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ECONOMICS Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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ECONOMICS
Thirteenth Edition

Roger A. Arnold
California State University
San Marcos

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Economics, Thirteenth Edition © 2019, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Roger A. Arnold
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To Sheila, Daniel, and David

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BRIEF CONTENTS

An Introduction to Economics
Part 1 Economics: The Science of Scarcity
Chapter 1 What Economics is About 1 Chapter 20 Consumer Choice: Maximizing Utility and Behavioral
Appendix A Working with Diagrams 25 Economics 489
Appendix B Should You Major in Economics? 34 Appendix E Budget Constraint and Indifference Curve Analysis 513
Chapter 2 Production Possibilities Frontier Framework 41 Chapter 21 Production and Costs 521
Chapter 3 Supply and Demand: Theory 59 Part 8 Product Markets and Policies
Chapter 4 Prices: Free, Controlled, and Relative 95
Chapter 22 Perfect Competition 555
Chapter 5 Supply, Demand, and Price: Applications 116
Chapter 23 Monopoly 585
Chapter 24 Monopolistic Competition, Oligopoly, and Game
Macroeconomics Theory 608
Part 2 Macroeconomic Fundamentals Chapter 25 Government and Product Markets: Antitrust and
Regulation 630
Chapter 6 Macroeconomic Measurements, Part I: Prices and
Unemployment 138 Part 9 Factor Markets and Related Issues
Chapter 7 Macroeconomic Measurements, Part II: GDP and Real
Chapter 26 Factor Markets: With Emphasis on the Labor
GDP 156
Market 650
Part 3 Macroeconomic Stability, Instability, and Fiscal Policy Chapter 27 Wages, Unions, and Labor 675
Chapter 8 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply 181 Chapter 28 The Distribution of Income and Poverty 692
Chapter 9 Classical Macroeconomics and the Chapter 29 Interest, Rent, and Profit 709
Self-Regulating Economy 215
Part 10 Market Failure, Public Choice,
Chapter 10 Keynesian Macroeconomics and Economic Instability:
and Special-Interest Group Politics
A Critique of the Self-Regulating Economy 241
Chapter 11 Fiscal Policy and the Federal Budget 274 Chapter 30 Market Failure: Externalities, Public Goods, and
Asymmetric Information 729
Part 4 Money, The Economy, and Monetary Policy
Chapter 31 Public Choice and Special-Interest Group Politics 758
Chapter 12 Money, Banking, and the Financial System 301
Part 11 Economic Theory-Building and Everyday Life
Chapter 13 The Federal Reserve System 318
Appendix C T he Market for Reserves (or The Federal Chapter 32 Building Theories to Explain Everyday Life: From
Funds Market) 337 Observations to Questions to Theories to Predictions 779
Chapter 14 Money and the Economy 341
Chapter 15 Monetary Policy 371 The Global Economy
Appendix D Bond Prices and the Interest Rate 396 Part 12 International Economics and Globalization
Part 5 Expectations and Growth Chapter 33 International Trade 805
Chapter 16 Expectations Theory and the Economy 399 Chapter 34 International Finance 824
Chapter 17 Economic Growth: Resources, Technology, Ideas,
and Institutions 426 Web Chapters
Part 6 Government and the Economy Chapter 35 The Economic Case For and Against Government:
Chapter 18 Debates in Macroeconomics Over the Role and Effects Five Topics Considered 843
of Government 443 Chapter 36 Stocks, Bonds, Futures, and Options 862
Self-Test Appendix 843
Microeconomics Glossary 869
Index 881
Part 7 Microeconomic Fundamentals
Chapter 19 Elasticity 459 v

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CONTENTS

An Introduction to Economics
Part 1 Economics: The Science of Scarcity

CHAPTER 1: What Economics is About 1


ECONOMICS 24/7
Your Life, 2019–2029 1
Rationing Spots at Yale 5 A Definition of Economics 2
Goods and Bads 2 Resources 2 Scarcity and a Definition of Economics 2
When Is It Too Costly to
Attend College? 8 Key Concepts in Economics 4
Opportunity Cost 4 Opportunity Cost and Behavior 6 Benefits and Costs 6
Can Incentives Make You Decisions Made at the Margin 7 Efficiency 9
Smarter? 12 Does It Matter to You . . . If You Are Efficient or Not? 11
Why Didn’t I Think of That? Economics Is About Incentives 12 Unintended Effects 13 Exchange 14
The Case of Uber and Ceteris Paribus and Theory 16
Airbnb 15 Ceteris Paribus Thinking 16 What Is a Theory? 17
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Theories 19
Economic Categories 20
OFFICE Positive Economics and Normative Economics 20 Microeconomics and
HOURS Macroeconomics 20
Chapter Summary 22
“I Don’t Believe That Key Terms and Concepts 23
Every Time a Person Does
Questions and Problems 23
Something, He Compares
the Marginal Benefits and Working with Numbers and Graphs 24
Costs” 21
APPEnDIx A: WoRKInG WITH DIAGRAMS 25

Slope of a Line 26
Slope of a Line Is Constant 27
Slope of a Curve 27
The 45-Degree Line 27
Pie Charts 29
Bar Graphs 29
Line Graphs 30
Appendix Summary 32
Key Terms and Concepts 32
Questions and Problems 32
vi

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Contents vii

APPEnDIx B: SHOULD YOU MAJOR IN ECONOMICS? 34

Five Myths About Economics and Being an Economics Major 35


What Awaits You as an Economics Major? 37
What Do Economists Do? 38
Places to Find More Information 40
Concluding Remarks 40


ECONOMICS 24/7 CHAPTER 2: PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES FRONTIER FRAMEWORK 41

Deducing Where Sherlock The Production Possibilities Frontier 41


Holmes Was on His The Straight-Line PPF: Constant Opportunity Costs 41 The Bowed-Outward
Production Possibilities (Concave-Downward) PPF: Increasing Opportunity Costs 42
Frontier? 46 Does It Matter to You . . . If the Economy Is at One Point on the PPF Instead
of Another? 44
Studying and Your PPF 50
Law of Increasing Opportunity Costs 45 Economic Concepts in a Production Possibilities
Frontier Framework 46
Specialization and Trade Can Move Us Beyond Our Ppf 51
OFFICE A Simple Two-Person PPF Model 51 On or Beyond the PPF? 52
HOURS Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Manufacturing Jobs 53
Chapter Summary 56
“What Purpose Does the
PPF Serve?” 55 Key Terms and Concepts 57
Questions and Problems 57
Working with Numbers and Graphs 57

24/7 CHAPTER 3: SUPPLY AND DEMAND: THEORY 59


ECONOMICS
What Do the Following What Is Demand? 59
Have in Common? Losing The Law of Demand 60 Four Ways to Represent the Law of Demand 60 Why Does
One’s Temper, Arriving to Quantity Demanded Go Down as Price Goes Up? 61 Individual Demand Curve and
Class Late, and Buying the Market Demand Curve 62 A Change in Quantity Demanded Versus a Change in
Textbook for a Class 62 Demand 63 What Factors Cause the Demand Curve to Shift? 66 Movement Factors
and Shift Factors 68
Are You Buying More Than
Supply 69
You Want to Buy? 85
The Law of Supply 69 Why Most Supply Curves Are Upward Sloping 70 Changes in
“Sorry, But This Flight Has Supply Mean Shifts in Supply Curves 72 What Factors Cause the Supply Curve to Shift? 72
Been Overbooked” 89 A Change in Supply Versus a Change in Quantity Supplied 74
The Market: Putting Supply and Demand Together 75
Supply and Demand at Work at an Auction 75 The Language of Supply and Demand: A
OFFICE Few Important Terms 76 Moving to Equilibrium: What Happens to Price When There Is
HOURS a Surplus or a Shortage? 76 Speed of Moving to Equilibrium 76
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Higher Prices and Buying More 78
“I Thought Prices Equaled
Moving to Equilibrium: Maximum and Minimum Prices 79 The Connection Between
Costs Plus 10 Percent” 90
Equilibrium and Predictions 80 Equilibrium in Terms of Consumers’ and Producers’
Surplus 81
Does It Matter to You . . . If You Pay Equilibrium Prices or Not? 83
What Can Change Equilibrium Price and Quantity? 83 It Is Important to Know Why
the Price Changed: Back to Substitutes and Complements 86 Epilogue: Who Feeds
Cleveland? 87

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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viii Contents

Chapter Summary 91
Key Terms and Concepts 91
Questions and Problems 92
Working with Numbers and Graphs 93

CHAPTER 4: PRICES: FREE, CONTROLLED, AND RELATIVE 95


ECONOMICS 24/7
Price 95
A Price Ceiling in the Price as a Rationing Device 95 Price as a Transmitter of Information 96
Kidney Market 100 Price Controls 97
1973 and 1979 101 Price Ceiling 97
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Price Ceilings and the Value of
What Does Price Have to Money 102
Do with Being Late to Price Floor: Definition and Effects 103
Class? 108
Does It Matter to You . . . If the Demand Curve for Unskilled Labor Is Steep or Not? 105
Obesity and a Soda Two Prices: Absolute and Relative 109
Tax 111 Absolute (Money) Price and Relative Price 109 Taxes on Specific Goods and Relative
Price Changes 110
Does It Matter to You . . . If Something You Buy Is Taxed or Subsidized? 112
OFFICE Chapter Summary 114
HOURS Key Terms and Concepts 114
“I Thought Price Ceilings Questions and Problems 114
Were Good for Consumers” Working with Numbers and Graphs 115
113

CHAPTER 5: SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND PRICE: APPLICATIONS 116


OFFICE Application 1: U-Haul Rates and Demand 116
HOURS Application 2: Subsidizing the ­Consumption of Anything Can Raise its Price 117
“Doesn’t High Demand Application 3: 10 a.m. Classes in College 119
Mean High Quantity Application 4: Why Do Colleges Use GPAs, ACTs, and SATs for Purposes
Demanded?” 134 of Admission? 121
Application 5: Why is Medical Care So Expensive? 122
Application 6: Do You Pay for Good Weather? 124
Application 7: The Price of an Aisle Seat 126
Application 8: College Superathletes 127
Application 9: Easier-to-Obtain Loans and Higher Housing Prices 129
Application 10: Speculators, Price Variability, and Patterns 130
Application 11: Supply and Demand on a Freeway 131
Application 12: Are Renters Better Off? 132
Chapter Summary 135
Questions and Problems 136
Working with Numbers and Graphs 137

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents ix

Macroeconomics
Part 2 Macroeconomic Fundamentals

CHAPTER 6: MACROECONOMIC MEASUREMENTS,


ECONOMICS 24/7 PART I: PRICES AND UNEMPLOYMENT 138

The Beatles at Shea Measuring The Price Level 138


Stadium 144 Using the CPI to Compute the Price Level 138 Inflation and the CPI 140 The Core
PCE Index 141
Who Should Be Considered
Unemployed? 150 Does It Matter to You . . . If Prices Rise or Fall? 142
Converting Dollars from One Year to Another 143
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About House Prices in the Past 145
OFFICE Measuring Unemployment 146
HOURS Who Are the Unemployed? 146 The Unemployment Rate and the Employment
Rate 147 Common Misconceptions about the Unemployment and Employment
“Is There More Than One Rates 147 Reasons for Unemployment 148 Discouraged Workers 148 Types of
Reason the Unemployment Unemployment 149 The Natural Unemployment Rate and Full Employment 150
Rate Will Fall?” 153 Cyclical Unemployment 151
Chapter Summary 154
Key Terms and Concepts 154
Questions and Problems 154
Working with Numbers and Graphs 155

