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Advances in Information Systems
and Business Engineering

Nadine Poser

Distance Leadership
in International
Corporations
Why Organizations Struggle
when Distances Grow
Advances in Information Systems
and Business Engineering

Herausgegeben von
U. Baumöl, Hagen, Deutschland
J. vom Brocke, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
R. Jung, St. Gallen, Schweiz
Die Reihe präsentiert aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse verschiedener methodischer
Ausrichtungen an den Schnittstellen der wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen Wirt-
­schaftsinformatik, Informatik und Betriebswirtschaftslehre. Die Beiträge der Rei-
­he sind auf anwendungsorientierte Konzepte, Modelle, Methoden und ­Theorien
gerichtet, die eine Nutzung von Informationssystemen für die innovative Gestal-
­tung und nachhaltige Entwicklung von Organisationen aufgreifen. Die Arbeiten
zeigen in besonderer Weise, inwiefern moderne Informations- und Kommunika-
tionstechnologien neue unternehmerische Handlungsspielräume eröffnen können.
Zudem wird die Verbesserung bestehender Modelle und Strukturen aufgezeigt.
Zugleich kennzeichnet die Beiträge ein ganzheitlicher Ansatz bei der ­Entwicklung
und Einführung von Informationssystemen, bei dem der organisatorische Hand­
lungskontext in den Dimensionen Mensch, Aufgabe und Technik systematisch be-
­rücksichtigt und aktiv gestaltet wird.

Herausgegeben von
Prof. Dr. Ulrike Baumöl Prof. Dr. Reinhard Jung,
FernUniversität Hagen, Deutschland Universität St. Gallen, Schweiz

Prof. Dr. Jan vom Brocke

Universität Liechtenstein, Fürstentum
Liechtenstein
Nadine Poser

Distance Leadership
in International
Corporations
Why Organizations Struggle
when Distances Grow
Nadine Poser
University of Liechtenstein
Vaduz, Liechtenstein

Dissertation University of Liechtenstein, 2016

Advances in Information Systems and Business Engineering

ISBN 978-3-658-15222-2 ISBN 978-3-658-15223-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-15223-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016947921

Springer Gabler
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2017
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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Preface

This work would not have become reality without the support of some very im-
portant people.
I would like to dedicate this work to my parents Veronika and Wolfgang. During
my whole life you provided me with an environment filled with love and security.
You taught me to work hard and to fight for my values and beliefs. My optimistic
view on life is grounded on your education. You encouraged me at all stages and
have always had my back. Without your trust, I would have never taken on this
challenge. I am so proud to call you my parents.
I would also like to thank my best friends, Annett and Christian, you both are in-
credibly important to me. You were always there for me when I needed you, espe-
cially during the really rough times. I would be happy if I could still call you my
BBF in 50 years from now.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Urs Baldegger. Urs, you are
one of the few people who truly inspired me. More than subjects, you taught me
lessons for life. Thank you for your confidence, giving me the chance to write this
dissertation under your supervision.
My sincere thanks also go to my co-supervisor Prof. Marco Furtner for his continu-
ous support during my study and related research, for his motivation and methodo-
logical assistance.
For the trust and faith in me, I would like to thank my friend Daniel. With your un-
breakable optimism you showed me that everything will work out eventually.

Nadine Poser
Abstract VII

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of leadership behavior on the
work-related outcomes of self-leadership and individual performance by investigat-
ing the role of physical distance, relationship quality, and interaction frequency in
international corporations. Research was conducted in 19 business units of interna-
tional firms headquartered in Liechtenstein and Switzerland. The sample consisted
of 372 followers reporting to 122 leaders. Structural equation modeling was used to
conduct a confirmatory factor analysis of the recently developed Self-Leadership
Skills Inventory (SLSI) by Furtner and Rauthmann (in prep.). Hypotheses tests
were completed using multiple linear regressions, moderation, and mediation anal-
yses. Study outcomes include that physical distance moderates the influence of
transformational and passive leadership on follower self-leadership and entails neg-
ative effects on followers’ perceptions of relationship quality. Relationship quality
was observed to mediate the influence of transformational and passive leadership
on performance outcomes. Relationship quality was furthermore discovered to have
indirect positive effects on the influence of transactional leadership on perfor-
mance. Interaction frequency moderated the influence of transformational leader-
ship on follower performance. Summarizing the findings, it can be concluded that
the influence of physical distance on the leader-follower relationship is exaggerat-
ed. Instead, the quality of the relationship between leader and follower has shown
to be the tie that binds the two individuals. Frequency of interaction has the capa-
bility yet to enhance the positive influence of transformational leadership on fol-
lowers’ performance. In addition to highlighting the potential that underlies dis-
tance leadership, this work outlines the key influence factors of the leader-follower
relationship in the context of physical distance. This work extends current leader-
ship literature as it examines the roles inherited by physical distance, relationship
quality, and interaction frequency in the leader-follower relationship. In addition,
this research applies Full Range Leadership (FRL) holistically to a physically dis-
tant organizational structure. The research further integrates post-heroic compo-
nents (e.g., self-leadership) that have only recently found application in distant
leadership research.
VIII Abstract

Key-words
Full-Range leadership; distance leadership; e-leadership; physical distance; rela-
tionship quality; leader-member exchange; interaction frequency; self-leadership;
performance
Table of Contents IX

Table of Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... VII

Table of Contents ..........................................................................................................IX
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
2 Literature Review ......................................................................................................... 9
3 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 89
4 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 97
5 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 117
6 Results ...................................................................................................................... 131
7 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 161
8 Conclusion and Outlook........................................................................................... 185
References ................................................................................................................... 203
Figures ........................................................................................................................ 233
Tables ........................................................................................................................ 235
Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 237
Appendices .................................................................................................................. 239
Table of Contents XI

Table of Contents

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... VII

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... IX
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Motivation .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Knowledge Gap............................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Research Objectives ..................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Research Methodology ................................................................................................ 6
1.6 Quality Control ............................................................................................................ 7
1.7 Structural Design.......................................................................................................... 7

2 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts ................................. 9
2.1.1 Full Range Leadership ........................................................................................ 12
2.1.2 Relationship Quality ........................................................................................... 21
2.1.3 Empowering Leadership ..................................................................................... 32
2.1.4 Self-Leadership ................................................................................................... 38
2.1.5 Leadership and Context ...................................................................................... 50
2.2 Distance Leadership ................................................................................................... 53
2.2.1 E-Leadership ....................................................................................................... 56
2.2.2 Virtual Leadership .............................................................................................. 58
2.2.3 Virtual Teams...................................................................................................... 61
2.2.4 Physical Distance ................................................................................................ 65
2.2.5 Leader-Follower Interaction Frequency ............................................................. 70
2.2.6 Distance Dimensions: Potential Influencers of the Leader-Follower
Relation ............................................................................................................... 81
XII Table of Contents

3 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................ 89
3.1 Direct Effects of Leadership Behavior on Follower Self-Leadership and
Performance ............................................................................................................... 89
3.2 Moderation and Mediation Effects of Distance on the Leader-Follower
Relationship ............................................................................................................... 92

