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Chemistr y
E B B I N G • G A M M O N E B B I N G • G A M M O N
General
General
Chemistr y ELEVENTH EDITION
ELEVENTH EDITION
E B B I N G
•
G A M M O N
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General
Chemistr y ELEVENTH EDI T ION
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P E R I O D I C TA B L E O F T H E E L E M E N T S
Main-Group Elements Main-Group Elements
1 1 Atomic number 18
1A H Symbol 8A
1.008
1 Atomic weight 2
1 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 4.002602
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Transition Metals B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.0121832 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998403164 20.1798
11 12
9 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 8B 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.98976928 24.305 26.9815386 28.085 30.973761999 32.06 35.45 39.948
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 1B 2B
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.078 44.955909 47.867 50.9415 51.9962 54.938044 55.845 58.933194 58.6934 63.546 65.38 69.723 72.631 74.921596 78.972 79.904 83.798
Period
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90584 91.224 92.90637 95.95 (98) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.414 114.818 118.711 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.294
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Lanthanides
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90545197 137.328 178.49 180.94788 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.085 196.966570 200.592 204.38 207.2 208.98040 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Actinides Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
(223) (226) (267) (262) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)
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Inner Transition Metals
Metal
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.90548 140.116 140.90766 144.242 (145) 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92535 162.500 164.93033 167.259 168.93422 173.055 174.9668
Metalloid
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.0377 231.03588 238.02891 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Nonmetal
The 1–18 group labels are recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The group labels below those with
numerals and letters (1A, 2A, etc.) follow the common North American convention, as we do in this text.
A value in parentheses is the mass number of the isotope of the longest half-life.
Permanent names are not yet assigned for elements 113, 115, 117, and 118. These elements are assigned temporary names based on their atomic
numbers. See www.webelements.com for more information.
TA B L E O F AT O M I C N U M B E R S A N D AT O M I C W E I G H T S
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Name Symbol Numbe Weight Name Symbol Numbe Weight
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Chemistry
Steven D. Gammon
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iii
Contents
Essays xv
Preface xvi
A Note to Students xx
About the Authors xxi
Physical Measurements 15
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures 15
1.6 SI Units 18
1.7 Derived Units 21
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method) 25
A Checklist for Review Summary of Facts and Concepts Learning Objectives
● ● ●
Important Terms Key Equations Questions and Problems Self-Assessment and Review
● ● ●
Important Terms Key Equations Questions and Problems Self-Assessment and Review
● ● ●
6 Thermochemistry 182
Understanding Heats of Reaction 183
6.1 Energy and Its Units 184
6.2 First Law of Thermodynamics; Work and Heat 186
6.3 Heat of Reaction; Enthalpy of Reaction 190
6.4 Thermochemical Equations 194
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction 196
A Chemist Looks at Lucifers and Other Matches 197
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction 198
Using Heats of Reaction 202
6.7 Hess’s Law 202
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 206
6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels 210
A Checklist for Review Summary of Facts and Concepts Learning Objectives
● ● ●
● ● ●
Capstone Problems
Contents ix
12 Solutions 401
Solution Formation 402
12.1 Types of Solutions 402
12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process 404
A Chemist Looks at Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 409
12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 410
Colligative Properties 413
12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 413
12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution 420
12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 423
12.7 Osmosis 427
12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions 431
Capstone Problems
Capstone Problems
19 Electrochemistry 636
Half-Reactions 637
19.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions 637
Capstone Problems
Problems
Appendixes A-1
A. Mathematical Skills A-1
B. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-7
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25°C A-7
D. Electron Configurations of Atoms in the Ground State A-12
E. Acid-Ionization Constants at 25°C A-13
F. Base-Ionization Constants at 25°C A-14
G. Solubility Product Constants at 25°C A-15
H. Formation Constants of Complex Ions at 25°C A-16
I. Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C A-16
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Essays
A Chemist Looks at . . .
