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An interactive approach to
writing essays and research
reports in psychology
FOURTH EDITION | LORELLE BURTON
An interactive
approach to
writing essays and
research reports
in psychology
4TH EDITION
Lorelle J. Burton
Fourth edition published 2018 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton Qld 4064
First edition published 2002

Second edition published 2007
Third edition published 2010
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std
© John Wiley & Sons, Australia 2018
The moral rights of the author has been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Creator: Burton, Lorelle, 1971- author.

Title: An interactive approach to writing essays and
research reports in psychology / Lorelle Burton.
Edition: 4th edition.
ISBN: 9780730359784 (ebook)
Subjects: Academic writing.
Report writing.
Psychology–Authorship.
Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10%
of the pages of this work or — where this work is divided into chapters — one chapter,
whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational
institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the
body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited
(CAL).
Reproduction and Communication for other purposes

Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study,
research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written
permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
Cover image: lenetstan / Shutterstock.com
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
CONTENTS
About the author vi Sentence and paragraph length 37
Acknowledgements vii Using non‐discriminatory language 38
Checklist 40
CHAPTER 1 Key terms 40
Review questions 41
Where to begin 1 Applied activity 42
1.1 Introduction to APA style 2 Acknowledgements 42
Why research is reported 2
1.2 Essays versus research reports 3 CHAPTER 3
Structure of an essay 3
Sections of a research report 3 Critical thinking 43
1.3 Finding the right information 4 3.1 Critical thinking 44
Searching the literature 4 Scepticism 44
Using the library 5 Objectivity 44
Using the internet 6 Open‐mindedness 44
Evaluating the quality of information 3.2 Critically evaluating research 44
on the internet 8 Interpret and evaluate the research
1.4 Reviewing the literature 9 evidence 45
Reading articles 9 3.3 General tips on how to write
Note taking 9 critically 50
1.5 Academic integrity 10 Develop a balanced argument 50
Plagiarism 10 Logical flow of argument 51
Collusion 12 Checklist 53
Checklist 13 Key terms 53
Key terms 13 Applied activity 54
Internet activity 14 Internet activity 58
Applied activity 14 Acknowledgements 58
Acknowledgements 14
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 2
Essays 59
Writing in APA style 15 4.1 Basic steps in essay writing 60
2.1 Learning the mechanics of 4.2 Identifying the essay topic 61
APA editorial style 16 4.3 Sections of the essay 61
Punctuation 16 Title page 61
Spelling 21 Abstract 63
Capitalisation 22 Introduction 63
Abbreviations and acronyms 22 The essay body 64
Headings 23 Conclusion 66
2.2 Point form or seriation 25 Reference list 67
Anchors on a scale 27 Word limit 67
2.3 Numbers 27 Checklist 68
Footnotes 29 Key terms 69
2.4 Writing clearly and concisely 30 Applied activity 69
Grammar 30 Acknowledgements 69
2.5 Choosing your words carefully 36 Bad essay 70
Avoiding jargon 36 Good essay 74
Wordiness 36
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 7
Quantitative research In‐text citations 171