4 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 97
4.1 Research Question...................................................................................................... 97
4.2 Research Design and Research Model ....................................................................... 97
4.3 Operationalization ...................................................................................................... 99
4.3.1 Predictor Variables............................................................................................ 100
4.3.2 Outcome Variables............................................................................................ 103
4.3.3 Moderating and Mediating Variables ............................................................... 106
4.3.4 Control Variables .............................................................................................. 107
4.3.5 Survey Design ................................................................................................... 109
4.4 Population and Sample............................................................................................. 110

5 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 117

5.1 Descriptive Statistics and Reliability ....................................................................... 117
5.2 Full Range Leadership ............................................................................................. 118
5.3 Relationship Quality ................................................................................................ 120
5.4 Self-Leadership ........................................................................................................ 121
5.5 Performance ............................................................................................................. 125
5.6 Physical Distance ..................................................................................................... 126
5.7 Interaction Frequency .............................................................................................. 126
5.8 Heteroskedasticity, Multicollinearity, and Common Method Variance .................. 128

6 Results ..................................................................................................................... 131

6.1 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................... 131
Table of Contents XIII

6.1.1 Direct Effects of Leadership Behavior on Follower Self-Leadership and

Performance ...................................................................................................... 131
6.1.2 Moderation and Mediation Effects of Distance on the Leader-Follower
Relationship ...................................................................................................... 142
6.2 Summary of statistical analyses ............................................................................... 156

7 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 161

7.1 Leadership Behavior ................................................................................................ 161
7.2 Self-Leadership ........................................................................................................ 165
7.3 Relationship Quality ................................................................................................ 167
7.4 Direct Effects of Leadership Behavior on Follower Self-Leadership and
Performance ............................................................................................................. 169
7.5 Moderation and Mediation Effects of Distance on the Leader-Follower
Relationship ............................................................................................................. 174
8 Conclusion and Outlook ........................................................................................ 185
8.1 Summary .................................................................................................................. 185
8.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 188
8.3 Research Implications .............................................................................................. 193
8.4 Managerial Implications .......................................................................................... 195

References .................................................................................................................. 203

Figures ........................................................................................................................ 233
Tables ......................................................................................................................... 235
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................ 237
Appendices ................................................................................................................. 239
1.1 Motivation 1

1 Introduction

Chapter overview
The first chapter of this work elaborates the motivation underlying the research
project. As globalization and technology persistently add value to the way corpora-
tions interact internally, the focus is placed on how these effects impact the leader-
follower relationship in particular. The problem is summarized, followed by a de-
scription of the knowledge gap. A brief summary is provided on research objectives
and methodology, followed by an outline of quality control procedures undertaken
to ensure this study adheres to highest academic quality standards. The structure of
this dissertation is illustrated at the end of the first chapter.

1.1 Motivation
Globalization and technological advancements evolving along with constant access
to the World Wide Web create an environment for international corporations that is
now questioning work modalities and consequently beginning to restructure them.
Regardless of location, corporations use human resources in a way that is strongly
dependent on advanced information technologies (AIT). In particular, organiza-
tional leaders encounter situations in which followers are continuously located in
various places around the globe, facing challenges of geographic dispersion. Addi-
tionally, physical distribution makes leaders realize the high potential that distant
collaboration may hold for performance and productivity (Sobel-Lojeski, 2010).
Electronic collaboration in a physically distant setting does not only cut travel ex-
penses, it may also leverage synergies between cross-functional workgroups (Bull-
ock & Tucker-Klein, 2011).
What are the antecedents that influence the relationship between leaders and fol-
lowers in international corporations? Researchers claim that structural, social, and
psychological distance components potentially affect this dyadic liaison (Napier &
Ferris, 1993) as individuals suddenly find themselves working with people they
have never met face-to-face before. Team members now require a broad knowledge
of sociological diversity when dealing frequently with individuals from different
national and cultural backgrounds (Torres & Bligh, 2012, p. 23). Organizational
leaders may in fact realize that traditional leadership behaviors are no longer as ef-
fective as they once were and that traditional modes of influence and control are
diminishing (Bradner & Mark, 2008; Hertel, Geister & Konradt, 2005). As a con-
sequence of physical distribution, corporations heavily apply new technological
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2017
N. Poser, Distance Leadership in International Corporations,
Advances in Information Systems and Business Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-15223-9_1
2 1 Introduction

infrastructure while the relationship between individuals disappears from focus. A

large number of assisting tools are available to exchange information virtually and
make distant work more transparent. E-mail, telephone and videoconferencing
technology, online presentation-sharing platforms, and virtual workspaces are just a
few examples which help to define a common ground for information exchange.
Understanding the changes in collaboration, organizational decision-makers seem
to lack awareness of the impact that distant alterations in context might have on the
leader-follower relationship. For team leaders, contextual factors provide challeng-
ing implications (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002, p. 698). Not only do leaders and fol-
lowers need to learn how to deal with technology; they require integrating it into
the existing corporate culture and processes (Pulley & Sessa, 2001, p. 225). This
may expose organizational leaders to a new level of complexity when applying tra-
ditional leadership methods to a technology-driven setting. Andrews (2004) de-
scribes the foundation of distance leadership as “focusing on the social aspects of
interaction, being more attentive to the special needs of team members, using tech-
nology creatively, and establishing respectful policies that support communications”
(p. 14).
The implications of modern work structures, remotely located teams and distance
leadership are diverse. Research has investigated traditional leadership theories for
half a century and has recently applied modern frameworks to keep up with the
pace of a fast changing environment. On one hand, dozens of studies have exam-
ined the benefits of virtual teams and (technological) challenges they are facing
when working in dispersed settings. On the other hand, the leader-follower rela-
tionship has largely been neglected in the context of geographic distance and this
provides opportunities for deeper investigation (Eichenberg, 2007).
The presented work closes the knowledge gap by applying one of the most widely
accepted leadership theories in recent academic research to a distance setting. To
wit, Full Range Leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1995) has not yet been applied holisti-
cally to a work setting of physical distance. Insight into the relationship of leaders
and followers in a work environment of physical distance is still sparse even if vir-
tual collaboration promises to be the work mode of the future for international cor-
porations (Zakaria, Amelinckx & Wilemon, 2004). The research correspondingly
discusses the role of leaders and followers in international corporations taking vari-
ous forms of distance into account.
1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.2 Problem Statement

At the heart of this study is the influence of leadership behavior on work-related
outcomes and the potential moderating and mediating effects of distance dimen-
sions, topics that have received international attention in recent leadership research
(e.g., Andressen, Konradt & Neck, 2012; Bligh & Riggio, 2013; Howell & Hall-
Merenda, 1999). As such, the study aims to identify and disaggregate employed
terminologies of distance. Distance leadership is predominantly conceptualized in
two streams of academic literature: (1) when studying contextual factors in leader-
ship, and (2) when investigating virtual teamwork.
With the steady rise in globalization, divisions of firms are often separated by phys-
ical distance. Distribution of followers is obviously beneficial to international cor-
porations yet it might lead to severe drawbacks if leaders and followers remain un-
able to adapt to the new environment. Modern collaboration does assist in reducing
risks of dispersed teams by using technological advancements. Hence, challenges
of the twenty-first century require leaders and subordinates to communicate in dif-
ferent ways and rethink the way of leading and following. To identify factors influ-
encing the effect of leadership behavior on subordinates’ work-related outcomes,
potential moderators and mediators require further clarification.
The focus of this work lies on three distance dimensions: (1) physical distance, (2)
relationship quality, and (3) leader-follower interaction frequency. All three factors
have been previously applied as influencers in distance leadership research (e.g.,
Eichenberg, 2007; Howell & Hall-Merenda, 1999; Kacmar, Zivnuska, Witt & Gul-
ly, 2003). A theory-informed literature review on (distance) leadership research
serves as the foundation for subsequent empirical study.