© Paul Cooklin/Brand X
© Ingram Publishing/
Getty Images
frontiers life science
The Discovery of New Elements 45 Nitrogen Monoxide Gas and Biological Signaling 154
Levitating Frogs and People 256 Human Vision 344
Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 275 Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 409
Gecko Toes, Sticky But Not Tacky 375 Taking Your Medicine 527
The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 437 Coupling of Reactions 624
Seeing Molecules React 482 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 709
Magic Numbers 687 The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from
Oxyhemoglobin 808
Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force
Microscopy 862
© Fuse/Getty Images
© Image Source/Getty
materials
Lasers and CD and DVD Players 226
Images
Superconductivity 731
Buckminsterfullerene—A Molecular Form of Carbon 756
daily life
The Discovery of Nylon 845 The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
Lucifers and Other Matches 197
Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 285
© Image Source/Getty
Instrumental Methods
© imagewerks/
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xv
Preface
I
n the preface to the first edition, we wrote, “Scientists delve into the molecular
machinery of the biological cell and examine bits of material from the planets
of the solar system. The challenge for the instructors of introductory chemistry
is to capture the excitement of these discoveries [of chemistry] while giving stu-
dents a solid understanding of the basic principles and facts. The challenge for the
students is to be receptive to a new way of thinking, which will allow them to be
caught up in the excitement of discovery.” From the very first edition of this text,
our aims have always been to help instructors capture the excitement of chemistry
and to teach students to “think chemistry.” Here are some of the features of the
text that we feel are especially important in achieving these goals.
Clear, Lucid Explanations of Chemical Concepts
We have always placed the highest priority on writing clear, lucid explanations of chem-
ical concepts. We have strived to relate abstract concepts to specific real-world events
and have presented topics in a logical, yet flexible, order. With succeeding editions we
have refined the writing, incorporating suggestions from instructors and students.
Coherent Problem-Solving Approach
With the first edition, we presented a coherent problem-solving approach that in-
volved worked-out Examples coupled with in-chapter Exercises and corresponding
end-of-chapter Problems. This approach received an enormously positive response,
and we have continued to refine the pedagogical and conceptual elements in each
subsequent edition.
In the ninth edition, we revised every Example, dividing the problem-solving
process into a Problem Strategy, a Solution, and an Answer Check. By doing this, we
hoped to help students develop their problem-solving skills: think how to proceed,
solve the problem, and check the answer. This last step is one that is often over-
looked by students, but it is critical if one is to obtain consistently reliable results.
In the tenth edition, we added yet another level of support for students in this
problem-solving process. In every Example, we added what we call the Gaining Mas-
tery Toolbox. We based this Toolbox on how we as instructors might help a student
who is having trouble with a particular problem. We imagine a student coming to our
office because of difficulty with a particular problem. We begin the help session by
pointing out to the student the “big idea” that one needs to solve the problem. We
call this the Critical Concept. But suppose the student is still having difficulty with the
problem. We now ask the student about his or her knowledge of prior topics that will
be needed to approach the problem. We call these needed prior topics the Solution
Essentials. Each Gaining Mastery Toolbox that we have added to an Example begins
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
by pointing out the Critical Concept involved in solving the problem posed in that
Example. Then, under the heading of Solution Essentials, we list the topics the student
needs to have mastered to solve this problem. We hope the Gaining Mastery Toolbox
helps the student in much the way that an individual office visit can. Over several Ex-
amples, these Toolboxes should help the student develop the habit of focusing on the
Critical Concept and the Solution Essentials while engaged in general problem solving.
While we believe in the importance of this coherent example/exercise
approach, we also think it is necessary to have students expand their under-
standing of the concepts. For this purpose, we have a second type of in-chapter
problem, Concept Checks. We have written these to force students to think
about the concepts involved, rather than to focus on the final result or numeri-
cal answer—or to try to fit the problem to a memorized algorithm. We want
xvi
Preface xvii
students to begin each problem by asking, “What are the chemical concepts that
apply here?” Many of these problems involve visualizing a molecular situation,
since visualization is such a critical part of learning and understanding modern
chemistry. Similar types of end-of-chapter problems, the Conceptual Problems,
are provided for additional practice.
A major focus of this edition was to perform a thorough integration of the text with
the host of digital instructional materials available from Cengage Learning, including
the MindTap digital version and the OWLv2 online learning solution. However, of par-
ticular note for this edition is a revision to how each of the Example Problems have been
formatted to provide a clearer path for student learning. Additionally, new Capstone
Problems have been added to a number of chapters. Essays have been added, updated,
and revised to reflect our current understanding of a variety of relevant topics.