reports 83 7.1 Acknowledging other works 172
7.2 General forms for in‐text citations 172
5.1 Writing a research report 84
Single author 172
5.2 Identifying the research topic 85
Two authors 173
Quantitative research 85
Three, four, or five authors 173
Qualitative research 85
Same work in one paragraph 174
5.3 Parts of a quantitative research
Six or more authors 175
report 85
Authors with the same surname 175
Title page 86
Multiple works by the same author 175
Abstract 86
Same author and same year of
Introduction 86
publication 176
Hypotheses 87
Two or more works within the same
Method 88
parentheses 176
Results 90 No publication date 176
Discussion 102 Online media 177
Reference list 103 Personal communications 177
Appendices 103 Latin abbreviations 177
Word limit 103 7.3 Quotations 178
Checklist 104 Quotations of fewer than 40 words 179
Key terms 106 Quotations of more than 40 words 179
Applied activity 106
Quotations from online documents and
Acknowledgements 106 websites 180
Bad report 107
7.4 Exceptions within the author–date
Good report 114
method of citation 181
Use of “et al.” 181
CHAPTER 6
No individual author 182
Qualitative research Year and author integrated in text 182
reports 126 Distinguishing between major and
minor citations 183
6.1 Qualitative research in psychology 127
Citing from online documents and
6.2 The structure of a qualitative research
websites 183
report 127
Errors in material being quoted 183
Title page 128
7.5 Citing a secondary source 183
Abstract 129
Checklist 185
Introduction 129 Key terms 186
Methodology 130 Applied activities 186
Data analysis 132 Acknowledgements 188
Analysis and Interpretation 133
6.3 Reflexivity and subjectivity in the analysis and CHAPTER 8
interpretation section 135
Concluding your qualitative research report 136
Reference list 189
References 136 8.1 Creating a reference list 190
8.2 APA reference style 190
Final word 136
Checklist 138 8.3 General form of reference
entries 190
Key terms 139
Applied activities 140 Periodicals 191
Acknowledgements 140 Non‐periodicals 193
Qualitative research report 1 141 Electronic media 197
Qualitative research report 2 158 Other sources 201
iv CONTENTS
8.4 Ordering the reference list 203 Starting on a new page 213
Special cases for ordering references 204 Ordering the pages 213
Checklist 205 Length 213
Key terms 205 9.3 Submitting your work 214
Internet activities 206 Cover sheets 214
Applied activities 206 Late assignments 214
Acknowledgements 207
Backup copies 214
CHAPTER 9 9.4 Constructive feedback 214
Checklist 216
How to end 208 Acknowledgements 216
9.1 Polishing your work 209
Revise and rewrite 209 Appendix 1 217
Proofread 211 Answers to questions and activities
9.2 General tips for presentation 212
Appendix 2 222
Typed or handwritten? 212
Key to errors in bad essay
Font 212
Appendix 3 231
Margins 212
Borders 212 Key to good essay
Spacing 213 Appendix 4 242
Paragraph indents 213 Key to Good Qualitative Research Report
Justification 213 References 257
CONTENTS v
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Lorelle Burton
Lorelle Burton is Professor of Psychology in the School of Psychology and Counselling at the University
of Southern Queensland (USQ) and Associate Dean (Students) in the Faculty of Health, Engineering
and Sciences at USQ. She currently leads the Community Futures research program in the Institute
for Resilient Regions at USQ and has extensive experience as principal supervisor of higher degree
research and Honours students. Lorelle has received multiple teaching excellence awards, including the
2001 USQ Award for Teaching Excellence; the 2004 Pearson Education and APS Early Career Teaching
Award; an inaugural 2006 Carrick Citation for “delivering nationally recognised teaching practices and
resources that inspire first-year students to actively engage in learning processes and develop critical
thinking skills”; and an individual Carrick Australian Award for Teaching Excellence in Social Sciences.
More recently, she was bestowed the prestigious 2016 APS Distinguished Contribution to Psychological
Education Award. Lorelle has led national research projects in learning and teaching, has served on
national committees and boards, and has been an invited assessor for the national awards and grants.
Lorelle has authored multiple psychology textbooks, including the market-leading first-year Australian
psychology textbook. She also recently co-edited a book on the elements of applied psychological prac-
tice to help psychology graduates prepare for the National Psychology Exam. Lorelle’s current research
extends beyond academia to promote community-based learning and well-being. She works collabora-
tively with marginalised groups, including youth and older people, and her team has recently developed
an Indigenous cultural heritage trail in partnership with Aboriginal communities in south-west Queens-
land. The Community Futures research seeks people’s own stories as a powerful way to strengthen com-
munities and find new paths to support them into the future.
vi ABOUT THE AUTHOR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr Judith Gullifer for her invaluable contribution to chapter 6: Qual-
itative research reports. I am absolutely delighted with how the chapter came together and know this
chapter will become a most useful reference for students engaged in qualitative research. Judith Gullifer
is the Head of the Australian Psychological Society Institute. She was the foundation Associate Dean
(Academic) in Faculty of Business, Justice and Behavioural Sciences at Charles Sturt University. She
has coordinated a range of undergraduate and postgraduate psychology subjects and has been involved
in supervising undergraduate and postgraduate student research. She is a registered psychologist with a
background in professional counselling in rural and remote Australia. Judith completed her PhD investi-
gating students’ perceptions of plagiarism at Charles Sturt University. Her interest in investigating aca-
demic integrity grew from her commitment to scholarship in teaching. Judith also has a strong research
commitment to perceptions of ageing and has published in this area. Judith has been the recipient of the
Charles Sturt University Vice Chancellors Award in Teaching Excellence and the Australian Psycholog-
ical Society’s Early Career Teaching Award. Thank you again, Jude!
Many thanks also to the following colleagues who generously shared their essays and research reports
so that they can be used as exemplars in the book: Jan Silcock (Good Essay), Dr Nancy Hoare (Good
Report), Melissa Collins (Qualitative Research Report 1), and Dr Tanya Machin (Qualitative Research
Report 2). All the students who use this book will forever be grateful for your willingness to share your
work as a guide. I thank you again for providing such excellent essays and reports to include in this 4th
edition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
CHAPTER 1
Where to begin
LEA RNIN G OBJE CTIVE S
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1 apply the APA style in your writing
1.2 understand the difference between a research essay and a research report
1.3 ensure the information you find is relevant
1.4 review the literature to develop your argument
1.5 understand how to avoid plagiarism.
1.1 Introduction to APA style
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.1 Apply the APA style in your writing.
Everyone uses different “languages” for different activities. Visiting a foreign country will often mean
you must speak in a different language from the one you normally use. But even in your everyday life
you will vary your vocabulary in different circumstances. For example, the way you would speak in
front of your grandparents is different from the way you would speak to young children. The language
you would use while watching a game of cricket differs from that you would use in a formal debate. We
all learn to use language appropriate to the occasion.
In the same way, the academic study of psychology has its own language. Unlike the colloquial “lan-
guages” you use in daily life, the one you need to use in studying psychology has precise and detailed
requirements that you must follow. These requirements are contained in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA). This language is commonly referred to as APA style.
APA style traces its origins back to 1928, when editors from a group of psychological and anthro-
pological journals developed a seven‐page “standard of procedures” to guide authors in the presentation
of their work. This guide, now in its sixth edition, has been vastly expanded in the intervening years to
provide a comprehensive manual of instructions that is accepted worldwide as the standard for writing
in the discipline of psychology.
APA style covers every aspect of writing and presentation including format, structure, punctuation,
word order, spelling, grammar, writing style, capitalisation, abbreviations, and referencing. Standardisa-
tion of these requirements provides benefits for everyone associated with the discipline of psychology.
The main benefit is consistency. When everyone uses the same formatting and style conventions, it is
much easier for the reader to understand what has been written and compare it with the work of others.
No matter where the study originated, the written work will be presented in a style that is universally
recognised. Imagine the confusion if every writer decided to use a different format, different abbrevi-
ations, different spellings, and a different order. The result would be chaos.
The APA style requirements apply to you, as a student in psychology, in the same way they apply to
all other writers involved in the discipline at an academic level. Learning a language that you have never
come across before may seem daunting, but do not be discouraged. At an introductory level, you are
not expected to be an expert on all its nuances. The important thing is that you learn to apply the key
elements of APA style. That is what this book is all about.
As a student setting out to write your first essay or research report in psychology, you may indeed be
intimidated by the 270‐plus pages of the APA Publication Manual. No one expects you to memorise all
270 pages of the Publication Manual. Rather, this book aims to provide a hands‐on, interactive approach
to learning the key elements that you will need to apply when writing essays and research reports in the
discipline of psychology. It will summarise the most important points of style and presentation and allow
you to practise them in a user‐friendly way.
This book recognises that the more you practise APA style requirements, the easier they become to
learn. The many learning exercises throughout the book will help you master the skills needed for APA
formatting. It would be impossible to cover every aspect of the APA manual. Instead, the focus is on the
requirements that are most important to the writing you will be doing.
Learning to use the correct APA style is also an easy way to improve your grades. Not only will sticking
to APA requirements in areas such as grammar and punctuation improve the flow of your writing, but
many lecturers will actually mark your paper down if you stray from APA style. Using this book could be
the key to a higher grade point average. Chapter 2 covers the mechanics of APA style and provides tips
for writing clearly and precisely. You will learn how to sharpen your critical thinking skills in Chapter 3.
Why research is reported

The body of knowledge in the field of psychology, as in all academic disciplines, continues to grow as
researchers carry out more and more studies. The way researchers convey the results of the work they
2 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

have done is by publishing them in the form of an essay or research report. Certain accepted conventions
govern the format of these reporting mechanisms. Learning these conventions is vital if you intend to
pursue postgraduate studies. They are forms that you will be expected to follow, so you will have to
learn them at some stage. But even if you do not go on to further study, learning APA style will help you
understand more quickly what the author of an essay or research report is trying to say.
1.2 Essays versus research reports

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.2 Understand the difference between a research essay and a research report.
The two most common types of work you will undertake as an undergraduate student are the essay
and the research report. These two models are similar in many ways, but there is one crucial differ-
ence between them. The essay is based on a review of past literature and what you can conclude from
that—you have no data of your own to report. A research report also reviews past literature but is
primarily concerned with reporting the results of research that you have carried out.
In the 4th edition of this book, we distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative
research uses measurable data to quantify attitudes, opinions, and/or behaviours and generalises results
from a large, representative sample population to the target population. In quantitative research, data are
analysed through numerical comparisons and statistical inferences to formulate facts about, and uncover
patterns in, various phenomena. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys,
interviews, longitudinal or cross‐sectional studies, experimental studies, and other systematic observations.
Qualitative research is more exploratory than quantitative research, and involves delving deeper
into the research question to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations of
human behaviour. Qualitative research provides insights into the problem from a research participant’s
perspective. Qualitative data collection methods include interviews and focus groups, and data may also
be collected through participant observations. The sample size is typically small in qualitative research
and data are analysed by themes from descriptions by participants.
In this book, you will learn how to format research reports in APA style for both quantitative and qual-
itative research.
The following sections will look at the formatting and content requirements for both an essay and a
research report, including both a quantitative research report and a qualitative research report.
Structure of an essay
The aim of an essay is to examine the literature on a particular topic, critically evaluate the findings, and
reach some conclusions. You may argue a particular point of view based on the evidence that you have
considered in the available research. An essay does not require you to carry out any original research or
studies of your own. It is similar to the review articles you will see published in psychology journals.
An essay is not normally divided into separate sections; the text simply flows from start to finish
without headings or subheadings to separate different sections. However, this does not mean that essays
do not contain a number of different elements. A standard essay pattern includes an introduction, a body,
and a conclusion. The introduction, one or two paragraphs long, sets the scene for what will follow; the
body is where past research is reviewed and critically examined; and the conclusion is where a particular
argument is advanced.
An essay also requires a title page, an abstract, and a reference list. (The exact content and format-
ting requirements for an essay are outlined in more detail in Chapter 4.)
Sections of a research report