1.3 Knowledge Gap

Leadership in combination with distance dimensions is still under-researched (An-
tonakis & Atwater, 2002). Only few scholars have thus far attempted to inspect this
new area within leadership theory (e.g., Andressen et al., 2012; Cole, Bruch &
Shamir, 2009). Research conducted in this field is diverse in terms of leadership
behaviors and related outcomes. Avolio and Kahai (2003) suggest that, in an envi-
ronment of physical distance, charismatic leadership is most likely to be more ef-
fective than other leadership behaviors. This finding is confirmed by Hoyt and
Blascovich (2003) who compile empirical evidence linking transformational lead-
ership to positive team performance in a distance work setting. Since both trans-
formational and transactional leaders are perceived as good communicators, the
4 1 Introduction

combination of both behaviors might positively influence follower performance

(Neufeld, Wan & Fang, 2010). Academics generally agree that technology impacts
the way corporations work. Avolio, Sosik, Kahai and Baker (2014, p. 106) argue
that information technology fundamentally affects how leadership is viewed. With
technology, physical distance can be reduced to a certain degree (Cairncross, 1997)
and attention is placed on the building of high quality dyadic relationships (Graen
& Uhl-Bien, 1995).
Whereas physical distance in the workplace is a condition that often may not be
directly influenced, the relationship between leaders and follower may be affected
by both parties. The formation of differentiated relationships by leaders with their
followers represents the main assumption of leader-member exchange (LMX) (Er-
dogan & Bauer, 2014). As a result of this differentiation, the relationship may im-
pact work-related outcomes. Employees experiencing high quality relationships
with their leaders are more likely to receive advantageous mentoring and coaching
treatment (Law, Wong, Wang & Wang, 2000). Not only has high quality relation-
ship been found to be a predictor for transformational and transactional leadership
behavior (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Wang, Law, Hackett, Wang & Chen, 2005), it
has also been shown to act as moderator and mediator (e.g., Erdogan & Bauer,
2014; Liden, Wayne & Sparrowe, 2000; Wang et al., 2005).
When followers are distant from their leaders and control is limited, self-leading
individuals are a potential response (Andressen et al., 2012). Self-leadership has
caught the attention of academics in the past decades and yet research has only re-
cently begun to examine the concept in combination with distance leadership. A
first empirical attempt to explore effects of leadership behavior on follower self-
leadership in a distance work environment was pursued by Andressen et al. (2012),
whose findings indicate that self-leadership acts as a process factor determining
motivation.
Summarizing the gaps in different work streams, this research represents the first
effort to examine the impact of leadership behavior holistically, assessing the influ-
ences of Full Range Leadership. Investigations are conducted in both geographical-
ly close and dispersed context. While applying the Multifactor Leadership Ques-
tionnaire (MLQ) 5X short (Bass & Avolio, 1995), a recently established research
instrument is used to assess the extent of self-leadership among followers. For the
first time the Self-Leadership Skills Inventory (Furtner & Rauthmann, in prep.) is
applied to a sizeable sample in an organizational context.
1.4 Research Objectives 5

1.4 Research Objectives

The present work adds in multiple theoretical and empirical respects to current
leadership research. First, it contributes to leadership literature by providing a sub-
stantial foundation for distance leadership literature. Second, it empirically tests the
influence of leadership behavior on followers’ work-related outcomes in a context
of physical distance. In this regard, the influences of relationship quality and inter-
action frequency on the leader-follower relation are explored. Thus far, leading
from a distance has been widely disregarded by scholars and received attention on-
ly by a few researchers (e.g., Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Cole et al., 2009; Howell
& Hall-Merenda, 1999; Howell, Neufeld & Avolio, 2005; Kerr & Jermier, 1978;
Napier & Ferris, 1993; Yagil, 1998). Yet, many of these publications are conceptu-
al in nature and fail to provide empirical evidence.
For the first time, recent leadership theory is conceptualized, leadership behaviors
are discussed, and challenges and benefits of distance leadership are explicated.
Potential moderating and mediating influences on the leader-follower relationship
are investigated and predictors for work-related outcomes in geographically dis-
persed settings are outlined. Academic journal articles are evaluated according to
their contribution to the current state of research. Discussing the role of AIT in a
distance work context, this research identifies key collaboration tools that may fa-
cilitate communication in corporations. In the process of this work, leadership theo-
ry is reviewed and an imperative position is occupied by definitions of distance di-
mensions recently used in research. Particular interest is attached to distinguishing
terminologies such as distance leadership, virtual leadership, and e-leadership.
Whereas in some cases the terms virtual team, mobile workforce, and virtual
workgroup are used interchangeably (e.g., Criswell & Martin, 2007; Welch, Worm
& Fenwick, 2003), other researchers prefer a rather strong differentiation (Gluesing
& Riopelle, 2010).
Second, this research makes innovative use of the Full Range Leadership Model
which, previously, has often only partially been applied and with a strict focus on
transformational and transactional leadership. Both behaviors have often been con-
sidered when investigating the effect of leadership behavior on follower outcomes
(e.g., Balthazard, Waldman & Warren, 2009; Gupta, Huang & Yayla, 2011; Sosik,
Godshalk & Yammarino, 2004). Consideration and empirical examination of the
entire model is rare in leadership research. Following the nature of laissez-faire
leadership behavior, the dimension of passive leadership is frequently disregarded.
Previous literature indicates that Full Range Leadership supplies leadership behav-
6 1 Introduction

iors that are likely to influence follower self-leadership (Yun, Cox & Sims, 2006a)
and performance (Kahai & Avolio, 2008; Walumbwa, Avolio & Zhu, 2008).
The third and central purpose of this work is to empirically determine moderation
or mediation effects of physical distance, relationship quality, and interaction fre-
quency in the leader-follower relationship. It is expected that physical distance, re-
lationship quality, and interaction frequency will assume a reinforcing position in
distant leader-follower relations.
Findings are projected to confirm the assumption that physical distance negatively
affects the influence of transformational and transactional leadership on follower
self-leadership and performance. If triggers for enhanced self-leadership and per-
formance in a distance work environment rest within transformational and/or trans-
actional behaviors, this dissertation would provide evidence for the necessity of
transformational and transactional leadership behaviors that are particularly essen-
tial in a context of physical distance. In addition, high quality relationships are pro-
jected to be the tying bond between leaders and followers in international corpora-
tions. Interaction frequency is expected to take on an augmenting position, provid-
ing favorable outcomes in the leader-follower relation. From the results extracted
by this work, targeted trainings could be developed in order to strengthen the bene-
ficial aspects of distance leadership.