CHAPTER 7: MACROECONOMIC MEASUREMENTS,


ECONOMICS 24/7 PART II: GDP AND REAL GDP 156
Gross Family Product 159
Gross Domestic Product 156
No One Utters the Actual Calculating GDP 156 Final Goods and Intermediate Goods 157 What GDP Omits 157
Number 159 GDP Is Not Adjusted for Bads Generated in the Production of Goods 158 Per-Capita
Money and Happiness 160 GDP 158
The Expenditure Approach to ­Computing GDP for a Real-World Economy 162
1820 168 Using the Expenditure Approach to Compute GDP 163 Common Misconceptions
about Increases in GDP 165
OFFICE The Income Approach to Computing GDP for a Real-World Economy 165
Computing National Income 167 From National Income to GDP: Making
HOURS Some Adjustments 168 Other National Income Accounting Measurements 170
Net Domestic Product 170 Personal Income 170 Disposable Income 170
“Why Do We Use the
Real GDP 171
Expenditure Approach to
Measure Production?” 176
Why We Need Real GDP 171 Computing Real GDP 171 The General Equation for
Real GDP 172 What Does It Mean if Real GDP Is Higher in One Year Than in Another?
172 Real GDP, Economic Growth, and Business Cycles 172
Does It Matter to You . . . In Which Phase of the Business Cycle You Search for a Job? 174
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Economic Growth and
Real GDP 175
Chapter Summary 177
Key Terms and Concepts 178
Questions and Problems 178
Working with Numbers and Graphs 179

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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x Contents

Part 3 Macroeconomic Stability, Instability, and Fiscal Policy

CHAPTER 8: AGGREGATE DEMAND AND AGGREGATE SUPPLY 181


ECONOMICS 24/7
A Way to View the Economy 181
When Would You Want to Aggregate Demand 182
Be Paid in a Currency Other Why Does the Aggregate Demand Curve Slope Downward? 183 An Important Word on
Than U.S. Dollars? 195 the Three Effects 186 A Change in Quantity Demanded of Real GDP Versus a Change
Different Ways to Get to the in Aggregate Demand 186 Changes in Aggregate Demand: Shifts in the AD Curve 187
Same Outcome 205 How Spending Components Affect Aggregate Demand 188 Why Is There More Total
Spending? 189 Factors That Can Change C, I, G, and NX (EX – IM) and Therefore
Your First Job After College Can Change AD (Shift the AD Curve) 189 Can a Change in the Money Supply Change
May Depend on the AD and Aggregate Demand? 194 If Consumption Rises, Does Some Other Spending Component
SRAS Curves 208 Have to Decline? 194
Does It Matter to You . . . If Velocity Falls? 196
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Total Spending, the Money Supply,
OFFICE and Velocity 197
HOURS Short-Run Aggregate Supply 197
Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve: What It Is and Why It Is Upward Sloping 197 What
“What Purpose Does the Puts the “Short Run” in the SRAS Curve? 199 Changes in Short-Run Aggregate Supply:
AD–AS Framework Serve?” Shifts in the SRAS Curve 200 Something More to Come: Peoples’ Expectations 201
210
Putting AD And Sras Together: Short-Run Equilibrium 202
How Short-Run Equilibrium in the Economy Is Achieved 202 Thinking in Terms of
Short-Run Equilibrium Changes in the Economy 203 An Important Exhibit 207
Long-Run Aggregate Supply 207
Going from the Short Run to the Long Run 207 Short-Run Equilibrium, Long-Run
Equilibrium, and Disequilibrium 209
Chapter Summary 211
Key Terms and Concepts 212
Questions and Problems 212
Working with Numbers and Graphs 213
ECONOMICS 24/7
CHAPTER 9: CLASSICAL MACROECONOMICS
AND THE SELF-REGULATING ECONOMY 215
Births, Marriage, and the
Savings Rate in China 219
Unpaid Internships 230 The Classical View 215
Classical Economists and Say’s Law 215 Classical Economists and Interest
If the Economy Is Removing
Rate Flexibility 216
Itself from a Recessionary
Gap, Where Is the Declining Does It Matter to You . . . How Much People Save? 218
Price Level? 236 Classical Economists on Prices and Wages: Both Are Flexible 219
Three States of the Economy 220
Real GDP and Natural Real GDP: Three Possibilities 220 The Labor Market and the
OFFICE Three States of the Economy 222 Common Misconceptions About the Unemployment
HOURS Rate and the Natural Unemployment Rate 223
The Self-Regulating Economy 226
“Do Economists Really What Happens If a Self-Regulating Economy Is in a Recessionary Gap? 226 What’s the
Know What the Natural Connection Between a Slow Recovery and How Quickly or Slowly Wages Adjust? 227
Unemployment Rate What Happens If the Economy Is In an Inflationary Gap? 228 The Self-Regulating
Equals?” 237 Economy: A Recap 228

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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents xi

Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Laissez-Faire and the
Self-Regulating Economy 231
Policy Implication of Believing That the Economy Is Self-Regulating 231 Changes
in a Self-Regulating Economy: Short Run and Long Run 232 A Recap of Classical
Macroeconomics and a Self-Regulating Economy 234 Business-Cycle Macroeconomics
and Economic-Growth Macroeconomics 234
Chapter Summary 238
Key Terms and Concepts 238
Questions and Problems 239
Working with Numbers and Graphs 239

CHAPTER 10: KEYNESIAN MACROECONOMICS AND ECONOMIC


ECONOMICS 24/7 INSTABILITY: A CRITIQUE OF THE SELF-REGULATING ECONOMY 241

The Financial and Economic Questioning the Classical Position and the Self-Regulating Economy 241
Crisis of 2007–2009: Can Keynes’s Criticism of Say’s Law in a Money Economy 242 Keynes on Wage Rates 243
a Housing Bust Lead to an Different Markets, Different Rates of Adjustment 244 Keynes on Prices 247 Is It a
Imploding Economy? 246 Question of the Time It Takes for Wages and Prices to Adjust? 248
Was Keynes a Revolutionary The Simple Keynesian Model 251
in Economics? 249 Assumptions 251 The Consumption Function 251 Consumption and Saving 253
The Multiplier 254 The Multiplier and Reality 255
The Economics of Spring
Does It Matter to You . . . How Much Spring Breakers Spend, the Value of the MPC,
Break 255 or Both? 256
The Simple Keynesian Model in the AD–AS Framework 257
Shifts in the Aggregate Demand Curve 257 The Keynesian Aggregate
OFFICE Supply Curve 257 The Economy in a Recessionary Gap 259 Government’s Role
HOURS in the Economy 260 The Theme of the Simple Keynesian Model 260
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Why Not All Economists Agree on
“Does a Lot Depend on How the Economy Works 261
Whether Wages Are
The Simple Keynesian Model in the TE–TP Framework 262
Flexible or Inflexible?” 270
Deriving a Total Expenditures (TE) Curve 263 Where the Consumption Curve and
the Total Expenditures Curve Cut the Vertical Axis: More on Exhibit 12 264 What Will
Shift the TE Curve? 265 Comparing Total Expenditures (TE) and Total Production (TP)
265 Moving from Disequilibrium to Equilibrium 266 The Economy in a Recessionary
Gap and the Role of Government 268 Equilibrium in the Economy 269 The Theme of
the Simple Keynesian Model 269
Chapter Summary 271
Key Terms and Concepts 271
Questions and Problems 272
Working with Numbers and Graphs 273

CHAPTER 11: FISCAL POLICY AND THE FEDERAL BUDGET 274

The Federal Budget 274


Government Expenditures 274 Government Tax Revenues 275 Budget Projections 276
Budget Deficit, Surplus, or Balance 277 Structural and Cyclical Deficits 278 The Public
Debt 279 Valued-Added Tax 279 Tax Deductions Versus Subsidies 282
Fiscal Policy 283
Some Relevant Fiscal Policy Terms 283 Two Important Notes 283

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xii Contents

Demand-Side Fiscal Policy 283


ECONOMICS 24/7 Shifting the Aggregate Demand Curve 283 Fiscal Policy: Keynesian Perspective (Economy
Is Not Self-Regulating) 284 Crowding Out: Questioning Expansionary Fiscal Policy 285
Lags and Fiscal Policy 287 Crowding Out, Lags, and the Effectiveness of Fiscal Policy 289
Two Cab Drivers on New
Democracy in Deficit 289
Year’s Eve, or Turning Equal
into Unequal 278 Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About the Deficit as a Percentage
of GDP 292
Do Voting Rules Matter to
Supply-Side Fiscal Policy 292
Taxing and Spending? 281
Marginal Tax Rates and Aggregate Supply 293 The Laffer Curve: Tax Rates and Tax
Revenues 293
Does It Matter to You . . . If the Economy Is on the Upward-Sloping or
OFFICE Downward-Sloping Portion of the Laffer Curve? 295
Fiscal Policy and Expectations 296
HOURS Chapter Summary 298
“Is There a Looming Fiscal Key Terms and Concepts 299
Crisis?” 297 Questions and Problems 299
Working with Numbers and Graphs 300

Part 4 Money, the Economy, and Monetary Policy

CHAPTER 12: MONEY, BANKING, AND THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM 301


ECONOMICS 24/7
Money: What Is It and How Did It Come To Be? 301
eBay and Dating Apps Money: A Definition 301 Three Functions of Money 302 From a Barter Economy to
308 a Money Economy: The Origins of Money 302
Economics on the Yellow Does It Matter to You . . . If You Live in a Barter or Money Economy? 304
Brick Road 309 Money, Leisure, and Output 304
Defining the Money Supply 305
M1 305 Money Is More Than Currency 306 M2 306 Where Do Credit Cards
OFFICE Fit In? 306
HOURS Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Money and Gold 307
How Banking Developed 308
“Do We Really Need The Early Bankers 308 The Bank’s Reserves and More 310
Financial Intermediaries?” The Financial System 311
315 Direct and Indirect Finance 312 Adverse Selection Problems and Moral Hazard
Problems 312 The Bank’s Balance Sheet 313 A Bank’s Business: Turning Liabilities
into Assets 313
Chapter Summary 315
Key Terms and Concepts 316
Questions and Problems 316
Working with Numbers and Graphs 317

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Contents xiii

CHAPTER 13: THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM 318


ECONOMICS 24/7
The Structure and Functions of the Federal Reserve System (The Fed) 318
Inside an FOMC Meeting The Structure of the Fed 318 Functions of the Fed 319 Common Misconceptions
320 About the U.S. Treasury and the Fed 321
Some History of the Fed The Money Supply Expansion Process 323
322 A Quick Review of Reserves, Required Reserves, and Excess Reserves 323 The Money
Supply Expansion Process 323
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Money and Currency 327
The Money Supply Contraction Process 327
OFFICE Does It Matter to You . . . If Banks Are Reserve Deficient or Not? 329
HOURS Other Fed Tools and Recent Fed Actions 329
“Can Something I Do End The Required Reserve Ratio 330 The Discount Window and the Federal Funds
Up Changing the Money Market 330 The Fed and the Federal Funds Rate Target 331 What Is Free
Supply?” 333 Banking? 331
Chapter Summary 334
Key Terms and Concepts 334
Questions and Problems 335
Working with Numbers and Graphs 335

APPEnDIx C: The Market For Reserves (or The Federal


Funds Market) 337

The Demand for Reserves 337


The Supply of Reserves 338
Two Different Supply Curves for Reserves 338
The Corridor and Changing the Federal Funds Rate 340

CHAPTER 14: MONEY AND THE ECONOMY 341


ECONOMICS 24/7
Money and the Price Level 341
The California Gold Rush, The Equation of Exchange 341 From the Equation of Exchange to the Simple
or Really Expensive Apples Quantity Theory of Money 343 The Simple Quantity Theory of Money in an AD–AS
347 Framework 344
Grade Inflation: It’s All Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About More Money and Inflation 346
Relative 356 Dropping the Assumptions that V and Q Are Constant 348
Monetarism 349
The Four Monetarist Positions 349 Monetarism and AD–AS 349
OFFICE Does It Matter to You . . . If the AS Curve Is Vertical or Upward-Sloping? 352
HOURS The Monetarist View of the Economy 352
Inflation 353
“What Is the Current One-Shot Inflation 353 Continued Inflation 357 Can You Get Rid of Inflation with
Expected Inflation Rate?” Price Controls? 360
367 Money and Interest Rates 360
Which Economic Variables Does a Change in the Money Supply Affect? 360 The Money
Supply, the Loanable Funds Market, and Interest Rates 361 What Happens to the
Interest Rate as the Money Supply Changes? 365 The Nominal and Real Interest
Rates 366

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xiv Contents

Chapter Summary 367


Key Terms and Concepts 368
Questions and Problems 368
Working with Numbers and Graphs 369