The main aim of a research report is to disseminate to others the results of a study that you have con-
ducted. This will require you to review past literature and critically evaluate key studies on the topic, but
the primary aim is to describe what you did and found in your own research.
CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 3

A research report has a set structure. This involves a number of different sections, divided by sub-
headings, each of which has particular format and content requirements. This structure must be followed.
The research report describes original work that contributes to the body of knowledge on the topic. It
needs to adhere to the same conventions that all other researchers use when reporting their results.
A quantitative research report contains the following main sections:
•• Introduction—where you critically evaluate past research and explain why you undertook the study
and what you expected to find
•• Method—where you describe how you conducted the study
•• Results—where you report what you found
•• Discussion—where you outline the conclusions you can draw from these findings.
A qualitative research report contains the same main sections as in a quantitative research report, with
the exception that you typically combine the Results and Discussion sections. Thus the analysis and
interpretation of qualitative data is reported in the same one section of the report.
Like an essay, both quantitative and qualitative research reports also require a title page, an abstract,
and a reference list. In some cases, they may also include appendices. (The exact content and formatting
requirements for each section of a quantitative research report and qualitative research report are out-
lined in more detail in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.)
1.3 Finding the right information

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.3 Ensure the information you find is relevant.
It takes a great deal of time to write essays and research reports in psychology. Before you even put pen
to paper (or hands to keyboard!) you need to first find the appropriate information and then review the lit-
erature. Make sure you pace your study, allowing sufficient time to devote to the actual writing‐up process.
The first step in preparing an essay or research report is to clarify exactly what you want to talk about.
For an essay, this means carefully examining the topic and making sure you understand exactly what
you are being asked to do. This issue is covered in more detail in Chapter 4. For a research report, this
means being very clear on your research aims and what you expect to find through your study. This is
covered in more detail in Chapter 5. If you are unclear on either the essay topic or your exact research
aims, make sure you ask for advice. This might simply mean talking to your lecturer or tutor. Or you
might try an online discussion group, where you can post a message and receive feedback from fellow
students or from academic staff.
The next step is to thoroughly research the literature relevant to your topic. There are a few general rules
you should follow in surveying past research. The more you read on your topic, the greater your depth
of knowledge will become and the more informed you will be when assessing it. You should consult a
wide range of sources when looking for relevant studies. Check out books, journals, other peer‐reviewed
articles, the internet, unpublished academic papers, conference proceedings, newspapers, and any other
sources that might be relevant. This will ensure that you locate the widest possible range of views on the
topic. Also, make sure you compare older and newer sources to track developments over time. Earlier
works may present pivotal findings on a particular topic, but newer works may have modified or supple-
mented those findings. As a general rule of thumb, you should consult sources published in the past five
years as well as earlier works on the topic. You need to cover the total picture in your research.
The next sections will provide more information on how to search the literature for the most relevant
material and how to review that material once you have found it.
Searching the literature

There are many ways in which students can search the literature for material most relevant to their
research topic. The resources available to each student will be different, and you should take the time to
learn how to get the best results from these resources.

Be sure to keep a photocopy of any material you may wish to cite in your work, noting the full refer-
encing details. Write down the author, year published, title, and full publication details, including page
numbers, of every article you collect, even if you are uncertain whether to include it in your essay or
research report.
The rest of this chapter will outline how to search the literature in two ways—by using the library in
the traditional way, and by using the internet. It will provide tips on how you can use these resources
most effectively to save time that you can use in reviewing the literature and writing your essay or
research report.
Using the library

The two main hard copy resources in a library are books and journals. You can find where these are
kept by consulting the library’s catalogue system. Most libraries now maintain computerised catalogues,
which make it easier to locate books and journal articles. Other library resources include unpublished
student theses, conference proceedings, newspapers, videos, and government reports. These resources
will also be listed in the library catalogue.
Sometimes you will be looking for a particular book or journal article that is not listed in the library
catalogue. You may be able to obtain it from another library through an inter‐library loan. The easiest
way to organise this is by talking to a library staff member at the reference desk. Do not be nervous
about asking for help on this or any other concern you have about library resources. Asking for help can
save you a lot of time and trouble in the long run.
It is a good idea to keep a checklist of sources that you have used. It can be quite confusing to keep
track of the material you have found and the sources you still need to locate. A written record is the best
way to make sure you do not waste time searching repeatedly for information you have already found.
Many libraries today subscribe to journals that can be viewed electronically through online databases.
Some of these databases will enable you to access full‐text versions of journal articles. This means you
do not have to locate a printed copy of the journal, since the text of the article is available to you online.
Other databases do not provide full‐text versions, so you will need to track down a hard copy. Check
whether your library subscribes to online databases that provide access to the journals you are looking
for. Three useful databases that provide online access to full‐text journal articles are:
•• Ingenta (http://www.ingentaconnect.com)
•• Science Direct (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science)
•• Wiley Online Library (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/).
Two other extremely valuable databases are Psychological Abstracts and the Social Sciences Citation
Index (SSCI).
Psychological Abstracts includes abstracts of many articles published in the field of psychology,
covering a wide range of sources including journal articles, books, book chapters, technical reports, and
student dissertations. It is published monthly and includes full reference details for the articles.
Psychological Abstracts is available in hard copy in most university libraries. It is also available in
electronic form, which enables you to search much more quickly through the abstracts it contains. The
main electronic version, called PsycINFO, provides access to abstracts of all types of publications. A
slightly smaller version, called PsycARTICLES, omits dissertations and technical reports. The electronic
version of this database is an extremely valuable tool that can save you considerable time and energy
tracking down reference details.
The Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) provides a list of all works cited by authors in a wide range
of publications in the social sciences field. The SSCI is printed annually, but many university libraries
now have access to an electronic version of the SSCI. You can use this to discover the reference details
of works related to your topic, and also to determine which works have been cited most often in a par-
ticular field of study. This can be very useful in focusing your search.
This list of resources is not exhaustive; other databases can also be useful. Check with your library
staff for help in finding the right database for your topic.

Using the internet
Used properly, the internet is a powerful medium through which to locate and access information on
your research topic. The internet provides quick links to data sources all over the world at the click of
a mouse button. However, you need to be very selective in the way you use the internet and in the type
of information you draw from it. Trawling through the mountains of information available on the World
Wide Web can be time consuming, and the quality of data you end up with may not meet the rigorous
standards required in academic writing.
This section will further examine methods you can use to find information on your research topic
through the internet, suggest ways to evaluate the quality of the information you find on the internet,
provide links to useful sites for students of psychology, and offer some general tips on how to make your
search for data more effective.
Ways to find information on the internet
The internet is a vast resource with unlimited access points, so do not rely on just one or two sites when
researching a topic. The rest of this section will outline three ways to locate information on the Web:
through general search engines, subject directories, and the Invisible Web.
The first method is to use a general search engine. Most people with internet access will be familiar
with these programs, which can be used to search for information on any topic at all. Some of the more
common are:
•• Google (http://www.google.com)
•• Google scholar (http://scholar.google.com.au/)
•• Bing (http://www.bing.com)
•• Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com).
They work by searching the internet to find files containing key words that match those you enter
in your search request. The problem with search engines is that they do not use specific criteria for
choosing which sites they locate, so you may end up with a long list of often useless material.