1.5 Research Methodology

The aim of this research is to test influences of leadership behaviors on work-
related outcomes and to assess effects of physical distance, relationship quality, and
interaction frequency in the relationship between leader and follower. To address
the research question from a statistical perspective, quantitative cross-sectional re-
search design is applied. Previously validated survey instruments are used: leader-
ship behavior is assessed with the MLQ 5X short (Bass & Avolio, 1995); relation-
ship quality is assessed using the LMX-7 (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995); and the as-
sessment of self-leadership is facilitated by the recently developed SLSI (Furtner &
Rauthmann, in prep.). Data is collected with the help of self-administered online
questionnaires. In order to analyze the data structural equation modeling (SEM),
multiple linear regressions, moderation, and mediation analyses are anticipated.
1.6 Quality Control 7

1.6 Quality Control

In order to assure certain quality standards, this work follows the guidelines of
scientific writing of the University of Liechtenstein. Documentation is pursued
according to standards of the American Psychological Association (APA).
The dissertation process is divided into two phases. The first phase includes partic-
ipation in higher education courses and the completion of assignments and presen-
tations. Courses in scientific writing, research methods, research design, and theory
of the firm provide the fundamental background for issuing this work. Passing the
courses is a prerequisite for submitting and defending the preliminary study.
The second phase of the dissertation process includes contribution at an interna-
tional conference and doctoral seminars which depict state-of-the-art research ac-
tivities in the majoring field. Throughout the entire dissertation development pro-
cedure, progress is evaluated in regular doctoral consortia with the supervisor, co-
supervisor, and peer researchers. Frequent discussions with Prof. Dr. Urs Baldegger
ensure the positioning of the dissertation in regards to content, theoretical, and
practical value. Consultations with Prof. Dr. Marco Furtner from the University of
Innsbruck confirm the appropriateness of the selected procedures. Repeated ex-
changes of information and discussions with qualified fellow doctoral students
from adjacent research institutes further assist in the evolution of this work. The
present dissertation will be submitted for publication as a monograph. Evaluation
of the monograph is led by the doctoral committee announced during the disserta-
tion process. Potential submissions of research articles will undergo a peer-review
process prior to publication.

1.7 Structural Design

This paper consists of eight chapters. Beginning with the introduction, the scope of
the research is provided in chapter 1. Chapter 2 outlines the theoretical background
underlying this work, culminating in a summary of hypotheses in chapter 3. Chap-
ter 4 supplies information on the methodological approach applied during this work.
Chapter 5 introduces the data analysis followed by the demonstration of results in
chapter 6. Study findings are discussed and critically reviewed in chapter 7. Sum-
marizing this work, chapter 8 provides conclusions of the study outcomes and ar-
ticulates probable limitations. Implications for theory and practice complete this
work. Figure 1 illustrates the work’s structure.
8 1 Introduction

Chapter summary
The motivation for this work derives from a practical point of view as international
corporations prefer to form teams based on capabilities rather than local availability.
Therefore, the presented research adds to theory and practice in many ways assist-
ing corporations to effectively lead followers from a physical distance. Following
scientific guidelines, the study is clustered in eight chapters, each starting with a
short introduction and ending with a brief chapter summary.
Figure 1. Structural Design of the Dissertation
1 Introduction

Motivation Knowledge gap Research methodology

Problem statement Research objectives Quality control

2 Literature review

Leadership theories Context Distance leadership

3 Hypotheses

Direct effects of leadership behavior on follow- Moderation and mediation effects of distance on
er self-leadership and performance the leader-follower relationship

4 Methodology

Research question Population Operationalization

Research design Sample structure Preliminary analysis

5 Data analysis

Leadership behavior Self-leadership Physical distance

Relationship quality Performance Interaction frequency

6 Results

Statistical analyses Hypotheses testing Summary of results

7 Discussion
Leadership behavior Direct effects of leadership be- Moderation and mediation
Self-leadership havior on follower self- effects of distance on the
Relationship quality leadership and performance leader-follower relationship

8 Conclusion & outlook

Implications for theory

Study summary Limitations
and practice
2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts 9

2 Literature Review

Chapter overview
The second chapter of this work deals with the most widely recognized leadership
theories of the past decades. After a thorough introduction of the Full Range Lead-
ership and Leader-Member Exchange, recent concepts such as empowering leader-
ship and self-leadership are highlighted. The subsequent part of the work covers the
latest publications on distance leadership, delineating e-leadership, virtual leader-
ship, and distance leadership from one another. In the course of the literature re-
view, definitions of distance dimensions are illustrated and their interaction with
organizational work-related outcomes is indicated, continually placing particular
emphasis on physical distance, relationship quality, and leader-member interaction
frequency. Additional forms of distance are outlined and defined. The chapter final-
ly presents a summary of the most compelling studies with regard to self-leadership
and distance leadership.

2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts

Definitions
The need to study leadership exists jointly with the requirements to lead people in
international corporations. Whereas leadership in its early stages was studied pre-
dominantly as a hierarchical phenomenon, today, leadership encompasses many
issues surrounding the leader, subordinates, peers, and context (Avolio, Walumbwa
& Weber, 2009, p. 422). With its numerous facets, leadership has gradually
evolved into one of the most investigated fields in organizational science (Yukl,
2013). The key role of leadership is regarded as enhancing organizational relation-
ships among individuals. Effective international corporate leadership relies upon
functioning leader-follower relationships (Avolio & Kahai, 2003). With the number
of investigations, the number of definitions of leadership has risen to a substantial
level, involving the frequently discussed controversy between process and behav-
ioral views. Whereas Bass (1990) views effective leadership as dependent on con-
textual factors, others see leadership as a behavior reflecting the quality of under-
standing (House, Javidan, Hanges & Dorfman, 2002). Bass (1990) states that lead-
ership relies on “physical proximity, social and organizational propinquity, and
networks of open channels of communications” (p. 658). House et al. (2002) refer
to organizational leadership as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate,

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2017

N. Poser, Distance Leadership in International Corporations,
Advances in Information Systems and Business Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-15223-9_2
10 2 Literature Review

and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organi-
zations of which they are members” (p. 5).