Extensive Conceptual Focus
A primary goal of recent editions has been to strengthen the conceptual focus
of the text. To that end we have three types of end-of-chapter problems, Concept
Explorations, Strategy Problems, and Self-Assessment Questions. While we have in-
cluded them in the end-of-chapter material, Concept Explorations are unlike any of
the other end-of-chapter problems. These multipart, multistep problems are struc-
tured activities developed to help students explore important chemical concepts—
the key ideas in general chemistry—and c onfront common misconceptions or gaps
in learning. Often deceptively simple, Concept Explorations ask probing questions
to test student’s understanding. Because we feel strongly that in order to develop a
lasting conceptual understanding, students must think about the question without
jumping quickly to formulas or algorithms (or even a calculator); we have pur-
posely not included their answers in the Student Solutions Manual. As Concept
Explorations are ideally used in an interactive classroom situation, we have refor-
matted them into workbook style in-class handouts with space for written answers
and drawings to facilitate their use in small groups. In the Instructor’s Resource
Manual, we provide additional background on the literature and t heories behind
their development, information on how Steve Gammon has implemented them
into his classroom and suggestions for integration, and a listing of the concepts
(and common misconceptions thereof) that each Concept Exploration addresses.
We recognize a need to challenge students to build a conceptual understanding
rather than simply memorizing the algorithm from the matched pair and then applying
it to a similar problem to get a solution. The Strategy Problems were written to extend
students’ problem-solving skills beyond those developed in the Practice and General
Problems. With this edition, we have nearly doubled the number of these problems. To
work a Strategy Problem, students will need to think about the problem (which might
involve several concepts or problem-solving skills from the chapter), then solve it on
their own without a similar problem from which to model their answer. For this reason,
we have explicitly chosen not to include their answers in the Student Solutions Manual.
On the basis of student feedback, we developed conceptually focused multiple-
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
he or she may have a misconception of the material. In other words, we learn whether
the student has a complete and correct understanding of an important concept.
An Illustration Program with an Emphasis on Molecular Concepts
Most of us (and our students) are highly visual in our learning. When we see some-
thing, we tend to remember it. As in the previous edition, we went over each piece
of art, asking how it might be improved or where art could be added to improve stu-
dent comprehension. We continue to focus on the presentation of chemistry at the
molecular level. The molecular “story” starts in Chapter 1, and by Chapter 2, we
have developed the molecular view and have integrated it into the problem-solving
apparatus as well as into the text discussions. The following chapters continue to
use the molecular view to strengthen chemical concepts. We have introduced elec-
trostatic potential maps where pedagogically relevant to show how electron den-
sity changes across a molecule. This is especially helpful for visually demonstrating
such things as bond and molecular polarity and acid–base behavior.
Chapter Essays Showcasing Chemistry as a Modern, Applicable Science
We continue our A Chemist Looks at . . . essays, which cover up-to-date issues of sci-
ence and technology. We have chosen topics that will engage students’ interest while at
the same time highlight the chemistry involved. Icons are used to describe the content
area (materials, environment, daily life, frontiers, and life science) being discussed. The
essays show students that chemistry is a vibrant, constantly changing science that has
relevance for our modern world. The essay “Gecko Toes, Sticky But Not Tacky,” for
example, describes the van der Waals forces used by gecko toes and their possible ap-
plications to the development of infinitely reusable tape or robots that can climb walls!
Also, with this edition, we continue our Instrumental Methods essays. These es-
says demonstrate the importance of sophisticated instruments for modern chemis-
try by focusing on an instrumental method used by research chemists, such as mass
spectroscopy or nuclear magnetic resonance. Although short, these essays provide
students with a level of detail to pique the students’ interest in this subject.
We recognize that classroom and study times are very limited and that it can be
difficult to integrate this material into the course. For that reason, we include end-
of-chapter essay questions based on each A Chemist Looks at . . . and Instrumen-
tal Methods essay. These questions promote the development of scientific writing
skills, another area that often gets neglected in packed general chemistry courses.
It is our hope that having brief essay questions ready to assign will allow both stu-
dents and instructors to value the importance of this content and make it easier to
incorporate into their curriculums.
Additions and Changes Made in This Edition
●●
Changed formatting of Example Problems to facilitate student learning.
●●
Throughout the text, we adopted the terms atomic weight, molecular weight,
and formula weight in place of corresponding terms atomic mass, and so on.
Throughout the text, we adopted IUPAC periodic table conventions.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
●●
●●
Revisions throughout reflect recent work showing that the d hybrid orbitals are
not dominant in bonding.