These search engines are useful for finding information on topics of general interest but are not suit-
able for locating the scholarly material you need in academic research. Do not rely on these search
engines in your study—there are much better alternatives.
One of these alternatives is the second way to locate information on the internet—via subject direc-
tories. Many students may not be aware of these directories, or do not use them often enough. Subject
directories allow you to search for information on particular research topics within selected academic
resources. They ignore all the miscellaneous, non‐refereed sites accessed by general search engines and
concentrate on sites that provide access only to academic‐quality data. An example of a reliable subject
directory is Academic Info (http://www.academicinfo.net/index.html).
The third way to find information is through the Invisible Web. This “invisible” Web is what you
cannot retrieve (or “see”) in the search results of a general search engine or subject directory. It pro-
vides access to searchable databases, dynamically generated pages and pages intentionally excluded
from general search engines. It also includes high‐powered search engines that access material not “vis-
ible” to traditional search engines. One way to find the Invisible Web is to search a subject term and the
word “database” using a general search engine. For more information about the Invisible Web, access
the following site:
•• Finding information on the internet: A Tutorial (http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/
InvisibleWeb.html).
Useful psychology sites

Many internet sites provide specific information on psychology topics. These sites include pages main-
tained by peak professional bodies, psychology departments of universities, academic journals that
specialise in psychology, and sites created by individual psychologists. They often contain useful infor-
mation and links to other resources. The following are among the best psychology sites you can use in
your research:
•• AmoebaWeb (http://old.vanguard.edu/psychology/amoebaweb/)
•• PsychNET (http://www.psychnet‐uk.com)
•• Psych Web (http://www.psywww.com)
•• Electronic Journals and Periodicals (http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/journal.html)
•• Scholarly Psychology Resources on the Web (http://www.psywww.com/resource/bytopic.htm)
•• Australian Psychological Society (http://www.psychology.org.au)
•• American Psychological Association (http://www.apa.org).
Tips for searching the internet more effectively

Searching for information on the internet can be a time consuming and complicated process. Here are
some simple tips that will help you search more effectively and find the information you seek with less
hassle.
•• Take care with the way you submit your search request. Make sure you read the instructions for each
search engine you use—many operate in completely different ways (e.g., some are sensitive to capital
letters in your search request).
•• Check the accuracy of your spelling. If your first attempt does not produce satisfactory results, repeat
your request using alternative spellings or key terms.
•• Use several different search engines; do not rely on just one. Different search engines access different
sites and produce different results, even when you submit exactly the same request.
•• Refine your search request. Look at the advanced search tips that many search engines offer. They
will often tell you how to refine your search by linking key words with Boolean operators such as
AND or NOT. This will help narrow the search.
•• Make sure you keep a note of those subject directories and sites you find most helpful and easy to use
so you can access them quickly in future research.

Evaluating the quality of information on the internet
Not all the information you find on the internet is suitable for use in a university essay or report. The first
thing you must do is apply the same critical review as you would to information found in a traditional
source—that is, you need to check whether the information was generated by academic research, whether
that research conformed to the highest standards of academic rigour, whether the work was published in
a peer‐reviewed academic forum, and when the research was carried out.
One important use of the internet is to access online versions of reputable journals. You can be sure
that the data contained in these online journals meet the academic standards you require.
Information published in other online arenas may give you valuable background on your topic and
help you gain a wider appreciation of the arguments that you might consider. However, unless the infor-
mation meets the standards applied to peer‐reviewed publications, be very cautious about the weight you
place on it. Websites give people the opportunity to publish their opinions about various topics, without
the backing of reputable research. You should be sceptical of data that do not result from the application
of scientific methods.
A good way to assess the quality of the information you find on the internet is to use the CARS
evaluation checklist developed by Harris (1997). CARS is an acronym that stands for Credibility,
Accuracy, Reasonableness and Support—four key criteria that provide a simple recipe for quality
control.
Credibility is all about how confident you can be that the information provided is reliable. Harris
(1997) identifies the author’s credentials as one important indicator. You should check whether an
author has been named in the first place, as anonymity is not a good indicator of reliability. You
should also check their academic qualifications, their background or experience in the field they are
addressing, the organisations they represent, their position or job title, their previous publications, their
reputation among peers, and whether their contact details are provided. You also need to check for
evidence of quality control. It is relatively easy for people to post information on the Web that has not
been assessed or reviewed by anyone else. You need to look for evidence that the information has been
subject to the scrutiny of others with appropriate expertise. For instance, is the information posted on
behalf of a reputable organisation? Has the information been drawn from a book or academic journal
that is subject to peer review? Is it drawn from an online journal that has an editor and a peer‐review
process?
Accuracy is the test of how true the information is—whether it is up to date, factual, detailed,
exact, and comprehensive (Harris, 1997). Ongoing research is continually adding to the body of
knowledge in many subject areas, so information can quickly become obsolete. You need to be sure
that the data you are accessing remains current. You also need to check that the information gives
a complete view of the subject matter, rather than looking at it from a narrow perspective. The full
range of views needs to be acknowledged and discussed, particularly in areas where there are defini-
tive texts or theories that are important in this field of study. Finally, check the intended audience
and purpose of the information. For example, firms may place information on the Web to try to per-
suade prospective purchasers to buy their goods or services. You would have far less faith in that
information than you would in data drawn from an academic source that is specifically intended for
scholarly use.
Reasonableness means assessing the information for fairness, objectivity, moderateness, and con-
sistency (Harris, 1997). Check whether the information is presented in a balanced way, free from
emotive or irrational arguments that advance a particular cause ahead of others. Is the stance neu-
tral, or does the information reflect a bias or self‐serving interest? Be sceptical of organisations or
sites that promote their own products with one‐sided information. Be sceptical, also, of apparently
wild and extreme claims that seem too far‐fetched to be true. Use your common sense to carry out a
reality check on these statements. If they seem difficult to believe, there is probably reason to doubt
them.

The final test in the CARS evaluation is Support, which is all about the extent to which the infor-
mation presented has been backed up and corroborated. Check the sources of the information. Can they
be verified? Are they published and documented? It is particularly important that the source of statistics
is documented, otherwise someone could simply be fabricating the numbers (Harris, 1997). Check also
that the information presented is corroborated by others. Test the information provided against other
sources to see whether there is agreement, particularly where it presents contentious or surprising claims.
Look also for consistency with the body of knowledge on a particular topic—that is, check whether it
builds on well‐known and established information in that field.
1.4 Reviewing the literature