A look into the past

Research in leadership has undergone a transition over time, originally placing par-
ticular focus on the investigation of personality traits and competences of organiza-
tional members in the first half of the twentieth century (Jenkins, 1947). From then
on research began to pay attention to the hierarchical component of leadership. The
leader and his/her behavior were the center of focus (Scott, Nahrgang, Wellman &
Humphry, 2011). With the investigation of behavioral aspects of leadership, it was
soon discovered that leaders have to adjust their behavior according to the require-
ments of a specific situation (Blake & Mouton, 1978). Almost contemporaneously,
behavior-based models were further developed, resulting in the evolution of con-
tingency theories of leadership. Contingency models unite ideas from behavior-
based approaches, yet they also consider interaction with followers (Fiedler, 1967;
Fiedler & Garcia, 1987). Other popular contingency leadership theories were de-
veloped by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and Vroom and Yetton (1973). Only in
the 1990s, more attention was paid to the relationship between leader and followers,
pushing relationship-oriented leadership to the fore. The most widely recognized
concept describing the relationship between the two parties is leader-member ex-
change theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). According to this model, leaders and
members form differentiated relationships during their work span which can take
on diverse degrees of quality. High quality relationships are ascribed to a basis in
mutual trust and respect. Low quality relationships do not extend past the mere ful-
fillment of work duties (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995).
With the further development of relationship-oriented leadership, Bryman (1992)
defined a paradigm called New Leadership. Opposed to the Old Leadership para-
digm, in which transactional leadership and a concentration on role and task ful-
fillment were dominant behaviors (Antonakis, 2012), charismatic and transforma-
tional leadership play a central role in the New Leadership approach (Furtner &
Baldegger, 2013; Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Charisma is described as a phenomenon
that is frequently subject to research. The charismatic leader can be defined as an
individual who can bring about social change (Weber, 1947). Weber defines cha-
risma as “specific gifts of the body and spirit not accessible to everybody” (Weber,
1986, p. 19). The fundamental aspect describing a charismatic individual lies in the
ascription of charisma, entirely relying on others’ perceptions (Bass, 1985; Neu-
berger, 2002). Yet, Antonakis (2012) traces the roots of charisma to centuries ago.
The author claims that Aristotle (trans. 1954) provided a definition of charisma that
2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts 11

continues to inform the modern understanding of the concept. He explains the use
of rhetoric in persuading followers, using terms similar to literature on charismatic
behavior. With this, Aristotle is not only a pioneer in the field of charisma, but also
in Full Range Leadership (Bass, 1985).
Transformational leadership has progressed since its first publication by James
MacGregor Burns in 1978. Effectiveness of leaders and performance outcomes due
to effective leadership have since been investigated carefully. The researcher de-
scribes transformational leadership as a process of transforming leader and follow-
ers by establishing a shared vision and a sense of ethical and moral behavior. The
leader recognizes the needs of followers and tries to fulfill them. In the best scenar-
io, this stimulates intrinsic motivation and leads to improved productivity (Bass &
Riggio, 2006). Leaders must act people-oriented as well as task-oriented. Focusing
solely on one function is far less effective (Denison, Hooijberg & Quinn, 1995).
Favorable leadership has been identified in terms of being active in the leadership
role, initiating structure, exhibiting consideration, and articulating the team goal
(Bass, 1990; Kolb, 1995). Particularly, problems of integrating members and ne-
glecting to respond to individual needs can cause severe disruptions in the leader-
follower relation. The most successful leaders can provide both: structure and con-
sideration (Bass, 1990; Kayworth & Leidner, 2002). The structural component can
be enhanced by continuously providing feedback on task-related issues. Considera-
tion can be pushed through motivational and mentoring activities by leaders that
affect the value-oriented side of followers. Leadership effectiveness is observed
carefully by subordinates since leadership largely depends on the perception of fol-
lowers (Bass, 1990).
The New Leadership paradigm is characterized by its concentration on the heroic
leader who uses their power to influence others (Furtner & Baldegger, 2013). Yet,
the leader-centric approach in empirical investigations is subject to criticism (Ali-
mo, 1995). Leadership concepts focus on the influence of one central individual on
other individuals and the organization, yet it is often noted that effective leadership
of people and organizations requires multiple individuals and/or their cooperation
(Crevani, Lindgren & Packendorff, 2007). The post-heroic approach to leadership
shifts the central view away from the leader to more complex interactional process-
es (Fletcher, 2004). The most recognized streams in post-heroic leadership research
are empowering leadership, and with it shared leadership, superleadership, and
self-leadership.
The present study assumes a critical position with regard to heroic, leader-centric
approaches to leadership. Not only does it place the attention on followers, it com-
12 2 Literature Review

bines fragments of the New and Old Leadership paradigms with post-heroic
streams from recent academic work. The research is directed at investigating ef-
fects of leadership behavior on followers’ work-related outcomes, taking concepts
of post-heroic leadership into account. The most widely accepted model reflecting
leadership behaviors is the Full-Range Leadership Model developed by Bass and
Avolio (1995). It not only represents transformational behaviors, but also takes a
more holistic view of leadership including transactional and passive behaviors.
Moreover, the research takes follower-centric aspects into account by incorporating
self-leadership into the empirical investigation. To understand the mechanisms of
leadership and self-leadership, related theories of empowering leadership, shared
leadership, and superleadership are explained. As the interaction between leader
and followers involves a relational component, Leader-Member Exchange theory is
presented as an integral part of this study.

2.1.1 Full Range Leadership

Early theories of leadership restrictedly incorporate exchanges between leaders and
subordinates. Proceeding from Burns’ (1978) work on transformational leadership
and recognizing that charismatic leadership might not lead to desired results as the
sole characteristic of successful leaders, new core functions and behavioral aspects
came to inform expectations of modern leadership. With the introduction of trans-
formational leadership, Bass (1985) affected a paradigm shift in the understanding
of effective leadership (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003). The Full
Range Leadership Model (Bass & Avolio, 1995) integrates dimensions of charis-
matic, transformational, contingent reward, management-by-exception (MBE) and
laissez-faire leadership into one single theory and opens up a new era of compre-
hensive leadership research. Bass and Avolio’s (1995) model takes value-intensive
needs of subordinates into account for the first time in the history of leadership the-
ory. Undoubtedly, Full Range Leadership has evolved to one of today’s most dis-
cussed theories in leadership research and might be regarded as an advanced ap-
proach to explaining behavioral relations between leaders and followers in interna-
tional corporations.
The original model comprised four factors, however it was revised after repeated
empirical application. The latest model consists of nine single-order factors ac-
counting for leadership effectiveness, active and passive leadership (Antonakis et
al., 2003). Five transformational leadership factors, three transactional and one pas-
sive leadership factor are encompassed in the model (Figure 2).
2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts 13

Figure 2. The Full Range Leadership Model

effective

Idealized influence
(attributed / behavior)

Inspirational
motivation

Intellectual Transformational
stimulation leadership

Individualized
consideration

passive Contingent reward active

Active management-
by-exception
Transactional
leadership
Passive management-
by-exception

Laissez-faire
Laissez-faire
leadership

ineffective

Source: Bass and Avolio (1995)

