
for m̄  = 0, we end with the following expression for TS; ¯S̄
:

 
(J I )
Y¯0 (ẑ)
TS; ¯S̄
= d p̂ p , σ1 σ2 , α1 α2 |T | |p|ẑ, σ̄1 σ̄2 , ᾱ1 ᾱ2  (2.46)
2J + 1
σ1 , σ2 , σ̄1
σ̄2 , α1 , α2
ᾱ1 , ᾱ2 , m

× Ym (p̂ )∗ (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m M M̄|S J )(σ̄1 σ̄2 M̄|s̄1 s̄2 S̄)(0 M̄ M̄|¯S̄ J )
× (α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )(ᾱ1 ᾱ2 t3 |τ̄1 τ̄2 I ),

where we have removed the primes on top of the spin and orbital angular momentum
third component symbols and in the previous sum M = σ1 + σ2 and M̄ = σ̄1 + σ̄2 .
Next, we derive the unitarity relation corresponding to our normalization for the
(J I )
partial-wave projected amplitudes TS; ¯S̄
. For that we employ the unitarity relation
for the T matrix of Eq. (1.8). By time-reversal invariance it follows that the partial-
wave amplitudes are symmetric (this is demonstrated in the footnote 9 of [7], see
also chapters 3 and 5 of Ref. [5]) and therefore

(J I )
2ImTS; ¯S̄
= J μ, S, T t3 |T T † |J μ, ¯S̄, T t3 . (2.47)

On the rhs we introduce between T and T † a two-body resolution of the identity

of states |J μ, S, I t3  (we have restricted our vector space to the one generated by
these states, below the threshold of multiparticle production) such that, taking into
account their normalization in Eq. (2.32), one ends with

(J I )
 |p | (J I ) ∗
ImTS; ¯S̄
= √ T,S; ,S  T (J I )  ,S  ;¯S̄ . (2.48)
 ,S 
8π s

The phase-space factor is included in the diagonal matrix

|p|i
ρi j = √ δi j . (2.49)
8π s

Another form of expressing the unitarity requirement of Eq. (2.48) is by intro-

ducing the inverse of the matrix T (J I ) (s). Employing a matrix notation we rewrite
this equation as
(J I ) (J I )
T (J I ) − T † = 2i T (J I ) ρT † . (2.50)
16 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

−1 −1
Multiplying to the left by T (J I ) and to the right by T †(J I ) , we arrive to the desired
result
−1
T (J I ) (s) = −ρ(s), (2.51)

above the thresholds of the channels involved. Along this work, we also denote by
channel any of the states interacting in a given process.
A more standard definition of the S-matrix for partial waves implies to redefine
it as

S (J I ) = I + 2iρ 2 T (J I ) ρ 2 .
1 1
(2.52)

This redefinition amounts to evaluate the S matrix between partial-wave projected

states

|p|i
|J μ, S; i, (2.53)
4π

which are just normalized to the product of Kronecker deltas with unit coefficient,
instead of the original normalization in Eq. (2.32). As a result now the diagonal
matrix elements of the identity operator I and S J are just 1 and ηi e2iδi . Namely,

Sii(J I ) = ηi e2iδi , (2.54)

where ηi is the inelasticity for channel i and δi its phase shift. We have included the
superscripts I and J to emphasize that we are considering a certain set of partial
waves with definite total angular momentum J and total isospin I .
A slight change in the formalism for projecting into partial-wave amplitudes
is needed when the two-body states comprise two identical particles or these two
particles can be treated as identical ones within the isospin formalism. This has
been treated in detail for fermions and bosons in Refs. [8, 9], in order. These
(anti)symmetric states are defined by

1
|p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  S = √ (|p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  ± | − p, σ2 σ1 , α2 α1 ) , (2.55)
2

with the subscript S indicating the (anti)symmetrized nature of the state under the
exchange of the two particles, the + is for bosons and the − is for fermions. Making
use of Eq. (2.29) we can write the (anti)symmetric states in terms of those with
well-defined J . As a result, instead of Eq. (2.30) for isolating the states with well-
defined J , we have now
2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 17

√  1 ± (−1)+S+I
|p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  S = 4π √ (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )
J, μ, , m
2
S, M, I, t3
(2.56)
× (α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )Ym (p̂)∗ |J μ, S, I t3 .