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.4 Review the literature to develop your argument.
Now that you have searched the literature and found the most relevant past research, you are ready to
review the articles for evidence to develop your argument.
Be realistic about how many works you can review in depth. It is impossible to comprehensively
critique every source that touches on your topic. You need to work out which are the key studies
you should focus most energy on and which are the less important works. However, do not make
the mistake of concentrating all your time on only one or two sources. You need to strike a balance.
Knowing how to evaluate the information you retrieve from your scholarly works requires an exer-
cise in critical thinking. Consult Chapter 3 for details on how to critically interpret and evaluate the
research evidence.
The rest of this section will provide tips on background reading and note taking.
Reading articles
When you read through an article or book chapter as part of your research, there are two main questions
you should ask yourself: what are the key points the author is making, and how do those findings relate
to your research questions? It is often difficult to answer these questions after reading through the work
only once. A good practice is to read through articles at least twice. The first read will help you identify
the main points the author is making and decide whether they are useful to your own research. During
your second read you should start taking notes on those key findings.
Note taking
Taking clear and concise notes is essential in academic research. Effective note‐taking practices can
make writing an essay or report much quicker and easier than if it is done in a disorganised way. This
section provides tips on how to improve your note‐taking procedures.
•• Take detailed but selective notes. You should note only the key findings and arguments in an article
rather than trying to summarise everything the author has said.
•• Keep photocopies of important articles. Resist the temptation to photocopy every article, essay, or
book chapter that has a remote connection to your research topic. That could result in mountains of
paper that will be of little use to you.
•• When you find a relevant work, make sure you photocopy or record the full referencing details—the
names of the authors, the title of the publication, the place and date of publication, and the page
numbers. This will avoid the need for a lot of rechecking when you come to cite texts in your work
or reference list.
•• Take comprehensive notes to help you avoid plagiarism. It will ensure that you give credit to other
authors where necessary, and not accidentally reproduce their words or ideas as your own.
•• Use a system. Do not take notes haphazardly; rather, work to a system that ensures you record all the
details needed for each work you read. This means not only recording the key ideas, and the page
numbers they appeared on, but also capturing all the reference details previously mentioned. Some

people find it useful to take notes on separate index cards for each work. Others use a set form that
includes spaces in which to enter information such as reference details.
•• Use a computer if that suits you. Most people tend to take handwritten notes, but if you find it more
comfortable to use a computer, then do so. Computer notes have the advantage that they do not need
to be retyped and can easily be cut and pasted. Whether you use a computer, a typewriter, or a pencil,
the key requirement is to be systematic.
•• Take notes on index cards: this will make it easier to organise your material when you come to write
the paper. For example, you might sort the cards into piles that are “for” or “against” your argument.
Or you might arrange the cards in a number of different categories, according to the research ques-
tions you are addressing and the arguments you will make.
1.5 Academic integrity

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.5 Understand how to avoid plagiarism.
As a tertiary student, you are expected to meet high standards of academic integrity. A fundamental
requirement is that you acknowledge the ideas and findings of other authors and do not attempt to
present them as your own work. The rest of this section examines two ways in which academic integrity
is undermined—plagiarism and collusion.
Plagiarism
If you include someone else’s published words or ideas in your own work without acknowledging their
source, you are guilty of plagiarism. Whether you copy another author’s words exactly or simply paraphrase
his or her ideas, you must acknowledge the original source of those words or ideas, or you are plagiarising.
When you attempt to copy another author’s work and pass it off as your own, you commit plagiarism.
It is considered an extremely serious offence in the academic world. Authors work extremely hard

on their own research in order to produce fresh and original ideas. Simply copying the results of that
research and pretending they are your own work is the academic equivalent of theft—you have stolen
someone else’s intellectual property. This is dishonest and fraudulent.
You are expected to come up with original ideas of your own; this is the key to achieving success
in an academic discipline. Plagiarising the work of others is no substitute for original thinking and
is a sure recipe for failure. Plagiarism will normally lead to the loss of marks and often results in
essays or reports being rejected completely. In fact, plagiarism is considered such a serious offence in
the academic world that Australian universities have thrown out students for committing this offence.
Ignorance is not an excuse, as most university handbooks (as well as the study guides for individual
courses or subjects) contain explicit warnings about the penalties involved if students are caught
plagiarising.
Lifting passages of text directly from someone else’s work without attribution is the worst form of
plagiarism. Paraphrasing someone else’s thoughts, dressing them up in slightly different words and pre-
tending they are your own work, is a more subtle form. Rather than reproducing other writers’ ideas,
carefully consider their implications and demonstrate that you can draw your own conclusions. You
demonstrate your understanding of the material when you discuss what it means in your own words,
rather than repeating what someone else has written.
This is not to say you should not refer to other authors’ work or even quote directly from a published
work. In fact, this is practically mandatory in reviewing the past literature on a topic. Quotation marks
are required to indicate the exact words of another author (see Chapter 7).
It is essential that you acknowledge where ideas or words came from. Consider the following sentence
taken from Burton (1998):
An important finding of this study is that a relationship between self‐report
imagery ability and spatial ability becomes evident when spatial shapes are
included as the stimuli to be imagined on imagery questionnaires.

How would you cite this information in your own work? You would be guilty of plagiarism if you
wrote the following:
A relationship between self‐report imagery and spatial abilities occurs
when spatial shapes are the stimuli imagined on imagery questionnaires
(Burton, 1998).
It is not sufficient merely to change a few words and put a citation at the end of the sentence. You need
to summarise the material in your own words and acknowledge the author. For example:
Burton (1998) found that the nature of the stimuli imagined is an impor-
tant factor when examining the relationship between objective and sub-
jective measures of visual imagery and spatial abilities. These measures
were shown to correlate when abstract, spatial shapes were included as the
stimuli imagined on visual imagery questionnaires.

Acknowledging the work of others is an important skill that becomes easier with practice. When
citing previous research in your own writing, you should demonstrate your understanding of the mat-
erial by stating what it means in your own words. It is sometimes helpful to first establish the context in
which the information is to be interpreted. This is illustrated in the previous example.
The following exercise is designed to help you learn how to rephrase information in your own words
and avoid plagiarism in your writing.
•• Read through a research article and see if you can identify the author’s key argument.
•• Write down the concluding paragraph.
•• Read through this paragraph again and carefully consider its implications.
•• See if you understand what the author is trying to say and draw your own conclusions.
•• Now rephrase this paragraph in your own words.
•• Read through your version of the paragraph and have another go at rewriting it in your own words.
•• Compare your new, rephrased paragraph with the original paragraph. Check that the meaning of the
original paragraph is retained in your revised version.
•• Try rewriting the concluding paragraphs of some other articles in your own words. Stop when you feel
confident that you know how to avoid plagiarism.
•• Make sure you acknowledge the author of the work you are citing and include the year of publication.
You will have more opportunities to practise citing the work of others in later exercises in this book.
In particular, Chapter 6 provides more information on how to format in‐text citations in correct APA
style. You may choose to cite other writers’ material in the form of a direct quote, rather than rephrasing
it in your own words.
Collusion
When two or more students present essentially the same material in a written assignment for assessment,
they are guilty of collusion. Unless specifically instructed otherwise, you are expected to submit an
assignment that is your own work. You are not permitted to collaborate with other students so that you
all submit the same or a similar finished product.
As a student, you are often encouraged to work in collaboration with others, since this can be an
extremely useful way to discuss issues and address questions relating to assignments. There is nothing
wrong with this type of discussion or sharing of ideas. Collaboration crosses the line into collusion when
you start sharing written material and incorporating work produced by other students in your own essay
or report. Lecturers want to assess your own, individual work; they do not want to see the combined
work of several students submitted by each of the contributors.
The bottom line is that although you may collaborate with other students in the planning and research
stages of an essay or report, when it comes to drawing conclusions and writing up the final product, you
must produce your own work.
Markers find it easy to spot cases of collusion, and those found guilty of the practice will normally
face a severe academic penalty.
More information on how to cite research and produce a reference list in APA format is provided in
Chapters 7 and 8. You will learn how to polish your work and prepare the final copy for submission by
reading Chapter 9.