CHAPTER 15: MONETARY POLICY 371


ECONOMICS 24/7
Transmission Mechanisms 371
Who Gets the Money First, The Money Market in the Keynesian Transmission Mechanism 371 The Keynesian
and What Happens to Transmission Mechanism: Indirect 373 The Keynesian Mechanism May Get
Relative Prices? 384 Blocked 374 The Monetarist Transmission Mechanism: Direct 377
Monetary Policy and the Problem of Inflationary and Recessionary Gaps 378
Things May Not Always
Go the Way the Fed Wants
A Different View of the Economy: Patterns of Sustainable Specialization and Trade
385
(PSST) 380
Monetary Policy and the Activist–Nonactivist Debate 381
The Case for Activist (or Discretionary) Monetary Policy 382 The Case for Nonactivist
(or Rules-Based) Monetary Policy 382
OFFICE Nonactivist Monetary Proposals 385
HOURS The Constant-Money-Growth-Rate Rule 386 The Predetermined-Money-Growth-Rate
Rule 386 The Fed and the Taylor Rule 386 Inflation Targeting 387 Nominal GDP
“Does Monetary Policy Targeting 387
Always Have the Same
Does It Matter to You . . . How Much of a Change There Is in the Money Supply? 388
Effects?” 392
A Gold Standard as Monetary Policy and the Value of the Dollar 389
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Predicting Gold Prices 391
Chapter Summary 393
Key Terms and Concepts 394
Questions and Problems 394
Working with Numbers and Graphs 395

APPEnDIx D: Bond Prices and the Interest Rate 396


Appendix Summary 398
Questions and Problems 398

Part 5 Expectations and Growth

CHAPTER 16: EXPECTATIONS THEORY AND THE ECONOMY 399


ECONOMICS 24/7
Phillips Curve Analysis 399
Bubbles and Expectations The Phillips Curve 399 Samuelson and Solow: The ­Americanization of the Phillips
409 Curve 400
The Controversy Begins: Are There Really Two Phillips Curves? 401
Rational Expectations in the
College Classroom 410
Things Aren’t Always as We Think They Are 401 Friedman and the Natural Rate
Theory 401 How Do People Form Their Expectations? 405
The Money Supply, an Rational Expectations and New Classical Theory 406
Increase in Productivity, and Rational Expectations 406 Do People Really Anticipate Policy? 406 Price-Level
What You Think 418 Expectations and the SRAS Curve 407 Expected and Actual Price Levels 411
New Classical Economics and Four Different Cases 411 Comparing Exhibit 9 and 10 416

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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Contents xv

Does It Matter to You . . . If the Money Supply Rises or Falls? 417


OFFICE Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Economists’ Predictions 418
HOURS New Keynesians and Rational Expectations 419
Looking at Things from the Supply Side: Real Business Cycle Theorists 420
“Does New Classical
Chapter Summary 423
Theory Call the Effects of
Fiscal and Monetary Policy Key Terms and Concepts 424
into Question?” 422 Questions and Problems 424
Working with Numbers and Graphs 425

CHAPTER 17: ECONOMIC GROWTH: RESOURCES, TECHNOLOGY,


ECONOMICS 24/7 IDEAS, AND INSTITUTIONS 426

Thinking in Terms of A Few Basics About Economic Growth 426


Production Functions and Do Economic Growth Rates Matter? 426
Equations 433 A Production Function and Economic Growth 428
Economic Freedom and The Graphical Representation of the Production Function 428 From the Production
Growth Rates 439 Function to the LRAS Curve 430
Does It Matter to You . . . At What Rate Technology Advances? 431
Emphasis on Labor 431 Emphasis on Capital 434 Emphasis on Other Resources:
OFFICE Natural Resources and Human Capital 434 Emphasis on the Technology Coefficient
HOURS and Ideas 434
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Economic Growth 435
“What Is the Difference Discovery and Ideas 436 Expanding Our Horizons 436 Institutions Matter 437
Between Business Cycle Chapter Summary 441
Macroeconomics and Key Terms and Concepts 441
Economic Growth
Macroeconomics?” 440 Questions and Problems 442
Working with Numbers and Graphs 442

Part 6 Government and the Economy

CHAPTER 18: Debates in Macroeconomics Over


ECONOMICS 24/7 the Role and Effects of Government 443

If It Sounds Reasonable, Macroeconomics and Government: The Debate 443


Is It Right? If It Sounds Tax Cuts, Tax Revenue, and Budget Deficits 444
Unreasonable, Is It Wrong?
446 The Economy: Self-Regulating or Not? 445
More Government Spending or a Cut in Taxes: Which Gives a Bigger Bang for
the Buck? 445
More Government Spending or a Cut in Taxes: The Size and Scope of Government 447
The Degree of Crowding Out 448
The Politics of Government Spending 449
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About the Economics of a Hurricane 450
Monetary Policy: Rules Versus Discretion 451
Bailouts 451

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xvi Contents

Demand-Side and Supply-Side Views of the Economy and Government Tools


OFFICE for Changing Real GDP 452

HOURS Chapter Summary 456


Key Terms and Concepts 457
“What Kinds of Debates Do Questions and Problems 457
Macroeconomists Have?”
Working with Numbers and Graphs 458
455

MICROECONOMICS
Part 7 Microeconomic Fundamentals

CHAPTER 19: ELASTICITY 459


ECONOMICS 24/7
Elasticity: Part 1 459
Drug Busts and Crime 466 Price Elasticity of Demand 459 Elasticity Is Not Slope 461 From Perfectly Elastic to
Perfectly Inelastic Demand 461 Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue (Total
Elasticity and the Issue of Expenditure) 464 Elastic Demand and Total Revenue 465
“How Much” 468
Elasticity: Part 2 470
When Is a Half-Packed Price Elasticity of Demand Along a Straight-Line Demand Curve 470 Determinants of
Auditorium Better Than a Price Elasticity of Demand 471
Packed One? 469 Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About the Prevalence of Elasticity 474
Price Elasticity of Demand Other Elasticity Concepts 475
and Health Care 472 Cross Elasticity of Demand 475 Income Elasticity of Demand 476 Price Elasticity of
Tuition Hikes at the College
Supply 477 Price Elasticity of Supply and Time 478
or University 473 The Relationship Between Taxes and Elasticity 481
Who Pays the Tax? 481 Elasticity and the Tax 482
House Prices and the
Does It Matter to You . . . If There Are Few or Many Substitutes for the Goods
Elasticity of Supply 480
You Buy? 483
Degree of Elasticity and Tax Revenue 484
OFFICE Chapter Summary 486
Key Terms and Concepts 487
HOURS
Questions and Problems 487
“What Is the Relationship Working with Numbers and Graphs 488
Between Different Price
Elasticities of Demand and
Total 
Revenue?”485 CHAPTER 20: CONSUMER CHOICE: MAXIMIZING UTILITY
AND BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS 489

Utility Theory 489


Utility: Total and Marginal 489 Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility 490
The Solution to the Diamond–Water Paradox 492
Consumer Equilibrium and Demand 494
Equating Marginal Utilities per Dollar 494 Maximizing Utility and the Law of Demand
496 Should the Government Provide the Necessities of Life for Free? 496
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Towns, Pollution Standards, and
Making the Invisible, Visible 498
Behavioral Economics 499

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Contents xvii

Are People Willing to Reduce Others’ Incomes? 499 Is One Dollar Always One
ECONOMICS 24/7 Dollar? 500 Coffee Mugs and the Endowment Effect 501 Does the Endowment
Effect Hold Only for New Traders? 503
The Gym and Diminishing Does It Matter to You . . . If You Are Subject to the Endowment Effect? 503
Marginal Utility 493 The Ultimatum Game—and Facebook, YouTube, and Wikipedia 504
Framing 507 Neuroeconomics 508
How You Pay for Good Chapter Summary 510
Weather 497
Key Terms and Concepts 511
$800 for Sure or $1,000 Questions and Problems 511
with a Probability of 85
percent? An Experiment 500 Working with Numbers and Graphs 512

$40 and Two People: The


 
Ultimatum Game 506 APPEnDIx E: BUDGET CONSTRAINT AND INDIFFERENCE
CURVE ANALYSIS 513

OFFICE The Budget Constraint 513


HOURS What Will Change the Budget Constraint? 513
Indifference Curves 514
“Is There an Indirect
Constructing an Indifference Curve 515
Way of Proving the Law
of Diminishing Marginal The Indifference Map and the Budget Constraint Come Together 518
Utility?” 509 From Indifference Curves to a Demand Curve 519
Appendix Summary 520
Key Terms and Concepts 520
Questions and Problems 520

CHAPTER 21: PRODUCTION AND COSTS 521


ECONOMICS 24/7
Why Firms Exist 521
“He Never Showed Up” 523 The Market and the Firm: Invisible Hand Versus Visible Hand 521 The Alchian-and-
Demsetz Answer 522 Shirking on a Team 522 Ronald Coase on Why Firms Exist 523
High School Students, Staying Markets: Outside and Inside the Firm 524
Out Late, and More 534
Two Sides to Every Business Firm 524
Social Media and Marginal More on Total Cost 525 Accounting Profit Versus Economic Profit 525
Cost 543 Does It Matter to You . . . If You Think in Terms of Only Accounting Profit? 526
Producing a Grade in a Zero Economic Profit Is Not as Bad as It Sounds 527
College Course 544 Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Maximizing Revenue
and Profit 528
Production 529
OFFICE Common Misconception About the Short Run and Long Run 529 Production in the
HOURS Short Run 529 Whose Marginal Productivity Are We Talking About? 531 Marginal
Physical Product and Marginal Cost 531 Average Productivity 534
“What Is the Difference Costs of Production: Total, Average, Marginal 536
Between the Law of The AVC and ATC Curves in Relation to the MC Curve 538 Tying Short-Run
Diminishing Marginal Production to Costs 541 One More Cost Concept: Sunk Cost 542
Returns and Diseconomies Production and Costs in the Long Run 546
of Scale?” 551 Long-Run Average Total Cost Curve 547 Economies of Scale, Diseconomies of Scale,
and Constant Returns to Scale 548 Why Economies of Scale? 549 Why Diseconomies
of Scale? 549 Minimum Efficient Scale and Number of Firms in an Industry 549

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xviii Contents

Shifts In Cost Curves 550


Taxes 550 Input Prices 550 Technology 550
Chapter Summary 551
Key Terms and Concepts 552
Questions and Problems 553
Working with Numbers and Graphs 554

Part 8 Product Markets and Policies

CHAPTER 22: PERFECT COMPETITION 555


ECONOMICS 24/7
The Theory of Perfect Competition 555
The Digital Revolution, A Perfectly Competitive Firm Is a Price Taker 556 The Demand Curve for a Perfectly
Price, and Marginal Competitive Firm Is Horizontal 556 Common Misconceptions about Demand
Cost 567 Curves 557 The Marginal Revenue Curve of a Perfectly Competitive Firm Is the Same
as Its Demand Curve 558 Theory and Real-World Markets 559
How Is High-Quality Land
Like a Genius Software Perfect Competition in the Short Run 560
Engineer? 578 What Level of Output Does the Profit-Maximizing Firm Produce? 560 The Perfectly
Competitive Firm and Resource Allocative Efficiency 560 To Produce or Not to Produce:
That Is the Question 561 Common Misconceptions over the Shutdown Decision 564
The Perfectly Competitive Firm’s Short-Run Supply Curve 565 From Firm Supply Curve
OFFICE to Market (Industry) Supply Curve 565 Why Is the Market Supply Curve Upward
HOURS Sloping? 568
Perfect Competition in the Long Run 568
“Do You Have to Know The Conditions of Long-Run Competitive Equilibrium 569 The Perfectly Competitive
the MR 5 MC Condition Firm and Productive Efficiency 570 Industry Adjustment to an Increase in Demand 571
in Order to Be Successful Profit from Two Perspectives 574
in Business?” 580 Does It Matter to You . . . If There Is Easy Entry into a Market? 575
Industry Adjustment to a Decrease in Demand 576 Differences in Costs, Differences in
Profits: Now You See It, Now You Don’t 576
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Buyers and Sellers 577
Profit and Discrimination 578
Topics for Analysis in the Theory of Perfect Competition 579
Do Higher Costs Mean Higher Prices? 579 Will the Perfectly Competitive Firm
Advertise? 579 Supplier-Set Price Versus Market-Determined Price: Collusion or
Competition? 580
Chapter Summary 581
Key Terms and Concepts 582
Questions and Problems 582
Working with Numbers and Graphs 583