In deducing this expression we have taken into account the following symmetric
properties of the Clebsch–Gordan coefficients:

(σ2 σ1 M|s2 s1 S) = (−1) S−s1 −s2 (σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S),

(α2 α1 t3 |t2 t1 I ) = (−1) I −t1 −t2 (α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I ),
Ym (−p̂) = (−1) Ym (p̂). (2.57)

Of course, due to the fact that we are dealing with indistinguishable particles
within the isospin√formalism it follows that s1 = s2 , τ1 = τ2 . The combination
(1 ± (−1)+S+I )/ 2 in Eq. (2.56) is denoted in the following as χ(S I ) and takes
into account the (anti)symmetric character of the two particles, so that only states with
(odd)even  + S + I are allowed. The inversion of Eq. (2.56) gives (we assume√ in the
following that  + S + I =even(odd) for bosons(fermions), so that χ(S I ) = 2),

1 
|J μ, S, I t3  = √ d p̂Ym (p̂)(σ1 σ2 M|s1 s2 S)(m Mμ|S J )(α1 α2 t3 |τ1 τ2 I )
8π σ , σ
1 2
M, m
α1 , α2

× |p, σ1 σ2 , α1 α2  S . (2.58)

By comparing with Eq. (2.30) we conclude that the only difference of √ writing the
states |J μ, S, I t3  in terms of the (anti)symmetric ones is just a factor 1/ 2. There-
fore, we can use the same expression of Eq. (2.46) for calculating the partial-wave √
amplitudes in terms of the (anti)symmetric states but including an extra factor 1/ 2
for every state obeying (anti)symmetric properties under the exchange of its two
particles. This is the so-called unitary normalization introduced in Ref. [10].
Let us show how the unitarity relation stems within the less abstract and more
definite setup of potential scattering, for more details the reader can consult section
2 of Ref. [7]. The full Hamiltonian H is the free one H0 plus the potential v, H =
H0 − v. A minus sign in front of v is introduced to conform with the sign convention
employed in the definition of the T matrix in Eq. (1.6). We denote by r0 (z) and r (z)
the resolvents of H0 and H , in order,

r0 (z) = (H0 − z)−1 ,

r (z) = (H − z)−1 , (2.59)
18 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

with z = 0. The following equations for r (z) follow,

r (z) = r0 (z) + r0 (z)vr (z) (2.60)

= r0 (z) + r (z)vr0 (z). (2.61)

For instance, take the following steps r (z) = r0 (I − vr0 )−1 = r0 (I − vr0 + vr0 )(I −
vr0 )−1 = r0 + r0 vr (z). For the other equation multiply the previous derivation by
I − vr0 to the right.
The relation between the T matrix T (z) and the resolvent r (z) is, by definition,

T (z)r0 (z) = vr (z), (2.62)

such that from Eq. (2.60)

r (z) = r0 (z) + r0 (z)T (z)r0 (z). (2.63)

By comparing this result with Eq. (2.61) we also obtain that

r0 (z)T (z) = r (z)v. (2.64)

The Lippmann–Schwinger (LS) equation results by employing Eq. (2.60) for r (z),
and its relation with T (z), Eq. (2.62), such that

T (z) = v + vr0 (z)T (z). (2.65)

Had we used instead Eqs. (2.61) and (2.64) we would have obtained this other form
of the LS equation

T (z) = v + T (z)r0 (z)v. (2.66)

An interesting property of T (z) is that

T (z)† = T (z ∗ ) (2.67)

as follows from the fact that r (z)† = r (z ∗ ), as it is clear from its definition.4 The
previous equation illustrates as well the Hermitian unitarity [2].
We can obtain too a relationship between two resolvent operators evaluated at
different values of z, which is known as the Hilbert identity, and that it is very useful
also to establish the unitarity properties of the T matrix. The Hilbert identity reads

r (z 1 ) − r (z 2 ) = (z 1 − z 2 )r (z 1 )r (z 2 ). (2.68)