CHECKLIST
Have you conducted a thorough review of the literature? You should complete this review before
beginning to write your essay or research report. Be sure to consider sources published in the past
five years as well as earlier works on the topic.
Have you visited the library and consulted the library catalogue to locate hard copies of books and
journal articles on your topic? Note the full reference details for all sources of information.
Have you checked whether your library subscribes to online databases that provide access to full‐text
journal articles?
Have you used the Psychological Abstracts and SSCI databases to access the abstracts of different
publications on your topic?
Make sure you ask the librarian for help if you have problems locating any sources using the
catalogue or online databases.
Have you used the internet to access online versions of peer‐reviewed journals? Be sure to read
through the tips for searching for information on the internet before commencing your search.
Did you consult at least one of the subject directories listed in this chapter to search for information
on your research topic?
Did you evaluate the quality of information found on the internet using the CARS criteria:
Credibility, Accuracy, Reasonableness and Support?
When reading through each source for the first time, did you identify the author’s main points and
decide whether the work would be useful in your own research?
The second time you read each article, did you take notes on the key findings? Make sure you
consult the tips on how to improve your note‐taking procedures to help you avoid plagiarism.
Make sure you have consulted a wide range of peer‐reviewed sources before commencing to write
your essay or research report.
Have you collaborated with other students when working on your assignment? If so, make sure you
submit an assignment that is your own work. You do not want to be found guilty of collusion.
KEY TERMS
abstract A concise overview of the contents of an essay or report.
accuracy The information provides a true and comprehensive view of the subject matter.
APA style The format and editorial style requirements outlined in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association.
collusion Collaborating with others to produce written material that is not your own, individual work.
credibility The information is reliable and worthy of belief because it comes from a trustworthy
source.
essay Critically examines the literature on a particular topic and draws conclusions on the basis of the
available evidence.
peer‐reviewed articles Scholarly articles that undergo a rigorous review process by experts in the field
before publication.
plagiarism Using someone else’s ideas or published words in your own work without acknowledging
their source.
qualitative research Involves exploring a research topic through methods such as interviews,
observation, and case studies to gain a richer understanding of the relevant phenomena.
quantitative research Involves using experiments or surveys that provide data that can be quantified,
tabulated, summarised, and analysed.
reasonableness The information is fair, objective, moderate and consistent.
reference list The full publication details of the information sources you have cited in your text.

research report Critically examines previous research studies on a given topic, makes predictions
about expected findings, describes what you did in your own research, and discusses the importance
of what you found.
support The information is authentic and can be corroborated by others in the field.
INTERNET ACTIVITY
The following activity is designed to help you to practise finding the right information on a particular
research topic.
Consider the research question “How does culture shape your thoughts, feelings and behaviours?”
This topic is often examined by cultural psychologists who study the ways in which people are affected
by the culture in which they live. Cultural psychologists examine how individual psychological pro-
cesses are shaped by cultural context. Culture refers to the shared rules that govern our thoughts and
behaviour; it is a filter through which we see and understand our current reality. You should be able to
cite many authors in support of this definition of cultural psychology; the author of your introductory
psychology textbook is probably one example. However, this activity requires you to delve deeper into
this research question by conducting a thorough search of the literature.
1 Use the internet to explore the topic. See if you can access any or all of the subject directories and
psychology sites listed in this chapter, and practise searching online for material on the topic. To help
focus your search, consult the section on tips for searching the internet more effectively.
2 Find at least two reputable online articles to help answer the research question.
APPLIED ACTIVITY
This activity follows on from the internet activity, requiring you to locate additional material on the
topic.
1 Visit your nearest academic library and take the time to become familiar with its layout. Find where
the psychology books and journals are located on the shelves by looking them up on the library’s
catalogue system. There will be many sources devoted to understanding cultural psychology. Intro-
duce yourself to the librarian and ask what psychology databases are available for you to access.
2 Find two journal articles and two books or book chapters to help you better understand the research
topic.
3 Put all of the sources together and read through the material. Does the information enable you to
better answer the original research question, “How does culture shape your thoughts, feelings and
behaviours?”
No set answers are provided for these activities, because you will discover different sources of infor-
mation on the research topic using different online and library resources. Consult Chapter 3 for more
information on how to critically evaluate research evidence. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 provide information on
how to write essays and research reports. Chapters 2, 7 and 8 outline the key elements for citing research
in APA style and producing a complete reference list. Finally, Chapter 9 provides a checklist on how to
polish the writing of your essay or report.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Image: © ESB Professional / Shutterstock.com
Image: © alvarez / Getty Images
Image: © Juice Images RF / Getty Images

CHAPTER 2
Writing in APA style

LEA RNIN G OBJE CTIVE S
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 understand the importance of APA style
2.2 construct clear and succinct lists
2.3 correctly format numbers in your report or essay
2.4 communicate your message with clarity and meaning
2.5 use effective language.
2.1 Learning the mechanics of APA editorial style
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2.1 Understand the importance of APA style.
APA style has set requirements for punctuation and editorial style. This chapter will introduce these
requirements and provide information that will help you write clearly and concisely. The first section
presents a basic guide to punctuation, spelling, capitalisation, and other relevant writing issues. These
guidelines are specific to APA style, so even if you are a confident writer you should read the following
pages carefully to ensure your written assignments conform to APA style requirements.
Punctuation
Punctuation marks provide signposts that guide the reader through your work. They tell the reader when
to stop, when to pause, and when to take a different path. They turn what would otherwise be a long,
confusing string of words into a form that gives them meaning. Without correct punctuation, your work
can become difficult to read and even harder to understand.
Punctuation marks have distinct purposes, and it is important to use the right one at the right time. The
way you punctuate sets up the rhythm of your sentences and helps the reader to interpret your words. As
with many aspects of the English language, the use of punctuation often requires good judgement rather
than the application of rigid rules. Some punctuation marks have many uses, while others are used more
restrictively. The following section provides a brief description of the most common punctuation marks
and how they should be used.
Full stop (period)
Use a full stop to end a sentence and space twice after the full stop (include one space after a comma, semi‐
colon, and colon). Single full stops also denote missing letters in abbreviations (a.m., 2nd ed., Vol. 3, vs.,
e.g., etc.) and name initials (W. C. Fields). Do not use full stops in capital letter abbreviations (APA, IQ,
PC, TV) or acronyms (ASIO, CSIRO, TAFE), or in most measurement abbreviations (cm, g, km, mm, ml).
Comma
Commas, the most common form of punctuation, have many uses. Generally, they indicate a pause in the
flow of a sentence. The main ways the comma can be used include:
•• to link different elements of a sentence. For example:
After the votes had been counted, the winner was announced.
•• to separate elements in a series of three or more items. For example:
the good, the bad, and the ugly
red, white, and blue
. . . in a study by Collins, Barnes, and Milne (2004)
pages 21, 36, 52, and 89
the apple, pear, or orange

•• to enclose supplementary or explanatory information in the middle of a sentence. For example:
The winner of the competition, Bob Smith, was overjoyed.

•• to set off a clause that modifies (adds information to) part or all of the main clause in a sentence. For
example:
The experience was rewarding for many of the children, who were extremely
tired by the end of the day.

•• to separate independent clauses linked by a conjunction. For example:
The conclusions were presented clearly and concisely, and the student
received a high mark.