CHAPTER 23: MONOPOLY 585

The Theory of Monopoly 585


Barriers to Entry: A Key to Understanding Monopoly 586 What Is the Difference
Between a Government Monopoly and a Market Monopoly? 586

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Contents xix

Monopoly Pricing and Output Decisions 587


ECONOMICS 24/7 The Monopolist’s Demand and Marginal Revenue 588 The Monopolist’s Demand Curve
and Marginal ­Revenue Curve Are Not the Same 589 Price and Output for a Profit-
Maximizing Monopolist 589 Comparing the Demand Curve in Perfect Competition
Monopoly and the Boston
with the Demand Curve in Monopoly 591 If a Firm Maximizes Revenue, Does It
Tea Party 587
Automatically Maximize Profit Too? 591
Religion and Monopoly 598 Perfect Competition and Monopoly 592
One for $40 or Two for $70 Price, Marginal Revenue, and Marginal Cost 592 Monopoly, Perfect Competition,
600 and Consumers’ Surplus 592 Monopoly or Nothing? 594
The Case Against Monopoly 595
Do Colleges and Universities The Deadweight Loss of Monopoly 595
Price Discriminate? 602
Does It Matter to You . . . If There Is a Deadweight Loss of Monopoly Triangle? 596
Buying a Computer and Rent Seeking 596 X-Inefficiency 597
Getting a Printer for Price Discrimination 598
$100 Less Than the Retail Types of Price Discrimination 599 Why a Monopolist Wants to Price Discriminate 599
Price 604 Conditions of Price Discrimination 599
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Price Discrimination 600
Moving to P 5 MC Through Price Discrimination 601 Coupons and Price
OFFICE Discrimination 603
HOURS Chapter Summary 605
“Does the Single-Price Key Terms and Concepts 606
Monopolist Lower Price Questions and Problems 606
Only on the Additional Working with Numbers and Graphs 607
Unit?” 605

CHAPTER 24: MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION, OLIGOPOLY,


ECONOMICS 24/7 AND GAME THEORY 608

The People Wear Prada 612 The Theory of Monopolistic Competition 608
The Monopolistic Competitor’s Demand Curve 609 The Relationship between Price and
How Is a New Year’s
Marginal Revenue for a Monopolistic Competitor 609 Output, Price, and
Resolution Like a Cartel
Marginal Cost for the Monopolistic Competitor 609 Will There Be Profits in
Agreement? 617
the Long Run? 609 Excess Capacity: What Is It, and Is It “Good” or “Bad”? 610
The Monopolistic Competitor and Two Types of Efficiency 612
Oligopoly: Assumptions and Real-World Behavior 613
The Concentration Ratio 613
OFFICE Price and Output Under the Cartel Theory 614
HOURS The Cartel Theory 614
Game Theory, Oligopoly, and Contestable Markets 617
“Are Firms (as Sellers) Price Prisoner’s Dilemma 618 Oligopoly Firms’ Cartels and the Prisoner’s Dilemma 620
Takers or Price Searchers?” Are Markets Contestable? 621 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions and Efficiency 622
627
A Review of Market Structures 622
Applications of Game Theory 623
Grades and Partying 623
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Grade Inflation 625
The Arms Race 626 Speed Limit Laws 626
Chapter Summary 628
Key Terms and Concepts 629
Questions and Problems 629
Working with Numbers and Graphs 629

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xx Contents

CHAPTER 25: GOVERNMENT AND ­PRODUCT ­MARKETS:


ECONOMICS 24/7
ANTITRUST AND REGULATION 630

Thomas Edison and Antitrust 630


Hollywood 632 Antitrust Acts 631 Unsettled Points in Antitrust Policy 633 Antitrust and Mergers 635
Common Misconceptions about Antitrust Policy 636 Network Monopolies 636
Why It May Be Hard to
Dislodge People from Regulation 639
Facebook 637 The Case of Natural Monopoly 639 Regulating the Natural Monopoly 641 Regulating
Industries That Are Not Natural Monopolies 643 Theories of Regulation 643
High-Priced Ink Cartridges
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . .About Regulation 644
and Expensive Minibars 638
The Costs and Benefits of Regulation 645
Does It Matter to You . . . If People Are Aware of Both the Costs and the Benefits of
OFFICE Regulation? 645
HOURS Chapter Summary 647
Key Terms and Concepts 648
“What Is the Advantage of Questions and Problems 648
the Herfindahl Index?” 646
Working with Numbers and Graphs 649

Part 9 Factor Markets and Related Issues

CHAPTER 26: FACTOR MARKETS: WITH EMPHASIS


ECONOMICS 24/7 ON THE LABOR MARKET 650

Why Jobs Don’t Always Factor Markets 650


Move to a Low-Wage The Demand for a Factor 650 Marginal Revenue Product: Two Ways to Calculate It 651
Country 658 The MRP Curve Is the Firm’s Factor Demand Curve 651 Value Marginal Product 652
An Important Question: Is MRP 5 VMP ? 653 Marginal Factor Cost: The Firm’s Factor
Adam Smith’s Philosopher
Supply Curve 654 How Many Units of a Factor Should a Firm Buy? 655 When There
and Street Porter 664
Is More Than One Factor, How Much of Each Factor Should the Firm Buy? 655
Who Pays the Social The Labor Market 657
Security Tax? 669 Shifts in a Firm’s MRP, or Factor Demand, Curve 657 Market Demand for Labor 659
The Elasticity of Demand for Labor 660
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About the Debate Over the Minimum
OFFICE Wage 660
HOURS Does It Matter to You . . . If the Elasticity of Demand for the Good or Service You
Produce Is High or Low? 662
Market Supply of Labor 662 An Individual’s Supply of Labor 663 Shifts in the Labor
“Why Do Economists Think
Supply Curve 664 Putting Supply and Demand Together 665 Why Do Wage Rates
in Twos?” 672
Differ? 666 Why Demand and Supply Differ among Labor Markets 667 Why Did You
Choose Your Major? 667 Marginal Productivity Theory 668
Labor Markets and Information 670
Screening Potential Employees 670 Promoting from Within 671 Discrimination or an
Information Problem? 671
Chapter Summary 672
Key Terms and Concepts 673
Questions and Problems 673
Working with Numbers and Graphs 674

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents xxi

CHAPTER 27: WAGES, UNIONS, AND LABOR 675


ECONOMICS 24/7
Objectives of Labor Unions 675
Technology, the Price of Employment for All Members 675 Maximizing the Total Wage Bill 676 Maximizing
Competing Factors, and Income for a Limited Number of Union Members 676 Wage–Employment Trade-Off 676
Displaced Workers 681 Practices of Labor Unions 677
Are You Ready for Some Affecting the Elasticity of Demand for Union Labor 677
Football? 687 Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . .About Unions and Wages 678
Affecting the Demand for Union Labor 679 Affecting the Supply of Union Labor 679
Affecting Wages Directly: Collective Bargaining 680 Strikes 682
OFFICE Effects of Labor Unions 682
HOURS The Case of Monopsony 682 Unions’ Effects on Wages 684
Does It Matter to You . . . If Things Are Different in the Short-Run Than
“Don’t Higher Wages in the Long Run? 686
Reduce Profits?” 689 Unions’ Effects on Prices 686 Unions’ Effects on Productivity and Efficiency: Two Views 686
Chapter Summary 689
Key Terms and Concepts 690
Questions and Problems 690
Working with Numbers and Graphs 691

CHAPTER 28: THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME AND POVERTY 692


ECONOMICS 24/7
Some Facts About Income Distribution 692
Statistics Can Mislead If Who Are the Rich and How Rich Are They? 692 The Effect of Age on the Income
You Don’t Know How They Distribution 693 A Simple Equation 695
Are Made 696 Does It Matter to You . . . What Your Educational Attainment Level Is? 697
Measuring Income Equality 697
The Lorenz Curve 697 The Gini Coefficient 699 A Limitation of the Gini
OFFICE Coefficient 700 Common Misconceptions about Income Inequality 700
HOURS Why Income Inequality Exists 701
Factors Contributing to Income Inequality 702 Income Differences: Some Are
“Are the Number of Persons Voluntary, Some Are Not 703
in Each Fifth the Same?” Poverty 704
706 What Is Poverty? 704 Limitations of the Official Poverty Income Statistics 704 Who
Are the Poor? 705 What Is the Justification for Government Redistributing Income? 705
Chapter Summary 707
Key Terms and Concepts 708
Questions and Problems 708
Working with Numbers and Graphs 708

CHAPTER 29: INTEREST, RENT, AND PROFIT 709


ECONOMICS 24/7
Interest 709
Is the Car Worth Buying? 715 Loanable Funds: Demand and Supply 709 The Price for Loanable Funds and the
Investment, Present Value, and Return on Capital Goods Tend to Equality 711 Why Do Interest Rates Differ? 712
Interest Rates 715 Nominal and Real Interest Rates 712 Present Value: What Is Something Tomorrow
Worth Today? 713 Rent 716 David Ricardo, the Price of Grain, and Land Rent 716
Grain Prices and Land The Supply Curve of Land Can Be Upward Sloping 718 Economic Rent and Other
Rent 717 Factors of Production 719 Economic Rent and Baseball Players: Perspective Matters 719

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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xxii Contents

Does It Matter to You . . . If People Compete for Artificial Rents as Opposed to Real
OFFICE Rents? 720
Competing for Artificial and Real Rents 720
HOURS Profit 721
Theories of Profit 721 Profit and Loss as Signals 722
“How Is Present Value Used
in the Courtroom?” 726 Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Profit 723
The Entrepreneur 724
A Market 724 How Can the Entrepreneur Increase Trade? 724 Turning Potential
Trades into Actual Trades 725 A Necessary Condition: Turn Potential Trades into Actual
Trades in a Way Acceptable to Consumers 725 Can Increasing Trades in One Area
Reduce Trades in Another? 725 Uncertainty and the Entrepreneur 725
Chapter Summary 727
Key Terms and Concepts 727
Questions and Problems 728
Working with Numbers and Graphs 728

Part 10 Market Failure, Public Choice, and Special-Interest Group Politics

CHAPTER 30: MARKET FAILURE: EXTERNALITIES, PUBLIC GOODS,


ECONOMICS 24/7 AND ASYMMETRIC INFORMATION 729

An Unintended Effect of Externalities 729


Social Media 733 Costs and Benefits of Activities 729 Marginal Costs and Benefits of Activities 730
Social Optimality, or Efficiency, Conditions 731 Three Categories of Activities 731
Tribes, Transaction Costs,
Externalities in Consumption and in Production 731 Diagram of a Negative
and Social Media 739
Externality 731 Diagram of a Positive Externality 734
“They Paved Paradise and Internalizing Externalities 735
Put Up a Parking Lot” 747 Persuasion 735 Taxes and Subsidies 736 Assigning Property Rights 736
Arriving Late to Class, Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Coming to Class Late 737
Grading on a Curve, and Voluntary Agreements 737 Combining Property Rights Assignments and Voluntary
Studying Together for the Agreements 738 Beyond Internalizing: Setting Regulations 739
Midterm 752 Environmental Policy 740
Method 1: Government Regulation, or Command and Control 741 Method 2: Emission
Taxes 741 Method 3: Tradable Pollution Permits (Cap and Trade) 742 Similarities and
OFFICE Differences Between Emission Taxes and Tradable Pollution Permits 743
HOURS Public Goods: Excludable and Nonexcludable 744
Goods 744 The Free Rider 745
“Doesn’t It Seem Wrong to
Does It Matter to You . . . If There Is a Free-Rider Problem? 746
Let Some Business Firms Pay
Nonexcludable Versus Nonrivalrous 746
to Pollute?” 753
Asymmetric Information 748
Asymmetric Information in a Product Market 748 Asymmetric Information in a Factor
Market 749 Is There Market Failure? 749 Adverse Selection 750 Moral Hazard 751
Chapter Summary 754
Key Terms and Concepts 755
Questions and Problems 756
Working with Numbers and Graphs 757