●●
Several “A Chemist Looks At” essays, including “Carbon Dioxide Gas and
the Greenhouse Effect,” “Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR),” “Acid Rain,”
“Limestone Caves,” and “Superconductivity,” were updated. New essays on
“The Discovery of New Elements” and “Lithium-Ion Batteries” were added.
●●
The mass spectrometer was added to Figure 3.8.
●●
In Chapter 6, the explanation of conversion factors used in stoichiometry calcu-
lations was clarified and the discussion of the NASA space program updated.
●●
In Chapter 7, figures relating to the electron microscope and scanning tunneling
microscope were updated.
●●
In Chapter 8, the discussion on main-group elements was updated.
Preface xix
●●
In Chapter 9, we improved the discussion of electrostatic potential maps and
the application of formal charge.
●●
In Chapter 10, a new subsection was added explaining the modern view of
bonding in central atoms having more than eight valence electrons.
●●
The discussion of graphite in Chapter 11 was updated to include the recent dis-
covery of graphene, the Nobel Prize for its discovery, and the lubricating ability
of graphite by adsorption of water molecules to the layer structure.
●●
Chapter 18 was revised in several areas to clarify the discussion of the laws of
thermodynamics.
●●
In Chapter 19, major revisions were made to the discussion of commercial vol-
taic cells to include modern battery types.
●●
In Chapter 23, a mention of the “E-Z system” for naming geometric isomers
was added.
Supporting Materials
Please visit www.cengage.com/chemistry/ebbing/generalchemistry11e for informa-
tion about student and instructor resources for this text.
Acknowledgments
The successful revision of a text depends upon the knowledge, skills, and dedication of
a large number of individuals at Cengage Learning. This revision was initiated and led
by Lisa Lockwood. Content developers provide invaluable guidance in performing the
revision. Alyssa White and Peter McGahey were invaluable in this role. Our content
product manager, Teresa Trego, ensured that we had the perfect content asset to meet
our instructional needs. Art direction was provide by Sarah Cole. Her work created the
new interior and cover designs. Ensuring that the 11th edition gets into the hands of
students is our marketing manager, Janet Del Mundo. Product assistance was provided
by Margaret O’Neil. Margaret prepared all of our permission and art logs. The media
developer is Lisa Weber. Lisa works with content developers and vendors to ensure the
seamless integration of technology with the text. Christine Myakovsky, permissions spe-
cialist, worked tirelessly to acquire photo permissions, kept us on track with the photo
budget, and led the photo research team. Our IP project manager, Farah Fard, man-
aged the photo researcher in order to provide the best possible photographic choices.
In addition to those people at Cengage, a number of people from other vendors
were key players in this revision. These include Lynn Lustberg, at MPS Limited. Lynn
was the production manager who ensured that everything came together when preparing
the final product. Vikram Jayabala, at Lumina Datamatics, performed all of the photo
research and permissioning. Our new chemistry photographs were due to the work of
Jean Smolen (chemist) and Melissa Kelly (photographer) at St. Joseph’s University.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
David Shinn, at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, performed the revisions
to end-of-chapter problems and provided new problems. Accuracy reviews and
pre-revision reviews were performed by Don Neu at St. Cloud State University.
Over the numerous editions of the text, we have been grateful for the insights and
suggestions of the reviewers. They have played a critical role in the continuous im-
provements that are a hallmark of this text. For this edition, we would like to give
a special thank you to Mark Blankenbuehler at Morehead State University and
Mathilda Doorley at Southwest Tennessee Community College, who played the
most critical role in the current revision.
Darrell wishes to thank his wife Jean and their children, Julie, Linda, and Russell,
for their continued support and encouragement over many years of writing. Steve
thanks his wife Jodi and their two children, Katie and Andrew, and his parents,
Judy and Dick, for their support and for helping him keep a perspective on the
important things in life.
A Note to Students
H
aving studied and taught chemistry for some years, we are well aware of the
problems students encounter. We also know that students don’t always read
the Preface, so we wanted to remind you of all the resources available to
help you master general chemistry.
Read the book
Each individual learns in a different way. We have incorporated a number of fea-
tures into the text to help you tailor a study program that meets your particular
needs and learning style.
Practice, practice, practice
Problem solving is an important part of chemistry, and it only becomes easier
with practice. We worked hard to create a consistent three-part problem-solving
approach (Problem Strategy, Solution, and Answer Check) in each in-chapter
Example. Try the related Exercise on your own, and use the corresponding end-of-
chapter Practice Problems to gain mastery of your problem-solving skills.