Transformational leadership
Literature reviews on Full Range Leadership revealed that more studies have been
published on transformational and charismatic leadership than on any other popular
leadership theory (Furtner, 2010; Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Transformational leader-
ship can be seen as a matter of directed influence belonging to the New Leadership
14 2 Literature Review

paradigm (Furtner & Baldegger, 2013, p. 136). The dimension focuses on proactive
and inspirational components of organizational leadership. Transformational lead-
ers strive to elevate subordinates’ awareness by providing vision and emphasizing
collective interests over self-interest. Furtner (2010) proposes that transformational
leadership carries traits of soft and emotional leadership characteristics.
Transformational leadership as a higher-order factor includes five behavioral sub-
facets: (1) idealized influence (attributed), (2) idealized influence (behavior), (3)
inspirational motivation, (4) intellectual stimulation, and (5) individualized consid-
eration (Bass & Avolio, 1995). The original term for idealized influence was cha-
risma. Therefore, definitions of the facet still include annotations referring to the
early terminology (Antonakis, 2012, p. 266).
Idealized influence (attributed) describes the socialized charisma of leaders, e.g.,
whether followers perceive a leader as powerful and confident, pursuing higher-
order ideals (Antonakis et al., 2003).
Idealized influence (behavior) builds on leaders’ charismatic actions considering
strong inner values and beliefs. Leaders are admired for their extraordinary capabil-
ities and determination (Bass & Riggio, 2006). The main differentiator between
attributed and behavioral idealized influence is the focus entirely on attributions
and perceptions by followers for the first facet, whereas behavioral aspects are de-
termined by observation (Antonakis, 2012). The two dimensions lead in the best
case scenario to identification with the leader.
Inspirational motivation encompasses behaviors that inspire followers by providing
vision and practicing role modeling (Michel, Lyons & Cho, 2011). These result in
the specific engagement of subordinates by sparking enthusiasm and optimism
(Bass & Riggio, 2006). Providing confidence, leaders raise followers’ expectations
to achieve ambitious goals that may have seemed unreachable (Bass, 1985). As
with idealized influence, inspirational motivation is strongly linked to perceptions
of charismatic leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1993).
Intellectual stimulation refers to leaders taking actions that activate subordinates’
logical thinking, strengthen their creative behavior, and encourage them to take on
new perspectives and be more flexible (Antonakis et al., 2003; Michel et al., 2011;
Sosik, Kahai & Avolio, 1998). It is the only non-emotional facet of transformation-
al leadership (Antonakis, 2012, p. 266). The leader raises followers’ awareness of
problems and stimulates them to solve the issues (Bass, 1985, p. 99).
The last component of transformational leadership, individualized consideration,
contains attributes helping followers to reach their potential by providing socio-
2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts 15

emotional support (Bass, 1985; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Leaders pay attention
to subordinates’ individual needs allowing for personal development. Providing
constant support and coaching, followers are encouraged to perform in order to
meet organizational goals. Individualized consideration is characterized by frequent
contact and feedback (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1990).
Early considerations on transformational leadership raised assumptions that leaders
inhibiting strong transformational attributes might be hindered in building relation-
ships and impacting the performance of their followers (Kerr & Jermier, 1978).
Since then, it has been confirmed that transformational leaders are instead the rela-
tionship builders who are associated with high effectiveness and are perceived as
effective by subordinates (Neufeld et al., 2010). Individuals trust transformational
leaders and display a high degree of satisfaction (Hoyt & Blascovich, 2003). Trans-
formational leaders apply mentoring and coaching techniques, encouraging follow-
ers to solve problems creatively and to challenge traditional processes. Effective
leaders tend to use more metaphors, symbols, and imagery-based argumentation
when communicating (Bass, 1985). Fostering personal growth, transformational
leaders augment the relationship between individuals and the team they belong to.
Transformational leaders identify themselves with their work and display a high
degree of self-efficacy which in turn may lead to improved individual performance
(Walumbwa et al., 2008). An earlier study links transformational leadership to
business unit performance, pointing out that leaders must develop transformational
skills in order to lead effectively (Howell & Avolio, 1993). Research suggests that
transformational leaders can stimulate intrinsic motivation in follower behavior and
expect them to perform because of the nature of the task (Kahai & Avolio, 2008).
Those leaders have the power to promote intrinsic value in followers in order to
achieve goals and might in turn foster organizational commitment (Avolio, Zhu,
Koh & Bhatia, 2004). Transformational leaders can guide followers to envision a
better future and to achieve their goals. With their optimistic attitude they give
meaning to followers’ work. Those leaders are further projected to empower people
through their optimism and integrity (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Yet, differentiation
exists between group and individually focused transformational leadership. A study
by Tse and Chiu (2014) discovered that transformational leadership focused on the
individual significantly strengthens creativity but is less effective in encouraging
organizational citizenship behavior. Conversely, citizenship behavior is enhanced
when transformational leadership is directed to the group.
Results of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
(GLOBE) Research Program initiated by Robert House in 1991 indicate that out-
standing leaders display characteristics associated with transformational leadership,
16 2 Literature Review

such as being trustworthy and honest, and showing integrity. Being dynamic, deci-
sive, dependable, and a team builder further figured among the highest-ranked at-
tributes (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla & Dorfman, 1999, p. 239).
On the contrary, being dictatorial, asocial, and non-cooperative were viewed as un-
desired features. The researchers’ proposal that numerous characteristics related to
transformational leadership are universally validated as contributing to successful
leadership, were confirmed. Den Hartog et al. (1999) name them as “motive arous-
er, foresight, encouraging, communicative, trustworthy, dynamic, positive, confi-
dence builder and motivational” (p. 250). Furthermore, findings suggest that lead-
ership competence means more than displaying a set of attributes – rather, it de-
notes that adaptation to each individual culture is necessary (Den Hartog et al.,
1999).
Whereas transformational leadership and follower performance have often been the
subject of interest, only little attention has yet been paid to the impact of transfor-
mational leadership behavior on follower leadership potentials (Cole et al., 2009).
In their meta-analysis of the effects of transformational and transactional leadership
on effectiveness, Lowe, Kroeck and Sivasubramaniam (1996) found transforma-
tional leadership to appear more frequently at lower hierarchy levels. Transforma-
tional leadership further revealed higher team effectiveness than transactional lead-
ership (Howell et al., 2005; Lowe et al., 1996). It doesn’t matter whether transfor-
mational leadership is applied in a vertical or shared way; both conditions influence
team effectiveness positively (Pearce & Sims, 2002). Particularly individualized
consideration and charisma were revealed to predict business unit performance
(Howell & Avolio, 1993). Evidence was found that transformational leadership is
also perceived as more efficient by followers than transactional leadership (House
& Shamir, 1993). Mihalcea (2014) discovered particularly attributed idealized in-
fluence and individual consideration to be significantly positively related to subor-
dinates’ performance.
Despite empirically tested direct effects (Birasnav, 2014; Judge & Piccolo, 2004;
Mihalcea, 2014) some scholars searched for underlying indirect effects of trans-
formational leadership on work-related outcomes. One of these studies investigated
the role of positive mood in the leadership-performance relation. Tsai, Chen and
Cheng (2009) highlighted that followers’ positive mood can contribute to a favora-
ble work-performance when transformational leadership is executed. In other
words, it functions as mediator suggesting that followers with a positive mood gen-
erally show an increased task performance. Another study tested for mediation ef-
fects of basic-needs satisfaction and work engagement on the leader-
ship/performance relation. Kovjanic, Schuh and Jonas (2013) articulate that trans-
2.1 Leadership Theories – From Early Stages to Modern Concepts 17

formational leadership is positively linked to followers’ satisfaction of needs for

competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Needs for competence and relatedness
mediated the influence of transformational leadership on work engagement which
in turn led to increased performance quality, quantity, and task persistence. Identi-
fication with the leader further appeared to potentially enhance the influence of
transformational leadership on work performance (Cavazotte, Moreno & Bernardo,
2013).