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents xxiii

CHAPTER 31: PUBLIC CHOICE AND SPECIAL-INTEREST


ECONOMICS 24/7 GROUP POLITICS 758

A Simple-Majority Voting Rule: Public Choice Theory 758


The Case of the Statue in the The Political Market 759
Public Square 761 Moving Toward the Middle: The Median Voter Model 759 What Does the Theory
Economic Illiteracy and Predict? 760
Democracy 765 Voters and Rational Ignorance 763
The Costs and Benefits of Voting 763
Does It Matter to You . . . If You Do Not Vote? 764
OFFICE Rational Ignorance 764
HOURS Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Rational Ignorance 766
More About Voting 767
“Doesn’t Public Choice Paint Example 1: Voting for a Nonexcludable Public Good 767 Example 2: Voting and
a Bleak Picture of Politics Efficiency 768
and Government?” 775 Special-Interest Groups 769
Information and Lobbying 769 Congressional Districts as Special-Interest Groups 770
Public-Interest Talk, Special-Interest Legislation 770 Rent Seeking 771 Bringing About
Transfers 772 Information, Rational Ignorance, and Seeking Transfers 772
Constitutional Economics 774
Chapter Summary 776
Key Terms and Concepts 777
Questions and Problems 777
Working with Numbers and Graphs 778

Part 11 Economic Theory-Building and Everyday Life

CHAPTER 32: BUILDING THEORIES TO EXPLAIN EVERYDAY LIFE: FROM


ECONOMICS 24/7 OBSERVATIONS TO QUESTIONS TO THEORIES TO PREDICTIONS 779

Can Social Media Affect A Different Kind of Chapter 779


Whom a Person Dates? The Process 780
785
Observation/Thought 1: The Birthrates in Various Countries are Different 781
Talking on a Cell Phone The Question 781 The Theory 781 The Predictions 781
in Public 794 A Detour: The Issue of Falsifiability (Refutability) 782
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Theories 782
Observation/Thought 2: The Ethical Code of People Who Live in a Small Town is
OFFICE Different from that of People Who Live in a Large City 783
HOURS The Question 784 The Theory 784 The Predictions 784
Observation/Thought 3: The Closer the Dollar Tuition the Student Pays is to the
“Can Anyone Build Equilibrium Tuition, the More on Time and Responsive University Instructors Will Be for
a Theory?” 802 Office Hours 786
The Question 786 The Theory 786 The Predictions 788
Observation/Thought 4: Criminals Are Not Rational 788
The Question 788 The Theory 788 The Predictions 789 A Detour: Does
Evidence Prove a Theory Correct? 789 Another Detour: After You Have One Theory
That Explains and Predicts, Search for Another 790 A Final Detour: Why Prediction Is
So Important, Or Why Good-Sounding Stories Are Not Enough 791

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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xxiv Contents

Observation/Thought 5: More Students Wear Baseball Caps in Class on Exam Days


Than on Other Days 792
The Question 792 The Theory 792 The Predictions 793
Observation/Thought 6: Houses in “Good” School Districts Are Often More Expensive
than Comparable Houses in “Bad” School Districts 795
The Question 795 The Theory 795 The Predictions 795
Observation/Thought 7: Are People Better Off With or Without Health Care
Vouchers? 796
The Question 796 The Theory 796 The Predictions 797
Observation/Thought 8: People Who Give to Others Often Complain That They
End Up Giving Too Much 797
The Question 797 The Theory 798 The Predictions 800
Does It Matter to You . . . If and How You Are in Someone Else’s Utility Function? 801
Chapter Summary 802
Questions and Problems 804
Working with Numbers and Graphs 804

The Global Economy


Part 12 International Economics and Globalization

CHAPTER 33: INTERNATIONAL TRADE 805


ECONOMICS 24/7
International Trade Theory 805
Dividing the Work 810 How Countries Know What to Trade 806
Does It Matter to You . . . If There Is Always Someone Who Can Do Something Better
Offshore Outsourcing,
Than You? 808
or Offshoring 818
A Common Misconception about How Much We Can Consume 809 How Countries
Know When They Have a Comparative Advantage 809
Hear What and How the Economist Thinks . . . About Common Sense 811
OFFICE Trade Restrictions 811
HOURS The Distributional Effects of International Trade 812 Consumers’ and Producers’
Surpluses 812 The Benefits and Costs of Trade Restrictions 813 Why Nations
“Should We Impose Tariffs if Sometimes Restrict Trade 817
They Impose Tariffs?” 820
Chapter Summary 821
Key Terms and Concepts 822
Questions and Problems 822
Working with Numbers and Graphs 823

CHAPTER 34: INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 824


ECONOMICS 24/7
The Foreign Exchange Market 824
The U.S. Dollar as the Primary The Demand for Goods 825 The Demand for, and Supply of, Currencies 825
Reserve Currency 830
Flexible Exchange Rates 826
Chinese Imports and the The Equilibrium Exchange Rate 826
U.S. Economy 833

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents xxv

Does It Matter to You . . . If the Dollar Depreciates? 827


OFFICE Changes in the Equilibrium Exchange Rate 827 Factors That Affect the Equilibrium
Exchange Rate 828
HOURS
Fixed Exchange Rates 831
“Why Is the Depreciation
Fixed Exchange Rates and Overvalued or Undervalued Currency 832 What Is So
of One Currency Tied to
Bad about an Overvalued Dollar? 834 Government Involvement in a Fixed Exchange
the Appreciation of
Rate System 835 Options Under a Fixed Exchange Rate System 835
Another?” 839 Fixed Exchange Rates Versus Flexible Exchange Rates 837
Promoting International Trade 837 Optimal Currency Areas 837
Chapter Summary 840
Key Terms and Concepts 841
Questions and Problems 841
Working with Numbers and Graphs 842

Web Chapters

CHAPTER 35: The Economic Case for and Against


ECONOMICS 24/7
Government: Five Topics Considered 843

Culture as a Public Economics and Government 843


Good 850 The Economic Case for Government 844
Government Can Remove Individuals from a Prisoner’s Dilemma Setting 844
Externalities 848 Nonexcludable Public Goods 849 The Case for Smaller or Larger
Government 851
OFFICE The Economic Case Against Government 852
HOURS Unintended Effects of Government Actions 852 Government as Transfer Mechanism 853
Economic Growth Versus Transfers 855 Following the Leader in Pushing for Transfers 856
“I’m No Longer Sure What Divisive Society: A Nonexcludable Public Bad 858
I Think” 859 Chapter Summary 859
Key Terms and Concepts 860
Questions and Problems 860
Working with Numbers and Graphs 861

CHAPTER 36: STOCKS, BONDS, FUTURES, AND OPTIONS 862


ECONOMICS 24/7
Financial Markets 862
Are Some Economists Poor Stocks 863
Investors? 867 Where Are Stocks Bought and Sold? 863 The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) 864
How the Stock Market Works 865 Why Do People Buy Stock? 866 How to Buy
$1.3 Quadrillion 872
and Sell Stock 866 Buying Stocks or Buying the Market 867 How to Read the Stock
Market Page 868
Bonds 870
The Components of a Bond 870 Bond Ratings 871 Bond Prices and Yields
(or Interest Rates) 871 Common Misconceptions about the Coupon Rate and Yield
(Interest Rate) 872 Types of Bonds 873 How to Read the Bond Market Page 873
Risk and Return 875

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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xxvi Contents

Futures and Options 875


OFFICE Futures 875 Options 876
HOURS Chapter Summary 879
Key Terms and Concepts 879
“I Have Three Questions.” Questions and Problems 879
878 Working with Numbers and Graphs 880

Self-Test Appendix 843


Glossary 869
Index 881

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
«Per gli edifizj sacri, scrive il medesimo Vitruvio, e specialmente
degli Dei tutelari, o di Giove o di Giunone, o di Minerva, dee
scegliersi il luogo più eminente, da cui si scopra la maggior parte
delle mura: a Mercurio nel foro, o pure, come anche a Iside e a
Serapide, nell’Emporio; ad Apollo e a Bacco presso al teatro; ad
Ercole, quando non vi fossero nè ginnasii, nè anfiteatri, presso al
Circo, a Marte fuori della città e specialmente presso il Campo: a
Venere fuori della porta: questo si trova fin anche stabilito negli
insegnamenti dell’aruspicina etrusca che, cioè, i tempii di Venere,
Vulcano e Marte si abbiano ad alzare fuori delle mura, e questo
acciocchè non si famigliarizzi dentro la città co’ giovani e colle madri
di famiglia la libidine, e tenendo lontana dalle mura la potenza di
Vulcano colle preghiere e co’ sagrificj, restino libere le abitazioni dal
timore d’incendio. La deità di Marte essendo adorata fuori della città,
non vi sarà guerra civile; ma anzi sarà quella difesa da’ nemici e dal
pericolo della guerra» [167].
Giova per altro avvertire come siffatte norme non sieno state sempre
ed esattamente osservate, perchè si vide in Roma stessa il tempio di
Marte nel Foro d’Augusto e quel di Venere nel Foro di Giulio Cesare,
erettogli da Giulio Cesare stesso, che pretendeva discendere dalla
Dea per parte di Julo figliuolo di Enea, e molti templi di Dei malefici
persino erano dentro la città, come quei della Febbre, di Vulcano,
della Mala Fortuna, della Pigrizia e va dicendo.
E così trovasi una tale deviazione dalle regole generali anche in
Pompei, dove il tempio a Venere Fisica non era fuori della città, ma
presso le Porte della Marina e in vicinanza del Forum. E sarebbe
stato invero strano e indecoroso spettacolo che la principale divinità
tutelare non fosse stata ospitata entro le mura.
Gli è anzi a tale riguardo, che derogando un tratto dal vecchio
adagio: ab Jove principium, o, come direbbesi nell’idioma nostro:

Non s’incomincia ben se non da Dio,

mi farò primamente ad occupare del tempio di questa leggiadrissima


Dea Venere Fisica o terrestre, come che mi paja doveroso e della
buona costumanza il consacrare di preferenza le nostre cure alla
signora del luogo.
Nè vi sarà alcuno d’animo sì poco cortese che mi dia torto in grazia
di ciò che si tratti della Dea della bellezza e della voluttà.

Tempio di Venere.

Non v’ha chi non sappia Venere, nata dal seme insanguinato di Celo
fecondato dalle spume dell’Ionio mare, essere stata una delle più
celebri divinità de’ secoli pagani. Se si volesse scrivere una storia
dei suoi fatti e ragione de’ diversi nomi, de’ suoi attributi svariati, del
culto, delle feste a lei consacrate, di tutto che le si riferisce,
sarebbevi materia a più d’un volume: più generalmente essa veniva
riguardata come la Dea della bellezza, la madre dell’Amore e del
Riso, la regina della Gioja, la compagna delle Grazie e de’ Piaceri.
Presiedeva essa alla generazione ed era ad un tempo la protettrice
delle cortigiane.
Delle diverse Veneri di cui si trova memoria, non terrò qui conto che
delle due riconosciute da Platone [168], la Venere Urania o Celeste,
caratterizzata da un diadema sul capo, e la Venere Pandemos,
popolare o publica, ed anche terrestre, appellata Physica dai
Pompejani. Alla prima faceva cenno Ugo Foscolo che può dirsi il
cantore di essa ne’ tempi moderni, come negli antichi della seconda
si direbbe Catullo, ne’ mirabili suoi versi de’ Sepolcri, dove
apostrofando Firenze, dopo averla salutata ispiratrice all’Allighieri del
divin carme, la saluta patria e ispiratrice altresì del Petrarca:

E tu i cari parenti e l’idïoma


Desti a quel dolce di Calliope labbro
Che Amore, in Grecia nudo e nudo in Roma,
d’un velo candidissimo adornando,
Rendea nel grembo a Venere celeste.
Ne’ primi tempi la Venere Pandemos presiedeva alla popolazione;
poscia valse a indicarla la protettrice delle prostitute e veniva
rappresentata assisa su di un becco, simbolo di lussuria e di
impurità, onde l’epiteto a lei di Epitragia, ed ascrivevansi a lei mille
invenzioni di piaceri, e la scoperta d’una infinità di cose che
s’ignoravan dapprima, secondo ne cantò Ovidio:

Mille per hanc artes notæ, studioque placendi


Quæ latuere prius, multa reperta ferunt. [169]

Queste due Veneri erano poi così fra loro distinte, da avere riti e
sacerdoti affatto diversi.
Massime al tempo della decadenza, in cui corrottissimi eransi fatti i
costumi, era in fiore per tutto l’orbe romano il culto a questa ultima
Dea, e feste in di lei onore celebravansi al primo d’aprile, che perciò
dicevasi mese di Venere. Vegliavano le donzelle pel corso di tre notti
consecutive, si dividevano in parecchie bande e in ognuna di queste
si formavano parecchi cori. Quel tempo s’impiegava nel danzare ed
inneggiare in onore della Dea: di che un inno o ritmo antico ci
informa in questi versi:

Jam tribus choros videres


Feriatos noctibus
Congreges inter catervas
Ire per saltus tuos
Floreas inter coronas
Myrteas inter casas [170].