In every Example, we have also added what we call the Gaining Mastery Tool-
box. We based this Toolbox on how we as instructors might help a student who
is having trouble with a particular problem. We imagine a student coming to our
office because of difficulty with a particular problem. We begin the help session by
pointing out to the student the “big idea” that one needs to solve the problem. We
call this the Critical Concept. But suppose the student is still having difficulty with
the problem. We now ask the student about his or her knowledge of prior topics
that will be needed to approach the problem. We call these needed prior topics the
Solution Essentials. Each Gaining Mastery Toolbox that we have added to an Ex-
ample begins by pointing out the Critical Concept involved in solving the problem
posed in that Example. Then, under the heading of Solution Essentials, we list the
topics the student needs to have mastered to solve this problem. We hope the Gain-
ing Mastery Toolbox helps the student in much the way that an individual office
visit can. Over several Examples, these Toolboxes should help the student develop
the habit of focusing on the Critical Concept and the Solution Essentials while
engaged in general problem solving.
Get help when you need it
Don’t hesitate to ask your instructor or teaching assistant for help. You can also
take advantage of the following helpful aids available at your school bookstore or
at www.cengagebrain.com:
The Student Solutions Manual contains detailed solutions to textbook
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
problems.
The Study Guide reinforces concepts and further builds problem-solving skills.
We have put a lot of time and thought into how to help you succeed. We hope
you take advantage of all the technology and resources available with General
Chemistry, Eleventh Edition. Best of luck in your study!
Darrell D. Ebbing
Steven D. Gammon
xx
About the Authors
xxi
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
1 Chemistry
and Measurement
Co n te n t s a n d C o n c ep t s
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
1
2 1 Chemistry and Measurement
c An Introduction to Chemistry
All of the objects around you—this book, your pen or pencil, and the things of nature
such as rocks, water, and plant and animal substances—constitute the matter of the
universe. Each of the particular kinds of matter, such as a certain kind of paper or
plastic or metal, is referred to as a material. We can define chemistry as the science of
the composition and structure of materials and of the changes that materials undergo.
One chemist may hope that by understanding certain materials, he or she will
be able to find a cure for a disease or a solution for an environmental ill. Another
chemist may simply want to understand a phenomenon. Because chemistry deals
with all materials, it is a subject of enormous breadth. It would be difficult to
exaggerate the influence of chemistry on modern science and technology or on our
ideas about our planet and the universe. In the section that follows, we will take a
brief glimpse at modern chemistry and see some of the ways it has influenced
technology, science, and modern thought.
Figure 1.1 c 1 2
Barnett Rosenberg and Cisplatin
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James L. Amos/Getty Images
Science sources
Science sources
The liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) that are used on everything from watches
and cell phones to computer monitors and televisions are an example of an appli-
cation that depends on the special characteristics of materials (Figure 1.3). The
liquid crystals used in these displays are a form of matter intermediate in charac-
teristics between those of liquids and those of solid crystals—hence the name. Many Figure 1.2 m
of these liquid crystals are composed of rodlike molecules that tend to align them-
Molecular models of Tyrian purple
selves something like the wood matches in a matchbox. The liquid crystals are held and aniline Tyrian purple (top) is a
in alignment in layers by plates that have microscopic grooves. The molecules are dye that was obtained by the early
attached to small electrodes or transistors. When the molecules are subjected to an phoenicians from a species of sea
electric charge from the transistor or electrode, they change alignment to point in snail. The dye was eventually synthe-
a new direction. When they change direction, they change how light passes through sized from aniline (bottom). In molecu-
lar models the balls represent atoms;
their layer. When the liquid-crystal layer is combined with a light source and color each element is represented by a par-
filters, incremental changes of alignment of the molecules throughout the display ticular color. The lines between the
allow for images that have high contrast and millions of colors. c Figure 1.4 shows balls indicate that there is a connection
a model of one of the molecules that forms a liquid crystal; note the rodlike shape holding the atoms together.
Liquid crystals and liquid-crystal
displays are described in the essay at
Figure 1.3 c the end of Section 11.7.