Transactional leadership
The second higher-order dimension of Full Range Leadership requiring considera-
tion is transactional leadership. The foundations of transactional leadership lie in
expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) and can be allocated to the Old Leadership para-
digm (Furtner & Baldegger, 2013, p. 136). Transactional leadership builds on the
fact that individuals are likely to engage in activities that capitalize on their ex-
pected return for performance. Using reward systems, transactional leadership
seeks to explain the effort-reward relationship (Pearce & Sims, 2002, p. 174).
Whereas transformational leadership places the focus on developing followers,
transactional leadership is characterized by exchange between leaders and follow-
ers (Avolio, 2011). Transactional leaders emphasize a rational exchange process
which is typically characterized by setting clear objectives and monitoring for
achievement.
The transactional leadership dimension includes three first-order factors: (1) con-
tingent reward, (2) active management-by-exception (MBEa), and (3) passive man-
agement-by-exception (MBEp) (Bass & Avolio, 1995). Contingent reward leader-
ship is based on an exchange process between leader and followers. It is considered
an effective and efficient leadership behavior (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Targets are
set with followers which in turn are promised rewards if goals are met. Contingent
rewards can be either transactional or transformational in nature. A reward might
be categorized as transactional when it is materialistic. Psychological rewards, such
as praise, make a contingent reward transformational (Antonakis et al., 2003).
Active management-by-exception describes a facet of transformational leadership
that is characterized by monitoring and control by the supervisor. If required, the
leader may take immediate corrective actions to prevent bigger mistakes. For this
reason, active MBE is considered effective in many situations.
Passive management-by-exception is less effective than active MBE as it strives to
place responsibility in the hands of the follower. Followers are required to make
decisions on their own and have to deal with the consequences. The leader assumes
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Si és tão rica de perolas,
Que com varios chistes pedes
Todo um dia a mesma cousa?

Tu pedindo, e eu negando,
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Ando baldo; perdi a bolsa,
Que são os modos com que
Se despede uma pidona.
 Á ANNICA
OUTRA SIMILHANTE PARDA PEDINDO-LHE UM CRUZADO
PARA PAGAR UNS SAPATOS

ROMANCE

Um cruzado pede o homem,

Annica, pelos sapatos,
Mas eu ponho isso á viola
Na postura do cruzado.

Diz que são de sete pontos,

Mas como eu tanjo rasgado,
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Nem me tiro d’esses trastos:

Inda assim si eu não soubera

O como tens trastejado
Na banza dos meus sentidos,
Pondo-me a viola em cacos:

O cruzado pagaria,
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Busca outros temperilhos,

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Si tens o cruzado, Annica,

Manda tirar os sapatos,
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Quem te curte o cordavão

Porque não te dá sapatos?
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É que hei de pagar o pato?

Que diria quem te visse

No meu dinheiro pizando?
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Ou era besta, ou cavallo.

Pois porque não digam isso,

Leve-me a mim São Fernando,
Si os der, e si tu os calçares,
Leve-te, Annica, o diabo.
De mais, que estou de caminho,
E seria mui grande asno
Estar para dar a sola,
E a ti deixar-te os sapatos.

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Duraveis, que é mais barato.

Fica-te na paz de Deus,

Saudades até quando,
Vem-te despedir de mim,
Porque de hoje a oito parto.
 A UMAS MOÇAS
QUE COSTUMAVAM IR A UMA ROÇA

ROMANCE

Vamos cada dia á roça,

Si é que vai a camarada,
Que ri e folga á franceza,
E pinta á italiana.
Vamos, e fiquemos lá
Um dia ou uma semana,
Que emquanto as gaitas se tocam
Sabe a roça como gaitas.
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Nos fique em tantas jornadas
Cada meia sem palmilha,
E sem sola cada alparca.
Vá Mané, e vá Marcella,
Vá toda a nossa prosapia,
Excepto a que por casar
Não põe pé fóra de casa.
Case e tão casada fique,
Que nem para fazer caca
Jamais o marido a deixe,
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Case, e depois de casar-se
Tanto gema, e tanto paira,
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Case, e tanto se arrependa,
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A via da egreja saiba.
E nós vamos para a roça
Co’nosso feixe de gaitas,
Até ver-me descasada,
Para me rir de quem casa.
 Á MULATA JOANNA GAFEIRA
ESTANDO QUEIXOSA DO POETA A HAVER SATYRISADO

ROMANCE

Não posso cobrar-lhes medo,

Joanna, a vossos focinhos,
Que como sois tão formosa,
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E o desfavor em carinho.
 Á DAMAZIA
OUTRA MULATA QUE CHAMAVA SEU UM VESTIDO QUE
TRAZIA DE SUA SENHORA

ROMANCE

Muito mentes, mulatinha!

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Te ensina a mentir ás claras.
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Collete de chamalote,
E de vara e meia a fralda,
Que fazem oito mil réis,
Que é valor da pobre farda.
Todos sabem que o vestido,
Que em verdes campos se esmalta,
É verdura de algum besta,
Que em tua senhora pasta.
Mas o que é d’ella teu é,
Que é outra que tal jangada,
E talvez por t’o emprestar
Se ficaria ella em fraldas.
Apostemos que não vestes
Outra vez a verde saia!
E nem de a vestires mais
Te ficam as esperanças.
Ora toma o meu conselho,
E vive desenganada,
Que emquanto fores faceira
Não has de ganhar pataca.
 Á UMA DAMA
POR NOME IGNACIA PAREDES

ROMANCE

Quiz ir a festa da Cruz

Ignacia, e faltou-lhe a rede,
Como que foi força ficar
Paredes entre paredes.

Outros dizem que uma amiga

Lhe pediu o manto adrede,
Pela ter emparedada
Todo o dia, em que lhe peze.

Não sei a verdade d’isto,

Sei que eu paguei a patente,
Tendo um dia de trabalho,
Porque de festa lh’o désse.

A saber que estava em casa,

Visitara-a como sempre,
E fizera o que costumam
Casados in facie Ecclesiæ.

Fôra-me pôr á janella,

Porque o calor me refresque,
Fallára co’as Guapas sujas,
Que são limpas guapamente.

Marianna se agastára,
Que tudo escuta e attende,
Por isso diz o adagio:
Manso, que ouvem as paredes.
Sabendo d’este ciume
Foram as Guapas contentes,
Que inda que mulheres feias,
São feias, porém mulheres.

Ignacia se socegára,
Que é moça mansa e alegre,
E com dous mimos se põe,
Sendo Ignacia, uma clemente.

Da sua amiga me queixo,

Que cão de horta me parece,
Pois em todo o dia nunca
Comeu, nem deixou comer-me.