4 The potential is also required to fulfill this property, v(z)† = v(z ∗ ).

2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion 19

For its demonstration take the difference r (z 2 )−1 − r (z 1 )−1 = z 1 − z 2 and multiply
it to the left by r (z 1 ) and to the right by r (z 2 ). In terms of the T matrix the Hilbert
identity reads

T (z 1 ) − T (z 2 ) = (z 1 − z 2 )T (z 1 )r0 (z 1 )r0 (z 2 )T (z 2 ), (2.69)

as follows by multiplying Eq. (2.68) to the left and right by v. For the left-
hand side (lhs) in Eq. (2.68) use the LS equation (2.65), because then vr (z 1 )v −
vr (z 2 )v = vr0 (z 1 )T (z 1 ) − vr0 (z 2 )T (z 2 ) = T (z 1 ) − T (z 2 ). For the rhs just employ
the Eqs. (2.62) and (2.64), vr (z 1 )r (z 2 )v = T (z 1 )r0 (z 1 )r0 (z 2 )T (z 2 ).
The partial-wave projected LS equation arises by considering two-body states
projected in a given partial wave, |k, S, J μ, where k refers to the modulus of the
three-momentum, as introduced in Eq. (2.31). To shorten the notation, we typically
denote the discrete indices globally as λ, and then write |k, λ for the same state.
This compact notation is also valuable because it readily shows that the results can
be applied to other choice of partial-wave projection, e.g., in the helicity basis. The
partial-wave states are normalized such that

δ(k − k  )
k, λ|k  , λ  = 2π 2 δλλ . (2.70)
k2
√
This normalization is consistent with that of Eq. (2.32) if s = p10 + p20 is replaced
by m 1 + m 2 . Furthermore, we also have to multiply this equation by 2πδ(k 2 /2μ −
k  2 /2μ) = 2πμδ(k − k  )/k, because the LS equation is three-dimensional. Here
μ = m 1 m 2 /(m 1 + m 2 ) is the reduced mass. Finally, we divide the result by 4m 1 m 2 ,
because in a nonrelativistic theory a plane wave is normalized as (2π)3 δ(k − k ),
without the factor 2 p10 (which in the nonrelativistic limit becomes simply 2m 1 ).
The matrix elements of the T matrix between partial-wave states constitute the
partial-wave amplitudes, indicated schematically by Ti j (k, k  ; z), and corresponding
to

Ti j (k, k  ; z) = k, λi |t (z)|k  , λ j . (2.71)

The LS equation in partial waves is obtained by taking the matrix element between
partial-wave states of Eqs. (2.65) and (2.66),

μ  ∞ dqq 2
Ti j (k, k  ; z) = vi j (k, k  ) + vin (k, q)Tn j (q, k  ; z)
π 2 n 0 q 2 − 2μz

μ  ∞ dqq 2
= vi j (k, k  ) + 2 Tin (k, q; z)vn j (q, k  ). (2.72)
π n 0 q 2 − 2μz
20 2 Two-Body Scattering. Partial-Wave Expansion

In this equation we have included between the operators T (z) and v an intermediate
set of two-body partial-wave states |q, λ j  taking into account their normalization
in Eq. (2.70), and the notation

vi j (k, k  ) = k, λi |v|k  , λ j . (2.73)

For the Hilbert identity in partial waves we have from Eq. (2.69) that

  2μ2  ∞ dqq 2
Ti j (k, k ; z 1 ) − Ti j (k, k ; z 2 ) = (z 1 − z 2 ) 2
π n 0 (q 2 − 2μz 1 )(q 2 − 2μz 2 )
× Tin (k, q; z 1 )Tn j (q, k  ; z 2 ). (2.74)

Next, we use the property that follows from Eq. (2.67),

Ti j (k, k  ; z ∗ ) = T ji (k  , k; z)∗ , (2.75)

with z 2 = z 1∗ = z ∗ in Eq. (2.74). It results


  2μ2  ∞
∗ dqq 2
Ti j (k, k ; z) − T ji (k , k; z) = 2iz 2
π n 0 (q 2 − 2μz)(q 2 − 2μz ∗ )
× Tin (k, q; z)Tn j (q, k  ; z)∗ . (2.76)

Assuming time-reversal invariance the PWAs are symmetric, Ti j (k, k  ; z) = T ji