Figuri il lettore quante dovessero poi essere le feste in Pompei dove


Venere Fisica o sensuale, era la Dea principalmente tutelare e quindi
la più venerata.
Il Giornale degli Scavi, al quale collaborano illustri e dotti ingegni, nel
fascicolo di maggio a giugno 1869 publicò una tavola assai
interessante, un dipinto, cioè, trovato nel triclinio di una casa che ha
l’entrata di fronte al lato meridionale del così detto Panteon, e
consiste in una grande fascia a fondo giallo che occupa tutta la
lunghezza di una parete: l’ordine e la distribuzione fornisce l’idea di
una sacra processione, e però la sua descrizione trova qui il suo
posto, ed io la reputo opportuna al lettore, perchè compie il dir mio
intorno al culto di Venere Fisica.
La reco colle parole del chiarissimo E. Brizio, altro de’ più solerti e
dotti scrittori del succitato Giornale, che la illustrò:
«Nel centro sovra tre gradini, si eleva un tempio ornato di colonne
corinzie: ivi nel mezzo, ove è figurata la cella, sta in imponente
atteggiamento la Venere pompeiana cinta la testa di corona murale:
una lunga veste violacea la cuopre fino ai piedi, mentre un mantello
ampio e leggiero, scendendole dalle spalle, le involge tutta la
persona. Solamente le mani rimangono visibili: la destra teneva
senza dubbio un ramo, ora svanito; nella sinistra ha lo scettro, ed
appoggia parte del braccio sovra il timone al suo lato. Due figure
assai più piccole in dimensione le stanno ai fianchi; alla sinistra un
amorino con frigio berretto in capo, coperto di larga tunica ed una
bulla sul petto, poggiato sovra un piedistallo cilindrico sta ritto al
fianco di Venere, tenendosi con la destra allo scettro di lei, mentre
porta nella sinistra lo specchio: dall’altro lato evvi Priapo barbato,
con berretto alla foggia orientale.... Una giovine donzella vestita da
sposa, colla χαλὺπτρα [171] intorno il capo, è in atto di scendere i
gradini del tempio.... la destra nell’atto di discendere l’ha pôrta ad
Ercole, il quale alla sua volta le ha steso la sua.... Più in lontananza
seguita la processione quasi divisa in due parti ed ordinata a vari
gruppi.... Due fanciulli coronati di fiori precedono la comitiva, la prima
tenendo fra le mani un oggetto, sovra cui sono distesi dei panni:
seguono due giovani a pie’ scalzi, involti in tuniche bianche listate di
rosso con larghe maniche: portano, sorretta da due lunghe sbarre,
una base quadrata, sovra cui si alza un grande albero avviticchiato
da un serpe: dietro ad essi poi un gruppo di altri quattro giovani
portan sulle spalle una larga tavola, dove posa un piccol tempio a
colonne. Qui il gran tempio della Venere pompejana interrompe la
processione, la quale si ripiglia dall’altro lato. Viene la prima una
sacerdotessa di Iside, coperta di bianca veste con scarpe pur
bianche ai piedi: ciascun braccio ha circondato da quattro armille ed
ha tre collane intorno al collo e al petto: cammina col braccio destro
sollevato, tenendo in mano il sistro. Vengono poscia due giovani
involti a quanto pare nella toga e portano una tavola con suvvi una
galea d’argento. Per il deperimento dell’intonaco in questa parte,
resta impossibile a determinare l’oggetto collocato sovra un’altra
tavola più ampia, portata da un altro gruppo di quattro persone.
Nudo il torace vien poi dietro il popa reggendo nella destra la scure,
e menando innanzi a sè un corpulento bue pel sacrifizio; lo segue
uno con l’agnello attraverso le spalle. Finalmente chiude la
processione un gruppo di due giovani portanti una κλίνη (sedia)
abbellita di fiori, nel cui ricco sedile mirasi una corona.»
Brizio, riconoscendo in tutta questa rappresentazione di gruppi non
altro che la solennità di una festa del culto di Venere, celebrata col
più grande apparato, crede ravvisarvi l’apoteosi di Ercole, per mezzo
delle sue nozze con Ebe, dopo ultimate le sue famose fatiche.
Un tale dipinto inoltre chiarisce per avventura la ragione per la quale
i Pompeiani avessero a Venere Fisica accordato il primato su tutte
l’altre divinità e l’invocassero propizia ai destini del paese, non già
solo come fautrice di dissolutezza, ma piuttosto, — non altrimenti
che sotto il nome di Venere Fisica veniva adorata nei paesi della
Campania ed in Roma, — quale Dea della fecondità femminile, in
qualità di Dea γαμήλια e γενετυλλίς, dell’amore materiale, cioè, ed
anche del matrimonio.
L’epiteto di Fisica dato alla Dea Pompejana in parecchie iscrizioni,
dice ancora il sullodato Brizio, doveva già persuaderci ad intendere
sotto questo nome di amore, non la celeste e sentimentale
attrazione di due spiriti, bensì il fervido e sensuale congiungimento di
due esseri nell’esuberanza delle loro forze vitali. Considerata sotto
questo aspetto, Venere da divinità dell’amore passava facilmente ad
essere Dea della forza generatrice, del matrimonio e per
conseguenza anche della fecondità femminile: e tale appunto è il
molteplice concetto sotto cui veniva adorata dai Pompejani. Parecchi
monumenti ne rendono testimonianza, ma le allusioni a Venere
come Dea dell’amore sono troppo conosciute, troppo naturali e
troppo frequenti nei dipinti, e specialmente nei graffiti pompejani,
perchè sia necessario di numerare gli esempi: citerò invece una
pittura, sotto alla quale è scritta una formula, che impreca l’ira della
Venere pompejana sovra colui che avesse leso il dipinto: ciò rivela
l’intensità del culto prestato dai Pompejani a questa forza dell’amore,
e quindi a Venere che la simboleggia; poichè non si sapeva rinvenire
pena maggiore da esser inflitta al colpevole che l’ira della Dea. La
fusione della Dea dell’amore con quella del matrimonio, come
sembra di ritrovarla in una iscrizione graffita, ove si dice di una
donzella Methe, che ardentemente (chorde) ama Chrestum [172] e
viene quindi invocata la Venere pompejana, perchè sia propizia ai
loro amori e possano vivere concordi. La mancanza d’ogni illecita
allusione e il dolce augurio di vivere concordi, ci avvicina assai più
all’idea di due sposi, che non a quella di due amanti di ventura. [173]
Il tempio di Venere vedesi in questa città, come più sopra avvertii,
presso il Foro alla sinistra di esso e di fronte alla Basilica; comunque
il chiarissimo Garrucci [174], tanto benemerito illustratore di Pompei,
ponesse pel primo in dubbio avere esso appartenuto a questa Dea,
inclinando piuttosto a credere fosse a lei dedicato l’altro edifizio che
trovasi in capo al Foro nel luogo più elevato e che più comunemente
è detto tempio di Giove, e questo invece, chiamato generalmente di
Venere, opinando sacro a Mercurio, e Maja. Quei dotti uomini che
furono il Nissen [175], il Momsen [176], e l’Overbeck [177], di fronte agli
eruditi argomenti dal Garrucci addotti ne divisero l’opinione; ma il
Brizio li combattè e mi pare vittoriosamente; e pel rinvenimento di
due statue, una di Venere e l’altra di Ermafrodito e per l’erma
marmorea e panneggiata, che ancor oggi vedesi nel peribolo del
tempio e che ritiene di Mercurio, non già come figlio di Maja, ma
come sposo di Venere, e per le sigle della lapide votiva pur trovata T.
D. V. S. interpretate naturalmente Tutrici Deæ voto soluto, Dea
tutelare della città essendo Venere, conchiude riconfermando la
primitiva assegnazione, essere veramente il tempio di Venere.
Esso nella prima architettura del santuario, e per conseguenza di
tutto l’edificio, è quello di un tempio greco che si venne di poi
trasformando, alla severità del dorico stile essendo subentrato
nell’arte il gusto della jonica eleganza, fu mutata la faccia anche alle
colonne, dandosi loro le basi, convertendo ai capitelli la forma,
riempiendo per un terzo le scanalature di stucco e di stucco
spalmando anche i triglifi. Esso è assai vasto e decorato di bei
marmi. Diciotto colonne d’ordine corintio gli girano all’intorno, e
deducesi come esse costituissero un portico coperto in tre lati da un
tetto. Nel Santuario che sorge nel mezzo e di cui si vede la base,
doveva certamente trovarsi la statua della madre di Cupido. Innanzi
ad esso santuario evvi l’altare pei sacrificj e sui due lati leggesi
ripetuta la seguente iscrizione, che ricorda i nomi dei quattro
magistrati che la fecero costruire:
M . PORCIVS . M . F . L . SEXTILIVS . L . F . CN . CORNELIVS . CN . F .
A . CORNELIVS . A . F . IIII VIR . D . D . S . F . LOCI [178]

A destra si osserva una scultura in marmo bianco, raffigurante una


donna elegantemente palliata.
A sinistra su d’una colonna di marmo cipollino leggesi questa
iscrizione:
L . SEPVNIVS . L . F .
SANDILIANVS
M . HERENNIVS . A . F .
EPIDIANVS
DVO . VIR . I . D .
D . S . P . F . C . [179]

Pitture dai vivi colori rappresentanti paesaggi, sontuose ville ed


istorie con figure, alle quali l’artista sovrappose a corpi mingherlini
teste giganti, ornavano le pareti del porticato; ma di esse se ne ha
conservate taluna al Museo di Napoli, dove vennero trasportate, le
altre essendo state dal tempo o assai guaste o affatto distrutte. Fra’
soggetti summentovati erano quelli di Achille che trascina il morto
corpo di Ettore attaccato al suo carro, e Priamo che implora Achille,
spiccati entrambi all’Iliade, ed il primo rammentato altresì dalla
Eneide.
Nella sua dotta dissertazione sulla Venus physica il Brizio afferma e
dimostra come detto tempio di Venere abbia avuto un’origine greca
per l’osservanza che vi si appalesa rigorosa di tutte le leggi dell’arte
greca, e per la sua grande somiglianza coi templi di Pesto, Selinunte
e Metaponto, che seguono le norme dell’antico stile dorico; e
quantunque per le grandi trasformazioni a cui andò soggetto
l’edifizio, non possa dirsi nulla di certo intorno alla sua epoca, ritiene
innegabile che, dopo quello in vicinanza dei teatri nel Foro
triangolare, sia codesto il tempio più antico di Pompei.
Non è da ultimo a passar sotto silenzio l’importante iscrizione che
trovavasi in questo tempio e che fu trasferita al Museo e la quale
suona così:
M . HOLCONIUS . RVFVS . D . V . I . D . TER
C . EGNATIVS . POSTVMVS . D . V . I . D . ITER
EX . D . D . IVS . LVMINVM
OPSTRVENDORVM . HS . ∞ . ∞ . ∞
REDEMERVNT . PARIETEMQVE
PRIVATVM . COL . VEN . COR
VSQVE . AD . TEGVLAS
FACIVND . COERARVNT. [180]

Questa lapide per il cenno che si dà del jus luminum opstruendorum


porse occasione a diverse sentenze di dotti ed archeologi; ma il suo
più probabile senso si è che l’erezione di questo muro venendo a
causare ai continui edifizii privati una grande oscurità, i duumviri
indicati nell’iscrizione ne indennizzavano i proprietarj, dai quali
compravano quel diritto di servitù col prezzo di tremila sesterzj.
Schöne riconosce questo muro in quello all’ovest del tempio [181] e
quivi doveva essersi stabilita la Colonia mandata da Silla, come ne
fanno fede le mura della città per tutto questo lato abbattuto e gli
edifizj costruiti sovra esse, posteriori alla colonizzazione sillana.
Nella parte postica del tempio, in fondo del santuario, a sinistra vuol
essere veduta una cameretta, forse destinata a’ sacerdoti della Dea,
decorata di pitture. A mano manca vi è quella di un Bacco col tirso in
una mano e un vaso dall’altra, e un vecchio Sileno in atto di suonare
la lira: al destro lato invece è praticata una nicchia e poteva essere
un larario, o tabernacolo degli Dei lari.