Com Ignacia já não quero

Lançar mais barro á parede,
Que de mui sêcca receio
Que alli meu barro não pegue.

Uma mãe com duas filhas

Na verdade é pouca gente,
Para que eu possa cantar
Prêso entre quatro paredes.

Tres só não fazem prisão,

Porque um triangulo breve,
Que um sino Salmão figura,
Mais enfeitiça que prende.

Mas a parede de Ignacia,

Com ser uma tão sómente,
Como é tão forte e tão rija,
Bastou só para prender-me.
Perdi o ganho essa tarde,
E cuido que para sempre,
Quem m’a pegou uma vez,
Não quero que outra me pegue.

Da Sancta Cruz era a festa,

E a maldicta da Paredes,
Com cruz e sem cruz receio
Me faça calvarios sempre.

Eu perdi moça que agrade,

Ella velho que aconselhe,
Ambos ficámos perdidos,
Quem o vê que o remedeie.
Á UMA MOÇA POR NOME BARBARA
ROMANCE

Babú, como ha de ser isto?

Eu me sinto já acabar,
E estou tão intercadente,
Que não chego té amanha.
Morro da vossa belleza,
E si ella me ha de matar,
Como eu creio que me mata,
Formosa morte será.
Mas seja formosa ou feia,
Si o Deão me ha de enterrar,
Por mais formosa que seja,
Sempre caveira será.
Todos já aqui desconfiam,
Tudo é já desconfiar,
Da minha vida os doutores,
E eu de vosso natural.
Desconfio de que abrande
Vosso rigor pertinaz;
E a minha vida sem cura
Sem duvida acabará;
Porque si estaes incuravel,
E tão sem remedio está
O achaque de não querer-me,
E o mal de querer-me mal:
Que esperança posso eu ter,
Ou que remedio ha capaz,
Si vós sois a minha vida,
E morreis por me matar?
Amor é união das almas
Em conformidade tal,
Que porque estaes sem remedio,
 Por contagio me mataes.
Curai-vos de mal querer-me,
E do fastio em que estaes
A minha triste figura,
Que ao demo enfastiará.
Comei, e seja o bocado,
Que com gosto se vos dá,
Porque em vós convalescendo,
Hei de eu também melhorar.
Assim sararemos ambos,
Porque si vós me enfermaes
Pelo contagio, o remedio
Por sympathia será.
Vós, Babú, viraes-me as costas,
Pois eu faço outro por tal:
Estou ás portas da morte,
A falla me falta já.
Quero fazer testamento,
Mas já não posso fallar,
Que vós por costume antigo
Sempre a falla me quitaes.
Mas testarei por acenos,
Que tudo em direito ha,
E si por louco o não posso,
Posso por louco em amar.
Todos meus bens, si os tivera,
Os deixára a vós não mais;
Mas deixo-vos para outrem,
Que é o mais que posso deixar
Si hei de deixar-vos a vós
Quantos bens no mundo ha,
Em vos deixar a vós mesma,
Arto herdada assim ficaes.
Em suffragios da minha alma
Não gasteis o cabedal,
Que aos vossos rigores feita
Penas não ha de extranhar.
Mas si por minhas virtudes,
E si por vos jejuar,
E si por tantas novenas,
Que á vossa imagem fiz já,
Vos mereço algum perdão
Dos peccados que fiz cá,
Assim em vos perseguir,
Como em vos desagradar:
Com as mãos postas vos peço
Que no vosso universal
Juizo mandeis minha alma
Ao vosso Céu descançar
Não a mandeis ao Inferno,
Que arto inferno passou cá:
Adeus, e apertae-me a mão,
Que eu me vou a enterrar.
 SATYRISA
ALLEGORICAMENTE A VARIOS LADRÕES DA REPUBLICA

ROMANCE

Hontem, Nise, á prima noite

Vi sôbre o vosso telhado,
Assentados em cabido,
Cinco ou seis formosos gatos.
Estava a noite mui clara,
Fazia um luar galhardo,
E porque tudo vos diga,
Estava eu em vós cuidando.
O presidente ou deão,
Na cumieira assentado,
Era um gato macilento,
Barbirruço e carichato.
Os demais em boa ordem,
Pela cumieira abaixo,
Lavandeiros de si mesmos,
Lavavam punhos e rabos.
Tão profundo era o silencio,
Que não se ouvia um miau,
E o deão interrompeu
Dando um mio acatarrado.
Tossiu, tossiu, e não pôde
Articular um miau,
Que de puro penitente
Traz sempre o peito cerrado.
Eis que um gatinho Reinol,
Muito estitico e mui magro,
Relambido de feições,
E de tono afalcetado,
Quiz por primeiro fallar,
 E fallára em todo o caso,
Si outro gato casquiduro
Lhe não sahira aos embargos.
«Eu sou gato de um meirinho,
Disse, que pelos telhados
Vim fugindo a todo o trote
Do poder de um saibam quantos.
Com que venho a concluir
Que servindo a taes dous amos,
Hei de fallar por primeiro,
Porque sou gato de gatos.
Falle, disse o Presidente,
Pois lhe toca por anciano,
E elle tomando-lhe a venia
Foi o seu conto contando.
Em casa d’este escrivão
Me criei com tal regalo,
Que os demais gatos de casa
Eram commigo uns bichanos.
Mas cresci e aborreci,
Porque se cumprisse o adagio
Que official de teu officio
Teu inimigo declarado.
Foi-me tomando tal odio
Porque foi vendo e notando,
Que era eu capaz de dar-lhe
Até no officio um gatazio.
Topou-me em uns entreforros,
E tirando-me porraços,
Eu lhe miava os narizes,
Quando elle me enchia os quartos.
Fugi, como tenho dito,
E me acolhi ao sagrado
De uma vara de justiça,
Que é valhacouto de gatos.
Sahe meu amo aos prendimentos,
E eu fico em casa encerrado
 Por caçador de balcões,
Onde jejuo o trespasso.
Porque em casa de um meirinho,
Nas suas arcas e armarios,
É quaresma toda a vida,
E temporas todo o anno.
Não posso comer ratinhos,
Porque cuido, e não me engano,
Que de meu amo são todos
Ou parentes ou paisanos.
Porque os ratinhos do Douro
São grandissimos velhacos:
Em Portugal são ratinhos,
E cá no Brazil são gatos.
Eu sou gato virtuoso,
Que a puro jejum sou magro:
Não como por não ter que,
Não furto por não ter quando.
E como sobra isto hoje
Para me terem por sancto,
Venho a pedir que me ponham
No calendario dos gatos.»
Acabada esta parlanda,
Muito ethico de espinhaço
Sôbre as moletas das pernas
Se levantou outro gato,
Dizendo: ha annos que sirvo
Na casa de um boticario,
Que a recipe de pancadas
Me tem os bofes purgados.
Queixa-se que lhe comi
Um boião de unguento branco,
E lhe bebi nessa noite
Um cangirão de rhuibarbo.
Diz bem, porque assim passou,
Mas eu fiquei tão passado,
Como de tal solutivo