An iPad© that uses
a liquid-crystal display Figure 1.4 c
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ont à subir quelque opération. En ce moment, des gauchos sont
occupés à dompter des chevaux sauvages ou, pour mieux dire, des
chevaux indomptés, car, malgré tout le respect dû aux récits des
voyageurs, mes confrères, il n’y a plus de chevaux sauvages dans la
pampa. Chaque troupeau appartient à un propriétaire, qui fait
marquer tous les poulains d’un an sur la cuisse gauche, et si l’animal
vient à être vendu, la marque du vendeur appliquée une seconde
fois, jointe à celle de l’acheteur, constitue un contrat tout aussi formel
que si deux notaires en lunettes y avaient apposé leurs illisibles
signatures.
L’habileté des gauchos dans le terrible exercice que nous avions
sous les yeux est absolument surprenante. C’est une lutte adroite et
brutale en même temps, qui, naturellement, se termine toujours à
l’avantage de l’homme. L’animal a été préparé par un séjour de
quelques nuits à l’entrave, il est déjà un peu fatigué ; on le chasse
alors dans le corral. Le gaucho fait tournoyer son lasso à distance et
le jette dans les jambes de la bête ; le nœud coulant se resserre ; le
cheval, écumant de colère, arrêté court dans ses bonds, fait deux ou
trois culbutes sur lui-même, entraînant parfois le dompteur, qui se
laisse choir comme une masse inerte, pour ne pas culbuter lui-
même et offrir plus de résistance. Le même animal subit plusieurs
fois le lasso, et il est bien rare qu’après une demi-douzaine
d’expériences, qui ne durent jamais plus de vingt minutes, il ne soit
possible alors de lui sangler une selle et de lui passer un licol. Le
plus fort est fait. Le dompteur peut alors le monter. Cette première
course est furibonde ; mais la pauvre bête est devenue incapable de
prolonger longtemps des mouvements aussi désordonnés, que le
gaucho supporte d’ailleurs sans jamais vider les arçons. Il ne faut
plus qu’une course d’une quinzaine de lieues dans la pampa pour
que le cheval soit tout à fait docile.
En résumé, cet exercice est une affaire d’habitude, à laquelle il
faut joindre des qualités d’adresse et de sang-froid que l’homme de
la pampa possède au plus haut degré.
J’ai examiné ce type du gaucho comme un des plus étranges
parmi ceux que présente la famille humaine. Il est entier, complet,
original, et tout ce qu’on m’en a dit me l’a rendu plus intéressant
encore.
Fils d’Espagnol et d’Indien, il est aussi rusé que celui-ci et joue
volontiers de la navaja comme celui-là ; comme tous deux, il aime
par-dessus tout son indépendance ; il se complaît dans son
existence solitaire, saine et rude. C’est lui qui a fait de la pampa
autre chose qu’une plaine inutile. Il en est le véritable souverain, il
l’aime comme le targui aime le désert. Elle n’est rien que par lui.
C’est non seulement sa patrie, mais sa seule patrie possible.
Les défauts du gaucho sont d’être joueur et vaniteux. Cet homme
à demi sauvage, qui passe la plus grande partie de sa vie à lutter
contre les chevaux et les taureaux, aime l’élégance. Les jours de
fête, et surtout les jours de courses, son costume, et le
harnachement de son cheval, surchargé d’ornements en argent,
témoignent de ses goûts de luxe. Cependant, l’idée d’acquérir,
d’économiser ne lui vient pas. La monnaie n’a pour lui que la valeur
d’un désir immédiatement satisfait, l’avenir ne signifie rien. L’horizon
de sa pensée est aussi étroit qu’immense est celui qui s’offre chaque
jour à sa vue. Son cheval, son lasso, voilà ses seuls instruments de
travail, mais d’un travail au grand air, au grand soleil, qui l’enchante
et l’enivre. Il a une femme, des enfants ; quoique bien rarement le
mariage ait pu être enregistré, il reste fidèle à sa femme, qu’il voit
peu et dont il ne s’occupe point. Les garçons commencent à monter
à cheval à quatre ans ; vers dix ans, ils galopent sans crainte et sans
danger sur les chevaux les plus difficiles ; leur éducation est
terminée.
Parfois le gaucho laisse une partie de sa raison dans une
pulperia, sorte de bouge qui est à la fois une auberge, une boutique
et un cabaret ; mais à l’habitude il ne boit que de l’eau et se nourrit
exclusivement de viande sans pain.