(k  , k; z), and then Eq. (2.76) simplifies as

2μ2  ∞ dqq 2
Ti j (k, k  ; z) = z Tin (k, q; z)T jn (k  , q; z)∗
π 2
n 0 (q − 2μz)(q 2 − 2μz ∗ )
2


2μ2  ∞ dqq 2
= z 2 Tin (k, q; z)T jn (k  , q; z)∗ (2.77)
π n 0 (q − 2μ z)2 + (2μz)2
2

We now take the limit z → 0+ and use the result

2μz
lim + = πδ(q 2 − 2μ z). (2.78)
z→0 (q 2 − 2μ z)2 + (2μz)2

We indicate by κ the on-shell momentum,


κ= 2μ z, (2.79)

and then Eq. (2.77) reads, with z = E + iε and ε → 0+ ,

μκ 
Ti j (k, k  ; z) = θ(E) Tin (k, κ; z)T jn (k  , κ; z)∗ , (2.80)
2π n

which is the off-shell unitarity relation.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Now, onward we go, for a century more,
To tell of the change that has flitted o’er.
There are lofty mansions, and spacious domes,
And silvery fountains, and pleasant homes;
There are green, bright trees, and flowers gay,
Where now the dark forests so gloomily sway;
And, most of all, is an open cave,
And a clear, pure spring the gray rocks lave;
And the plate-glass protects, without hiding a room,
Where the relics of age and piratical gloom
Are treasured in safety, not for their worth,
But because they had rested so long in the earth;
And the brilliant oxygen light at night
Half shames the moon, with its pure, pale light.
While a painted balloon, with its rubber case,
Floats gracefully down to its proper place,
As though it were waiting the moment when
It could fly far away ’bove the homes of men,
And be guided with equal precision and ease
As far or as near as the rider may please.
And the flag-staff glows with its highland plaid,
With which the painter the bare stick clad;
While high ’bove the earth, in his own free pride,
Is old Red Jacket standing, his bow beside,
And carelessly pointing to those below
The way the wild winds in the cloud regions blow;
And the gay, pure flag, with its tri-colors bright,
Is floating now in the morning light;
But around the bright scarlet, that was once its edge,
Is a border of flowers ’bove the rocky ledge;
’Tis England’s emblem, the roses bright,
And Scotia’s thistle, pale, green, and white;
The shamrock, that Erin’s children love,
And the iris and fuchsia that droop above.
All these shall be gathered together there,
While the workers faint not on the hill-side bare;
And, at last, when the triumph is made complete,
Shall be woven together these flowers sweet;
And hundreds and thousands yet shall see
The flower-bordered banner waving free.