Tempio di Giove.

Più vasto tempio e di superba architettura è quello che non è di


molto discosto da quello di Venere e che per una bella testa di Giove
che vi si è trovata ed una di Esculapio e di una donna, l’ha fatto
assegnare siccome consacrato al più grande degli Dei. Copriva 434
piedi quadrati, grandissima estensione se si ponga mente alla
angustia degli altri tempj pagani, ed anche a quella degli altri templi
in Pompei ed al costume più generale che si aveva che in essi non
convenisse tutto il popolo, come è pratica nella religione cristiana,
ma solo i sacerdoti e quanti pigliavan parte a’ sacrificj, od alle
matrone, bastando che il popolo deponesse alla soglia le ghirlande e
i doni.
Infatti se l’odierno tempio cristiano in Roma occupa 20,000 metri, il
tempio più grande di Roma antica, cioè quel della Pace, ne
occupava soli 6240; il Panteon ne copre 3182; quello di Giove
Tonante 874; 195 quello della Fortuna Virile; e fuor di Roma, 1426 il
tempio maggiore di Pesto; 636 quello della Concordia ad Agrigento,
e quindi vi tien dietro questo di Giove in Pompei; mentre poi la più
parte de’ templi pagani, potevansi dire semplici fani, come quello di
Iside in Pompei stessa e gli altri, e come quello sacro a Giove
Feretrio in Roma, che, sulla fede di Plinio, non occupava in
lunghezza più di quindici piedi.
A questo tempio di Giove dei Pompejani si ascendeva per un’ampia
gradinata or rovinata, che tutto fa credere fosse fiancheggiata di
statue colossali. Si compone di un vestibolo esastilo che risulta di sei
colonne corinzie di fronte e da quattro dai lati, di una cella
quadrilatera decorata di otto colonne d’ordine jonico per ciascun lato,
onde questo genere di templi aventi colonne ai lati designavasi col
nome di peripteri. Di palmi cinquantanove in lunghezza, e di
quarantaquattro in larghezza, questa cella ha un bel pavimento in
mosaico e le mura dipinte a fresco di un rosso brillante.
Scrive Vitruvio: «Ærarium, carcer, curia foro sunt conjungenda, sed
ita uti magnitudo symmetriæ eorum foro respondeat [182]»: or bene
tali condizioni riscontrandosi in questo edificio, ed al fondo della cella
essendo aperte tre camere fornicate, difese da cancelli di ferro, si
argomenta che fosse questo l’erario publico, per riporvi il denaro
della colonia e gli archivii.
Per una scala a mano manca di queste tre camere si monta ad un
piano superiore, da cui si gode del più bel panorama.
«Le colonne composte di tufo ricoperte di stucco, scrive l’architetto
G. Vinci, sono ridotte in pezzi, gli avanzi di due soldati, che non
vollero abbandonare il posto, ove forse erano di guardia, giacciono
in questo sito: uno di essi era stato schiacciato dall’improvvisa
caduta d’una colonna: una moneta di bronzo ed una visiera si
raccolsero presso di loro» [183].
Finalmente non obblierò la seguente iscrizione, che da questo
tempio in cui fu raccolta or fu portata ad arricchire il Museo:
SP . TVRANNIVS . L . F . SP . N . L . PRON . FAB
PROCVLVS . GELLIANVS .
PRAIF . FAB . PRAIF . CVRATORVM . ALFEI .
TIBERIS . PRAIF . PRO . PR . I . D . IN . VRBE . LAVINI .
PATER . PATRATVS . POPVLI . LAVRENTIS . FOEDERIS
EX . LIBRIS . SIBILLINIS . PERCVTIENDI . CVM . P . R .
SACRORVM . PRINCIPIORVM . P . R . QVIRIT . NOMINISQVE
LATINI . QVAI . APVD . LAVRENTIS . COLVNTVR . FLAM . DIALIS . FLAM
MART . SALIVS . PRAISVL . AVGVR . PONT .
PRAIF . COHORT . GAITVL . TR . MIL . LEC . X .
LOC . D . D . D . [184]

Spiegai altrove che significasse il pater patratus con cui si qualifica


Spurio Turannio, cioè perchè il feciale giurava a nome di tutto il
popolo, pro toto populo patrabat; dirò solo una parola sul significato
dei sacri principii presso i Romani. I sacri principii erano in un campo
di guerra, negli alloggiamenti, e nella castramentazione romana in
cui ad una delle sue vie si dava il nome di principia, e secondo si
spiega dagli archeologi [185], perchè formava il principio
dell’accampamento; onde Plutarco in Galba l’appellò Archea
(Αρχαια) sive initia quæ Romani principia appellant. Era questo un
luogo più sacro e venerabile, perchè qui dal tribuno si rendeva
giustizia, qui si conservavano i vessilli e le aquile, qui sovra le are
castrensi si immolavano i sacrifici e si custodivano le immagini degli
Dei e dei principi, qui si prestava il giuramento e qui finalmente si
reputava un gran sacrilegio commettere il benchè menomo delitto.
Così Cicerone poteva uscire in quella sentenza favellando de’
Principii: Spes libertatis nusquam, nisi in vestrorum castrorum
principiis est [186]. Nel medio evo in Italia il Carroccio tenne luogo de’
Sacri Principi della antichità.

Tempio d’Iside.

In ragione del moltissimo culto che si aveva in Pompei la Dea Iside,


il discorso mi chiama a intrattenermi ora e di essa e del suo tempio,
che si presenta forse più interessante d’ogni altro.
Abbiamo veduto addietro come Roma avesse ospitato quanti numi
stranieri ed accolto quanti riti fossero stati importati dalle genti vinte:
pur qualche volta il Senato romano aveva dovuto interporsi per
frenarne la strabocchevole inondazione non scevra da funeste
conseguenze.
Il Tempio d’Iside in Pompei. Vol. I. Cap. VIII. I Templi.

Infra l’altre, la superstizione egiziana, la più spregevole ed abbietta


di tutte, venne più volte bandita da Roma e dall’Italia; ma Silla, se
per ispirito di devozione o per ragioni d’interesse non saprei dire,
l’aveva ricondotta nel suo ritorno dall’Egitto. Nell’anno di Roma 701,
a cagion d’esempio, il tempio di Iside e di Serapide fu demolito in
questa città per ordine del Senato, portandovi a tale fatto la mano
stessa del Console [187]; ma dopo la morte di Cesare fu riedificato a
spesa del publico erario, perchè lo zelo di fanatismo prevalse ai
freddi e deboli sforzi della politica. Gli esiliati numi dalle sponde del
sacro Nilo tornarono, si moltiplicarono i proseliti, i templi furono
riedificati con maggior lustro ed Iside e Serapide ebbero alfine un
posto fra le romane divinità. Quali ne fossero anzi gli entusiasmi, e
quanto generali, ce lo dicano i seguenti versi di Tibullo:

Nile pater, quænam possum te dicere causa,


Aut quibus in terris occuluisse caput?
Te propter nullos tellus tua postulat imbres.
Arida nec pluvio supplicat herba Iovi.
Te canit, atque suum pubes miratur Osirim
Barbara, Memphitem piangere docta bovem.
Primus aratra manu solerti fecit Osiris,
Et teneram ferro sollecitavit humum.
Primus inexpertæ commisit semina terræ,
Pomaque non notis legit ab arboribus.
Hic docuit teneram palis adjungere vitem,
Hic viridem dura cædere falce comam.
Illi jucundos primum matura sapores,
Expressa incultis uva dedit pedibus.
Ille liquor docuit voces inflectere cantu,
Movit et ad certos nescia membra modos.
Bacchus et agricolæ magno confecta labore
Pectora tristitiæ dissoluenda dedit.
Bacchus et afflictis requiem mortalibus affert,
Crura licet dura cuspide inulta sonent.
Non tibi sunt tristes curæ, nec vultus, Osiri:
Sed chorus, et cantus, et levis aptus amor.
Sed varii flores, et frons redimita corymbis,
Fusa sed ad teneros lutea palla pedes,
Et Tyriæ vestes, et dulcis tibia cantus,
Et levis occultis conscia cista sacris. [188]

Facevasi Iside presiedere singolarmente alla Navigazione ed alla


Medicina; onde si capisce perchè Tibullo nella sua Elegia III del Lib.
I, lamentando la malattia che lo incolse in Corcira, l’odierna Corfù, e
gli aveva vietato seguir Messala, dice a Delia sua amante:

Quid tua nunc Isis mihi, Delia, quid mihi prosunt


Illa tua toties æra repulsa manu?
Quidve, pie dum sacra colis, pureque lavari
Te memini et puro secubuisse toro?
Nunc, Dea, nunc succurre mihi; nam posse mederi
Picta docet templis multa tabella tuis. [190]

Come malato e come viaggiatore per mare, Tibullo aveva più titoli
alla protezione della Dea: quelli infatti che redimevansi da alcuna
grave malattia, o che si erano salvati da naufragio, non mancavano
di consacrare quadri votivi che si sospendevano nel tempio della
Dea, di che fa cenno ne’ surriferiti versi il poeta, e fece dire a
Giovenale:

. . . . Pictores quis nescit ab Iside pasci? [191]

e noi di presente facciamo del resto nè più nè meno davanti agli


altari della Madonna e dei Santi nelle nostre chiese.
Proverà poi l’estensione del culto Isiaco in Roma e le ragioni del
favore che vi aveva ottenuto, il lamento di Properzio per
l’anniversario che ogni anno ad una determinata stagione vi si
faceva delle feste di Iside, nelle quali le donne, colla scusa di un
ritiro di dieci giorni e dieci notti, durante il qual tempo non
ammettevano consorzio d’uomini e neppur de’ mariti, e dormivano
sole nel tempio della Dea, davansi liberamente in braccio ad altri
amanti.

Tristia jam redeunt iterum solemnia nobis:


Cynthia jam noctes est operata decem.
Atque utinam Nilo pereat quæ sacra tepente
Misit matronis Inachis Ausoniis.
Quæ Dea tam cupidos toties divisit amantes,
Quæcumque illa fuit, semper amara fuit. [192]
Anche Giovenale stigmatizza l’abuso di questi riti, chiamando Isiacæ
lenæ (mezzane) queste sacerdotesse, o devote di Iside, che sotto il
manto della religione si davano alla più sfrenata prostituzione.
Augusto stesso, nella sua dimora in Egitto aveva rispettato la
maestà di Serapide, quantunque proibisse nel pomerio di Roma ed
un miglio all’intorno il culto dei numi egizii. Questi per altro finchè
durò il suo regno ottennero voga moltissima, non perduta pur sotto
del suo successore, finchè la giustizia di Tiberio fu tratta, al dir di
Tacito [194], ad usare qualche severità, dalla quale si scostarono i
suoi successori ben presto, e Gibbon è dell’avviso che il sicuro e
pieno stabilimento del culto di questa egizia divinità si possa
attribuire alla pietà della famiglia Flavia [195].
Se tali erano state sotto la republica e sotto i Cesari in Roma le
condizioni del culto isiaco, più fiorenti, nè mai turbate erano state
nella bassa Italia e massime in Pompei. Esercitandovelo sacerdoti
non provenienti dall’Egitto, ma romani e greci, vi avevano fatto tale
un miscuglio di riti superstiziosi che poco del carattere primitivo vi
ritenesse. Nondimeno a tanto fu mantenuto e spinto l’entusiasmo
che le matrone pompejane spacciassero a loro spesa proprj
incaricati in Egitto a pigliare l’acqua del Nilo stesso per le sacre
cerimonie; lo che pur facevano le romane, stando alla testimonianza
di quel verso dì Giovenale:

A Meroe portabat aquas, quæ spargat in ædem


Isidis [196]

e Meroe era tra le più grandi isole del Nilo e città interessante
dell’Africa,
Toccando l’argomento di questo culto, si è invogliati di indagarne le
origini e il vorrei fare, molto più che alcuna idea mi sarebbe
ingenerata che scostandosi dalle ipotesi più generali, le quali
seguendo una interpretazione data a un passo di Erodoto, derivar
vorrebbero la famiglia Egizia dalla Etiopia, avvalorando l’opinione
colla testa della Sfinge delle piramidi, la quale offre i caratteri
distintivi del tipo negro. Io, il carattere dell’architettura principalmente
egizia raffrontando con quello del Messico e Indiano e l’analogia fra i
riti e le istituzioni di un luogo e dell’altro, argomento piuttosto ad una
comune sorgente nell’India; se pure, rammentando quello immenso
fenomeno ricordato da Platone della graduata sparizione di quella
grande Isola che fu l’Atlantide, non si possa con più ragione
congetturare che i popoli che l’abitavano dovendo per necessità
abbandonarla, chi da una parte volgesse e chi dall’altra, gli uni
passando al Messico, gli altri a popolare le terre fecondate dall’onda
sacra del Nilo. La cronaca d’Eusebio appoggierebbe in certo qual
modo codesta ipotesi mia, affermando che a un’epoca assai remota
Etiopi venuti dall’India si sarebbero stabiliti nell’Egitto.
Ma ciò non accenno che di volo: la materia sarebbe vasta, ardua a
trattarsi e superiore alle mie forze ed al tempo che mi è concesso: mi
restringerò piuttosto a fornire sotto brevità alcune nozioni intorno alla
teogonia egiziana.
Il politeismo egizio riducevasi a stretto rigore all’unità; tutti que’ Dei
venendo considerati come altrettante emanazioni d’Amon-Ra,
l’essere increato, immutabile, onnipossente, autore, conservatore ed
anima della natura, costituente una trinità formata di lui stesso, di
Moûth la femmina e la madre, e di Khons il figliuolo nato da essi.
Questa trinità ne creava altre e la continua catena scendeva ben
anco dai cieli e si materializzava sotto forme umane. Ogni regione
dell’universo aveva la sua triade: quella che aveva la direzione della
terra componevasi d’Osiride, d’Iside e di Horo, poi d’Horo, d’Iside e
di Malouli. Il regno di quest’ultima triade aveva immediatamente
preceduto la generazione degli uomini. Ella rappresentava il principio
d’ordine nel mondo, mentre Tifone, fratello e nemico d’Osiride,
rappresentava il principio del male.
«La leggenda egizia — scrive Clavel — raccontava che dopo aver
civilizzato l’Egitto e fondata Tebe, Osiride volle estendere i suoi
beneficj alla terra intera, e che visitò tutti i popoli, che sotto i diversi
nomi le avevano inalzato altari. Ma al suo ritorno, Naphtis sposa e
sorella di Tifone, si invaghì di sua bellezza e rivestendo l’apparenza
d’Iside per ingannarlo si unì a lui e diede alla luce Anubi. Tifone così
oltraggiato, ne concepì un fiero risentimento, tese agguati ad
Osiride, l’uccise e gettò il suo corpo nel Nilo. Iside si mise alla ricerca
della spoglia del proprio sposo, e giunse a rinvenirla, meno gli organi
della generazione, ch’erano stati divorati da un pesce della specie
chiamata fagro. Osiride ritornò dagli inferni, ma nella persona di
Horo suo figlio. Poco a poco crebbe in forza e potenza, assunse il
nome di Serapide e vinse il cattivo principio, che, latente
nell’universo, non cessa di sconvolgerne l’ordine e di produrre ogni
sorta di mali.» [197]
Il citato Clavel spiega nella seguente forma il senso che si asconde

Sotto il velame degli versi strani

della leggenda.
«Tifone è la personificazione delle tenebre e del freddo; Horo il sole
del solstizio d’inverno; Serapide il sole del solstizio d’estate: Osiride
il sole dell’equinozio d’autunno, che perisce sotto i colpi del suo
eterno avversario. Gli organi della virilità sono il phallus, emblema
della fecondità solare. Iside è la luna, sposa e sorella del Re, da cui
ella riceve la influenza e ch’ella segue costantemente nella sua
immensa carriera [198].» Plutarco ci porge del pari identica la chiave
della astronomica allegoria, ed io d’altronde in questa mia opera, pur
d’Ercole parlando, ho chiarito l’allegoria astronomica del pari che si
cela sotto le famose sue gesta; sì che paja che la sapienza degli
antichi sacerdoti nascondesse dei veri sotto tutti i miti, sotto tutte le
leggende della pagana teogonia, nè fossero essi soltanto stranezze
ed ubbie superstiziose.
Le divinità egizie ebbero per simbolo un animale qualunque, ed anzi
questo emblema vivente teneva luogo quasi sempre nei templi della
statua del Dio stesso e riceveva così le adorazioni de’ fedeli. Erodoto
dice che gli Egizi rappresentavano Iside colle corna di bue, forse
come emblema di potenza: Plutarco afferma che Mercurio posò una
testa di bue su quella di Iside invece del diadema che Horo le aveva
levato.
Addetta al culto di questi numi eravi tutta una casta sacerdotale, che
formava la parte sapiente della nazione, consacrata a studiare le
scienze positive, la fisica, l’astronomia, la storia naturale, la
geografia, la medicina; a coltivare la teologia, la filosofia, la
divinazione, occupandosi altresì di architettura, pittura e musica, ed
a raccogliere gli annali e le cronache del proprio paese e dell’altrui.
Essa era investita dell’amministrazione della giustizia, della
riscossione delle imposte, e della disposizione degli impieghi.
Dividevasi in profeti, in comasti e zaconi: i primi eran d’ordine
superiore e vivevano assai sobrii e puri. Il desiderio di conservarsi in
uno stato della più rigorosa purezza, aveva introdotto in mezzo ad
essi il costume della circoncisione, e gli aveva impegnati a vestire
stoffe di lino candidissime, in memoria altresì ch’Iside fosse stata,
come afferma Ovidio, l’introduttrice del lino; onde così vennero
designati da Marziale in un epigramma:

Linigeri, fugiunt calvi, sistrataque turba,


Inter adorantes cum stetit Hermogenes [199].

Malgrado questo, io credo giustificare la qualifica di spregevole e


abbietta superstizione, che ho dato testè alla egiziana, oltre che
coll’autorità di Properzio, già riferita, e colle orgie cui eran pretesto i
riti isiaci, ch’eran pur quelli detti eleusini in Grecia, e che di là in
Roma aveva Claudio derivati [200], pure col seguente passo di
Erodoto.
«Anche i sepolcri di lui, del quale in tale occasione mi saria
sacrilegio confessare il nome, sono in Sais, nel sacrario di Minerva,
dopo il tempio, contigui a tutta la parete di Minerva e nel sacro
terreno, stanno grandi obelischi di pietra e v’ha dappertutto un lago
col bacino incrostato di pietre e ben lavorato in giro, di grandezza,
come parevami, quanto il lago, chiamato in Delo in forma di ruota. In
quel lago fanno di notte la rappresentazione delle passioni di lui, e gli
Egizii le chiamano misterii; ma intorno ad essi, quantunque mi
sappia assai ogni particolarità, sarà non pertanto bello il tacere» [201].
Si han poche nozioni sui misteri di Serapide e Osiride, dice Clavel; si
sa solamente che negli ultimi, si commemorava con un cerimoniale
emblematico il fine tragico d’Osiride, proditoriamente messo a morte
da Tifone.
Per chi sa che in Egitto i misteri d’Iside, la generatrice di tutte le
cose, fossero sempre casti e irreprensibili, perocchè soltanto sotto
allegorie rappresentassero la creazione del mondo e degli esseri, il
destino dell’uomo, l’investigazione della sapienza e la vita futura
delle anime, non potrà rendersi ragione del severo giudizio che di tal
culto i dominatori di Roma portassero così da proscriverlo sì spesso:
ma ogni sua maraviglia cede ove si pensi come in Roma il culto vi
giungesse travestito all’asiatica, molto diverso però dalla egizia ed
anche dall’origine italica [202].
«Presso i Romani, scrive Pietro Dufour nella sua Storia della
Prostituzione [203], come in Asia, tali misteri erano meri pretesti ed
occasioni di disordine d’ogni sorta; la prostituzione singolarmente
v’occupava il primo posto. Ecco perchè il tempio in Roma fosse
distrutto e riedificato per ben dieci volte; ecco perchè il Senato alla
fine non tollerasse le isiache, che per la protezione interessata,
accordata loro da cittadini ricchi e possenti; ecco perchè non ostante
la prodigiosa diffusione del culto d’Iside sotto gli imperatori, gli onesti
s’allontanassero con orrore, e nulla più disprezzassero quanto un
sacerdote d’Iside. Apulejo, nel suo Asino d’Oro, ci fa una ben mite
descrizione di tali misteri, a cui s’era iniziato e non permettevasi di
svelarne i riti segreti; descrive la processione solenne, in cui un
sacerdote porta nelle sue braccia la venerabile effigie della Dea
onnipotente, effigie che nulla ha dell’uccello, nè del quadrupede
nostrale o selvaggio e più non somiglia all’uomo, ma nella stranezza
sua medesima venerabile, e che ingegnosamente caratterizza il
misticismo profondo e l’inviolabil segreto di cui si cinge codesta
augusta religione. Davanti l’effigie, che non era che un phallus d’oro,
cioè l’emblema dell’amore e della fecondità, andava una folla di
gente iniziata d’ogni sesso, età e condizione vestita di lini
bianchissimi; le donne cingevano di veli trasparenti i capelli pregni
d’essenze, gli uomini, rasi sino alla radice de’ capelli, agitavano sistri
metallici. Ma Apulejo serba prudente il silenzio su quanto si faceva
nel santuario del tempio, ove compivasi l’iniziazione a suon di sistri e
piccole campane. Gli scrittori antichi tacquero tutti intorno al soggetto
delle misteriose iniziazioni, che dovevano essere sinonimo di
prostituzione. Gli imperatori stessi non arrossirono di farsi iniziare e
di prendere per ciò la maschera a testa di cane in onore di Anubi
figliuolo di Iside.»
Era quindi questa Dea, ben più di Venere, la regina della
prostituzione sacra a Roma e in tutto il romano impero ed aveva
semplici cappelle dappertutto, al momento della maggior
depravazione dei costumi. Il tempio principale era nel campo di
Marte; le adiacenze, i giardini, i sotterranei d’iniziazione dovevano
essere bene ampii, ascendendo a più migliaja d’uomini e donne gli
iniziati che accorrevano a processione nelle feste isiache.
Di più nel recinto sacro eravi commercio continuo di dissolutezza, al
quale i sacerdoti d’Iside, lordi di ogni vizio e capaci di ogni delitto,
prestavano volentieri l’opera loro. Formavano essi un ben numeroso
collegio, che viveva in una oscena famigliarità; lasciavansi andare a’
traviamenti tutti de’ sensi, nella sfrenatezza delle passioni, ubbriachi
sempre e ripieni di cibo, giravano le vie della città vestiti dei loro lini
macchiati e sudici, colla maschera da muso di cane sulla faccia, ed
in mano il sistro, scrollando il quale chiedevano l’elemosina,
battevano alle porte e minacciavano la collera d’Iside a chi si
rifiutava di farla. Essi esercitavano nello stesso tempo l’infame
mestiere di lenoni, incaricavansi, concorrendo colle vecchie
meretrici, di tutti i negozj amorosi, delle corrispondenze, degli erotici
convegni, dei traffici e delle seduzioni. Il tempio e i giardini erano
asilo ai protetti amanti e agli adulteri da lor travestiti con abiti e veli di
lino. I mariti ed i gelosi non penetravano impunemente in quei luoghi
consacrati al piacere, ove non si vedevano che coppie amorose, ove
non si ascoltavano che sospiri coperti dai suoni dei sistri. Giovenale
— come gli altri poeti che già citai — parla in più luoghi nelle sue
Satire delle pratiche dei santuarj d’Iside. Rammento questi versi
della Satira IX a Nevolo Cinedo:

Nuper enim, ut repeto, fanum Isidis et Ganymedem

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