Nous avons vu à notre passage à Azul plusieurs types de
femmes, qu’il semble difficile de rattacher, comme celui du gaucho, à
un type unique. Le préjugé de la couleur n’existant nullement ici, on
y trouve le croisement le plus varié entre le sang blanc, le sang
indien et même le sang nègre. En résumé, les hommes nous ont
paru se ressembler beaucoup plus entre eux que les femmes, dont
quelques-unes ont des traits parfaitement réguliers et sont vraiment
belles.
Je reviens à notre aimable Hollandais, qui est décidément un des
notables de la province ; il nous a fait connaître le nombre des têtes
dont il est propriétaire ; je le transcris ici textuellement : 35,000
moutons, 5,000 bœufs et 600 chevaux. Si l’on veut se faire une idée
de ce que représente une telle fortune, il n’y a qu’à compter les
moutons pour 10 francs, les bœufs pour 50 francs et les chevaux
pour 100 francs. C’est le prix que valent ces animaux à Azul. M.
Freers, très au courant de tout ce qui touche à l’industrie pastorale
du pays, nous donne le chiffre total du bétail de la république
Argentine ; il n’est pas moindre de 78 millions de têtes, se
décomposant comme suit : 4 millions de chevaux, 13 millions et
demi de bœufs et de taureaux, 57 millions de moutons, 3 millions de
chèvres, 250,000 mulets et 250,000 porcs. Ces animaux sont
répartis sur un espace de 136,000 lieues carrées de plaines, où le
manque de bois est presque complet. Des trèfles, des herbes
élevées et des chardons constituent la seule végétation que l’on
rencontre avant d’arriver au pied de la formidable barrière des
montagnes. Puisque j’ai cité le total des têtes de bétail de la
république Argentine, je rappellerai en même temps le chiffre relatif
à l’Uruguay qui comprend environ 19 millions de têtes, dont 12
millions de moutons, 6 millions de bœufs et 1 million de chevaux.
Beaucoup de personnes pensent que, de temps immémorial, ces
vastes territoires, jadis occupés par de sauvages tribus d’Indiens,
étaient aussi riches, sinon plus riches, en pâturages, en bestiaux, en
chevaux qu’ils le sont aujourd’hui. Il est assez dans nos coutumes
de langage de représenter l’homme civilisé comme étant venu
exploiter et même piller avidement les terres nouvellement
découvertes. En ce qui concerne la pampa, c’est là plus qu’une
grave erreur, c’est le contraire de la vérité.
Il n’y avait, avant la conquête, c’est-à-dire avant le milieu du XVIe
siècle, ni un cheval, ni un mouton, ni une bête à cornes là où
paissent aujourd’hui tant d’innombrables troupeaux ; bien plus, il n’y
avait même pas de pâturages ; on n’y trouvait qu’une herbe
sauvage, haute et dure, appelée « paja brava » ou « pampa »,
connue des naturalistes sous le nom de gynerium argenteum, et qui
sert en Europe, où elle est assez répandue, à l’ornementation des
jardins. Cette herbe est complètement impropre à la nourriture des
animaux ; aussi a-t-il fallu, dès le début de la colonisation, recourir
aux fourrages venus d’Europe.
Peu à peu, grâce à cette importation, le sol s’est transformé et
les races se sont multipliées. C’est donc un véritable triomphe de
l’homme sur la nature, triomphe apparent, sans doute, favorisé par
la nature elle-même, mais qui a coûté d’immenses efforts, qui a
nécessité de la part des premiers éleveurs une patience et une
persévérance extraordinaires ; triomphe si complet qu’il est peut-être
le plus surprenant et le plus considérable qui ait jamais été remporté.
Tout en écoutant les intéressants détails que nous donne notre
hôte sur cette contrée bizarre, si peu connue en France, nous
sommes rentrés à Azul, enchantés de notre chasse, et le soir, réunis
dans la grande salle de l’hôtel avec les notables du pays, nous
avons savouré le fameux maté, sorte de boisson nationale fort en
usage dans l’Amérique du Sud, infusion faite avec un thé spécial
connu sous le nom de yerba du Paraguay. On l’aspire avec un petit
tube en métal plongé dans une courge sauvage servant de récipient.
En mer, 29 septembre.
En mer, 2 octobre.