And now I have finished this history true

Of the present, the past, and the future, too;
And all ye great world, whether timid or brave,
Look out for the next news from Dungeon Cave.
Enesee.
 CONCLUSION.
Again the hand of time has made its mark in and around
Dungeon Rock. Twenty-eight years have come and gone since this
little book first went on its mission, and with them, many of those
most interested in the progress and prosperity of the work and
workers at the cave, have passed on to spirit life. One only, of the
little family yet lives. Far away in the sunny South-west, in her own
home, the first to say farewell to home and loved ones. Next the
gentle, kind-hearted wife and mother, was called away by death’s
relentless hand. The father and son still held steadfast to their faith,
working winters and attending to visitors during the summer and
autumn months. Friends always came in times of need, and when
hope was ready to give way to doubt, and when hands and hearts
grew weary with their labors, some cheering message from the other
side, or the fulfilment of a long ago communication, gave them new
courage and energy, and thus the work continued. The father’s
health had been gradually failing, and in 1868 he joined the spirit
band without having reached the cave occupied by the pirates,
though quite a cave had been made by the excavators, and a huge
pile of stone near by gave ample proof of the unwavering purpose of
this man’s life for nearly twenty years. Intelligent, energetic and
capable, sharp and clear-sighted, with a vein of humor, and pleasing
manner, he welcomed all to his humble abode, whether believer or
skeptic, with the same good natured, honest expressions of interest
and assurance in the work, that he fully believed was given him to do
by disembodied spirits, receiving, as he sometimes said all things as
compliments, whether donations of money, provisions, or a profusion
of wordy advice or ridicule. He had many firm friends, who were ever
ready to lend their assistance in life, and in his death missed the
companionship of a good and upright man.
 Thus Hiram Marble, the Excavator, finds rest from his labors,
and his inanimate form is placed beside that of his wife in the little
church-yard of his native town in western Massachusetts.
The little house under the rock has now but two occupants.
Edwin, first mentioned in the history as a youth of twenty, now takes
up the task alone. A small, delicate man, with clear light blue eyes,
light brown hair and a face white and fair as a woman’s; honest,
credulous and hopeful, he has the will but not the strength to cope
long with that hard unyielding stone, yet the thought of abandoning
the work is not tolerated for a single moment, and every year the pile
of stone outside is heaped higher, and the route of the excavation
becomes longer, deeper and more circuitous; and, alas! each year
the excavator grows weaker and more feeble and less able to carry
on the work. More rooms have been added to the house, but the
octagon foundation is now only a ruin. The interest is still kept up
and many visitors come every year and all go away well pleased that
they have spent an hour in this quiet spot, around which there hangs
a mystery.
Early in the winter of 1879 Mr. Marble contemplated visiting his
relatives and friends in the West, but instead thereof, he started on
that journey from whence no traveler returns,—in the body—and one
bright day, in the middle of January 1880, the last good byes were
spoken and his grave was made by the side of the rock, just above
the house where he spent more than half of his earthly existence.
There is little change in the place since then; the faces of
strangers are seen in the places where the visitors of long ago saw,
perhaps, those described in these pages; but they will give you a
welcome, kind as ever, and try always to make your visit pleasant.
The old platform, where there has been much merry-making, has
been replaced by a larger and better one. The old flag-staff has long
since blown down.
The cave, or excavation, is now nearly two hundred feet through
and seventy-five feet below the entrance, and well worthy a visit from
all who can find opportunity for such a pleasure. It teaches a lesson
of faith—not without works—then the view from the top of the rock is
beyond all description; far as the eye can reach, from the dome of
the state house in Boston on the right, to Marblehead and Salem on
the left, with a full view of the harbor even to Minot’s light, with its
beaches and islands, its steamers and sail-boats, its constant trains
of cars passing and repassing along the beach, the electric lights
and japanese illuminations at the Point of Pines, are all plainly
visible, and make a grand and majestic panorama, while the nearer
view is still more picturesque and lovely. The song entitled “America”
best describes ones feelings as they look around them from that
point. The tall pines, the giant oaks and walnuts, the graceful cedars,
with ash and hemlocks mingling with the monster gray boulders,
forming beautifully contrasting colors and shades, in the sunlight, or
the gray morn or eventide, while the shimmering light upon Saugus
river and the sheeny blue of the Ocean contrast strangely with the
large, smooth-faced sheet of water directly in front and just below,
which just now is over-running its banks on every side, while a
hundred little brooks and rivulets are hurrying and tumbling over their
rocky beds to offer their tribute to Breeds Pond, that the people of
Lynn may drink and not thirst. Around this beautiful pond is a shady,
winding road, that is named Dungeon Rock Avenue, and leads
directly to the rock from the city, while beyond and around are
hundreds of acres of hills and valleys and mountains and glens,
rocks and ravines.
The scenery is wild and romantic in the extreme, and a society,
calling themselves Foresters, have formed for the purpose of
purchasing and holding these granite hills for public use to be kept
as a perpetual forest, that all may have the pleasure of visiting the
wild woods, and this inside the city limits of Lynn and within a dozen
miles of Boston. Dungeon Rock, or the Visitor’s Resort is in the midst
of this quiet splendor, this silent temple, with its many spires and
altars. It is accessible by the Myrtle Street horse cars, or addressing
Dungeon Rock, Lynn Mass., parties will be conveyed direct from any
part of the city, and can spend an hour of pleasure and profit and
judge for themselves of all that has been said and written of this
quiet, lovely spot and wonder who next will have the faith, courage
and opportunity to go on with this strange work, and add to the
monument that two good men have created to faith in the immortality
of the soul and a life beyond the grave.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was
obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUNGEON
ROCK; OR, THE PIRATE'S CAVE, AT LYNN ***

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