•• to include the year in parenthetical reference citations. For example:
(Fielder, 2009)
(Crook, 2010, discovered . . .)
(Ryan, Fox, & Lawrence, 2017)
Semicolon
Use a semicolon when you want to indicate a more definite pause than if you used a comma, but a
stronger link than if you used a full stop. The most common uses of the semicolon include:
•• to separate independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction (e.g., and, or, or but). For
example:
The people on the first bus arrived on time; those on the second bus were two
hours late.
•• to separate elements in a list or series that already contain commas. For example:
Their colour choices were red, white, and blue; green and gold; or blue and
white.
Colon
A colon is used to indicate the start of a series of points. For example:
Essays have three main elements: the introduction, the main body, and the
conclusion.
or
Three states border New South Wales: South Australia, Queensland, and
Victoria.
CHAPTER 2 Writing in APA style 17

Use a colon where the second part of a sentence explains or amplifies the first part. For example:
The shopping list contained a variety of items: carrots, bananas, milk, bread,
and cereal.
The coach selected two players: Bill and John.
Beware: This cliff is steep and dangerous.
Note that an initial capital is used for the first word after the colon if what follows the colon makes a
full sentence.
Colons are also used in ratios (3:7), in times (7:30 a.m.), and in reference lists to separate the place of
publication from the publisher (Brisbane, Australia: John Wiley & Sons).
Em dash
Em dashes may be used in place of a colon when introducing an amplification, as in the previous
examples, to indicate a sudden interruption in the continuity of a sentence, or instead of parentheses
when incidental information is inserted in a sentence. For example:
Organisational psychologists have focused on how to enhance achievement
motivation—and productivity—on the job.
Note that there is no space between the dash and the word on either side of it. Dashes should be used
sparingly to maintain their dramatic impact.
En dash
The en dash is used in place of to (e.g., pp. 23–36, May–June) and between words of equal weight in
compound adjectives (e.g., “the Sydney–Hobart yacht race”, “cost–benefit ratio”). In APA style you may
use a hyphen instead of an en dash if the en dash is not available on your computer.
Hyphenation
Hyphens are commonly used to link most compound adjectives. For example:
long‐term memory (adjective + noun)
trouble‐free motoring (noun + adjective)
red‐hot lava (adjective + adjective)
three‐step process, 40‐hour week (number + noun)

Note that in compound adjectives:
•• an adverb plus a participle takes a hyphen only before a noun (“a well‐fed cat” but “the cat was well
fed”; “a forward‐thinking manager” but “she was forward thinking”)
•• adverbs ending in ‐ly never take a hyphen (“a highly regarded scholar”)
•• an adverb plus an adjective is usually set solid (underrepresented, overtired)
•• a floating hyphen can be appended to either end of the shared word to avoid repeating one element of
a compound adjective (e.g., “pre‐ and post‐election polls”; “a well‐written and ‐argued essay”).

Prefixes such as anti‐, co‐, inter‐, macro‐, non‐, pre‐, re‐, semi‐, sub‐, and un‐ are usually set solid with
the root word, requiring a hyphen only if the last letter of the prefix and the first letter of the root word
are the same, if the root is a proper noun, or if ambiguity could result. For example:
antiwar (but anti‐Taliban), codependent (but co‐opt; exceptions include
cooperation, coordination), intranet (but intra‐abdominal), nonprofit (but
non‐national), prewar (but pre‐Christmas), subtext (but sub‐Saharan Africa).
Quotation marks
Quotation marks have a number of uses. Use double quotation marks:
•• to indicate that you are quoting directly what somebody else has written or said. For example:
Fulton (2000) said: “This theory remains unproven.”
Sue told me, “This policy must be implemented.”
The participants were instructed: “Work as quickly as you can without
making any mistakes.”

•• to highlight or emphasise a word or phrase, or to indicate an unusual, ironic, or colloquial usage. Only
use quotation marks the first time the word or phrase is used. For example:
The trophy was the “holy grail” for all the teams in the tournament.
When I needed their help, all my “friends” vanished. In fact, my friends . . .
CHAPTER 2 Writing in APA style 19

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
transversely, the vessels of the lumbar region are compelled to describe a
somewhat prolonged vertical course before reaching their point of
distribution. From these circumstances, even transitory congestions in the
circulation of the cord are easily followed by irreparable injury of its
delicate elements.
133 Loc. cit., Path. Trans., 1884.
Finally, in all discussions on pathogeny must not be forgotten the doctrine

of Leyden134 that infantile paralysis, also progressive muscular atrophy, is
a disease which may begin at the periphery and extend to the centres, as
well as the reverse. It must also be remembered that, as yet, only very
scanty evidence exists to support this, in itself, plausible theory.
134 See loc. cit., ut supra.
COURSE OF INFANTILE PARALYSIS.—The most ordinary course of infantile

paralysis is that already described as typical—namely, extremely rapid
development to a maximum degree of intensity, then apparent
convalescence, retrocession of paralysis, atrophy, and ultimate
deformities in limbs in which paralysis persists.
Several variations from this typical course are observed. Complete

recovery may take place, as in the so-called temporary paralysis of
Kennedy135 and of Frey.136 These cases are very rare. But their possibility
seriously complicates the estimate we may make of the efficacy of
therapeutic measures.137
135 Dublin Quarterly Journal, 1840.
136 Berlin. Klin. Wochensch., 1874. I have described one such temporary case in the article
already quoted. These cases seem about as frequent in adults. (See Frey, loc. cit.; also case
of Miles, etc. etc.)
137 As of the case of complete recovery, the only one the author had seen, related by Dally,
Journal de Thérap., 1880, 1, vii.
On the other hand, there may be a complete absence of regression; and

this is observed sometimes in cases where the paralysis is originally
limited; sometimes where it is extremely extensive, involving nearly all the
muscles of the trunk or limbs;138 or muscles or limbs originally spared may
become involved in a fresh attack. Laborde relates cases of this kind. In
Roger's first case paraplegia occurred under the influence of scarlatina
two months after paralysis of one arm.
138 Thus in Eulenburg's case, quoted ut supra.
The form of anterior poliomyelitis most frequent in adults is the subacute,

and after that the chronic. Both are extremely rare in children, the latter
excessively so. Seeligmüller and Seguin139 both admit the possibility of a
chronic form in children, and the latter has kindly communicated to me
one case from his private practice:
Miss N. D——, æt. 15, paresis in both legs, first at age of nine, increased
at age of twelve, when weakness of vision first noted. At fourteen both
feet in rigid pes equinus, and both tendons achilleis cut, without benefit.
Hands became tremulous, without paresis. On examination at age of
fifteen found moderate atrophy of muscles of both legs. Tendo Achillis
united on both sides, and equinus persists. Voluntary movement exists,
both in anterior tibial and in gastrocnemius muscles, but diminished in
anterior tibial. Faradic contractility diminished in both sets of muscles;
examination difficult from extreme sensibility of patient. In both hands
interossei, muscles of thumb, and little finger show tremors and fibrillary
contractions. Thenar eminences small, abductor pollicis nearly absent,
not reacting to faradic current. Optic nerves slightly atrophied. Mind
enfeebled, memory poor; articulation not affected. Five years later the
motor paralysis and mental enfeeblement had still further progressed, but
no exact notes exist of this period.
139 Loc. cit. (ed. 1877).
Erb140 relates a case that he considers unique at the time in a girl of six.
The paralysis began insidiously in the right foot in July; a fortnight later
had extended to the left foot; complete motor paralysis existed in August,
without any lesion of sensibility: after electrical treatment, then instituted,
first return to motility to peroneal muscles in November; by January child
able to walk again and electrical reactions nearly normal.141
140 Brain, 1883.
141 In the same number of Brain, A. Hughes Bennett quotes cases of so-called chronic
paralysis in very young children which are evidently cases of general paresis from congenital
cerebral atrophy. The children were defective in intelligence, could not sit up nor hold up the
head; the electrical reactions were preserved. I have seen a great many such cases: they
are indeed not at all uncommon. Much more so is Bennett's diagnosis.
COMPLICATION WITH PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR ATROPHY.—Raymond142 and