Il est midi. Un fort courant marche avec nous. Ce n’est plus une
vitesse de dix nœuds qu’a la Junon, mais bien de quatorze nœuds
et plus. Les falaises à pic qui bordent les rives ont bientôt disparu, et
nous entrons dans un second bassin de forme elliptique, semé de
quelques bancs laissant entre eux un large et facile passage. La
physionomie du pays est à peu près la même, cependant moins
aride. Les falaises, toujours assez basses, sont couronnées de
plaines à peine ondulées ; quelquefois nous passons devant de
simples plages sablonneuses, dont la pente presque insensible
semble se continuer sous les eaux. Par tribord, c’est l’extrémité
méridionale des vastes pampas, qui s’étendent ainsi depuis le pays
des palmiers jusqu’à celui des glaces éternelles ! Mais où ai-je vu
quelques-uns de ces aspects ? En traversant les steppes de la
Hongrie, sur les bords du Danube, entre Pesth et Belgrade.
Un promontoire, qu’on nomme le cap Gregory, marque l’entrée
du second goulet, un peu plus large que le premier. Nous le
franchissons en une demi-heure ; la violence du courant est devenue
très grande, et le commandant fait mettre deux hommes de plus à la
barre du gouvernail. A la sortie du second goulet (il est trois heures
et demie), un passage difficile se présente. Le détroit en ce point a
bien dix milles de large, mais il est barré par un groupe d’îles,
entourées de récifs, auprès desquels les courants portent dans des
directions variées. Plusieurs routes existent pour passer entre ces
dangers ; nous choisissons celle qui est connue sous le nom de
chenal de la Reine, et qui longe de très près l’île de Sainte-
Élisabeth. En ce moment, nous nous dirigeons vers le sud, ayant à
notre droite le massif de la grande presqu’île de Brunswick, qui
s’enfonce comme un coin dans la Terre-de-Feu et donne à la forme
générale du détroit de Magellan celle d’un gigantesque V majuscule.
A quatre heures et demie, les îles, les récifs sont derrière nous ; il
ne reste plus que dix milles à faire pour atteindre le mouillage ;
l’ordre est donné de ralentir, le commandant descend de la
passerelle, et nous allons tous dîner avec un appétit qu’excuse
suffisamment notre station de toute la journée sur le pont, et notre
satisfaction d’avoir si heureusement commencé cette traversée
délicate.
Le soleil était déjà caché derrière de hautes collines boisées,
lorsque nous arrivâmes à Punta-Arenas, capitale de la Patagonie
chilienne… ou argentine, puisque le différend n’a pas encore été
tranché, mais plutôt chilienne, puisque le Chili en a pris possession,
qu’une corvette chilienne y tient station, qu’un médecin chilien a bien
voulu déclarer officiellement que nous n’avions aucune maladie
contagieuse, ce qui nous a permis de faire une visite au gouverneur
de la localité, qui aurait pu être Chilien aussi, mais qui préférait être
Anglais, ce qui est un point sur lequel je ne disputerai pas.
La Junon doit appareiller le lendemain à l’aube ; aussi, malgré la
nuit noire et le froid vif, tout le monde se précipite dans les canots
pour fouler la terre patagonienne. On espère vaguement voir
quelques-uns de ces sauvages géants décrits dans les récits des
premiers explorateurs et contestés par notre siècle prosaïque. On a
aussi quelque curiosité à l’égard du dernier établissement civilisé au
sud du monde. L’officier de la santé a promis son canot pour le
retour des retardataires. En route !
Nous abordons dans l’obscurité au pied d’un petit môle, sur
lequel nous grimpons en nous aidant d’un escalier dépourvu de la
plupart de ses marches. Arrivés sur la plate-forme, nous trébuchons
à travers les rails d’un chemin de fer, qui doit conduire, je pense, à
un dépôt de charbon. Décidément, le progrès ne laisse ici rien à
désirer, qu’un peu d’éclairage des voies publiques. Pendant que nos
marins s’en vont par groupes se… réchauffer dans une petite
maison basse où nombre de flacons scintillent sous les feux d’une
lampe à pétrole, nous nous avançons à travers « la capitale. » Nous
arpentons deux rues, peut-être bien les seules, absolument
désertes, bordées çà et là de maisons en bois, composées d’un
simple rez-de-chaussée. Voici une église, toute petite, plus que
modeste et en bois comme les autres constructions ; voici enfin la
maison du gouverneur, auquel nous sommes autorisés à présenter
nos hommages.