Seeligmüller describe some rare cases where progressive muscular
atrophy declared itself in persons previously affected with infantile
paralysis in other limbs. Both observers infer a gradual and chronic
extension along the cord of the originally acute anterior poliomyelitis.143
Similar cases have much more recently (1884) been quoted by Ballet as
tending to modify the prognosis which has usually been pronounced
favorable quoad life and further spinal accidents. (See infra.)
142 Gaz. méd., 1875. No. 17.
143 It seems to me that Seguin's case, above quoted, might be an example of such
complication(?). But I have not seen the patient myself, and describe the case according to
the views of the author.
PROGNOSIS.—The prognosis of atrophic paralysis, quoad vitam, is, as is

well known, extremely good. The prospect of recovery from the paralysis
is variable. It cannot be estimated either by the extent of the initial
paralysis or by the severity of the fever or attendant nervous symptoms.
The electrical reactions alone are of value in the prognosis, and their
value is very great. Duchenne first formulated their law: “All the cases of
infantile paralysis which I have seen where the faradic contractility was
diminished but not lost, and which could be treated by faradic electricity
within two years after the onset of the paralysis, have completely
recovered.”144 This encouraging statement must be read as applying
rather to individual muscles than to cases as a whole. Few complete
recoveries of patients are claimed even by so enthusiastic an electrician
as Duchenne; who nevertheless affirms his not unfrequent success in re-
creating entire muscles out of a few fibres saved from degeneration.
144 Loc. cit.
The persistence of galvanic irritability in muscles which fail to contract to

the faradic current has been shown by Erb to belong to the degenerative
reactions. Hammond, however, without alluding to the qualitative changes
in the galvanic contractions, sees in them the elements of a relatively
favorable prognosis, even when faradic contractility is lost. Thus, out of
87 cases, in 39 of which the paralyzed muscles contracted to the galvanic
but not the faradic current, 14 were entirely cured, 28 greatly improved,
30 slightly improved, 15 discontinued treatment very early.145
145 Loc. cit., p. 482.
Examination of fragments of living muscle obtained by Duchenne's

harpoon, though useful, should not be allowed to exaggerate an
unfavorable prognosis. Much fat may be found in such fragments when
the muscle is as yet by no means completely degenerated and can be
made to contract to one or the other current. Erb, however, admits that
the results of treatment have not, in his hands, been brilliant; but adds
that he has had no opportunity to treat any cases which were not of long
standing.146
146 Loc. cit.
Volkmann147 considers the paralysis entirely hopeless, and advises the

concentration of all effort upon the prevention or palliation of deformities.
147 Loc. cit.
It seems probable that at the present moment sufficient data do not exist
for formulating a fair prognosis; nor will they until a much larger number of
cases than hitherto have been submitted to all the resources of a complex
and persevering system of therapeutics from the earliest period of the
disease.
SPECIAL PARALYSES.—Among the paralyses, some exercise a more

unfavorable influence on locomotion than others. Thus, paralysis of the
muscles of the trunk is more difficult to palliate, either by apparatus or by
the efforts of the patient, than any paralysis of the limbs. Similarly,
paralysis of the upper segments of a limb is more crippling than when
confined to the lower. Partial paralysis of the muscles surrounding a joint
is often (but not always) more liable to lead to deformity than total
paralysis.
Influence of Neglect.—Apart from the influence of treatment in curing the

paralysis, must be estimated in the prognosis the effect of care and
watchfulness in limiting the disease and in averting many consequences,
even of those which are incurable. The rescue of muscles only partially
degenerated may often serve to compensate the inaction of those which
are irretrievably ruined.
Ballet148 has recently called attention to the fact that in certain cases
persons who had been attacked with an anterior poliomyelitis in childhood
became predisposed to different forms of spinal disease. Four have been
observed: (1) transitory congestion of the cord, causing paralysis of a day
or two's duration; (2) an acute spinal paralysis of the form usually seen in
adults; (3) subacute spinal paralysis; (4) progressive muscular atrophy.
The author relates cases under each of these heads, and further quotes
one related by Dejerine in 1882.149 The patient, a carpenter aged fifty-five
and with an atrophic deformity of the foot, became suddenly paralyzed in
the four limbs, trunk, and abdomen. The paralysis was complete in a
month, was stationary for three months, then began to improve, and at
the end of six months from the onset of the disease recovery was
complete.
148 Revue de Médecine, 1884.
149 Revue de Médecine, 1882.
The observations of progressive muscular atrophy in persons bearing the

stigmata of an infantile paralysis are quite numerous.150
150 Charcot, Soc. Biol., 1875, and Gaz. méd.; Seeligmüller (4 cases), in Gerhardt's
Handbuch, 1880; Hayem, Bull. Soc. de Biol., 1879; Vulpian, Clinique méd. de la Charité,
1879; Pitres, new observation, quoted by Ballet in 1884.
The prognosis cannot be the same for cases where everything is done to
avert malpositions and for those where all precautions are neglected.
Thus, prolonged rest in bed favors pes equinus; the use of crutches
necessitates flexion of the thigh and forced extension of the foot;
locomotion without support tends to displace articulations by
superincumbent weight, causing pes calcaneus, genu-recurvatum. Finally,
compensatory deformities must be averted from sound parts, as scoliosis
from shortening of the atrophied leg, equinus from passive shortening of
the gastrocnemii through flexion of the leg, etc.
ETIOLOGY.—Concerning the etiology proper of infantile paralysis little

definite is known. It is probable, as has been already noticed, that
traumatisms have a much more decided influence than is generally
assigned to them. Leyden particularly insists on this influence, and on the
facility with which a traumatism relatively severe for a young child may be
overlooked, because it would not be recognized as such for an adult. It
must be noticed, however, that children are much more liable to have the
arms wrenched and pulled violently than the lower extremities; yet in a
great majority of cases the lesion is situated in the lumbar cord.
It has been shown that the myelitis, though so limited transversely, is

often far more diffused in the longitudinal axis of the cord than might be
supposed from the permanent paralyses. This fact corresponds to the
initial generalization of the motor disturbance. It seems possible that the
traumatic irritation, starting from the central extremity of the insulted
nerve, diffuses itself through the cord until it meets with its point of least
resistance, and here excites a focal myelitis. That this point should most
frequently be found in the lumbar cord would be explained by its relatively
less elaborate development, corresponding to the imperfect growth and
function of the lower extremities.
A second cause of anterior poliomyelitis is, almost certainly, the presence

of some poison circulating in the blood. The frequent occurrence of the
accident in the course of one of the exanthemata is one indication of this;
other indications are found in such cases as that related by Simon, where
three children in one family were suddenly attacked—two on one day,
one, twenty-four hours later.151 The same author relates a case of motor
paralysis in an adult, followed by atrophy of left lower extremity, and which
occurred during a fit of indigestion caused by eating mussels.152 The
acute ascending paralysis of Landry, with its absence of visible lesion,
has been said to strikingly resemble the effects of poison. Hydrophobia
and tetanus are again examples of the predilection exhibited by certain
poisons for the motor regions of the cord.
151 Journal de Thérap., 7, vii., 1880, p. 16. These children belonged to an American family,
but were seen by several distinguished French physicians.
152 P. 357.
The evidence that infectious diseases may constitute the immediate

(apparent) causal antecedent of acute poliomyelitis has led, not
unnaturally, to the theory that all cases of acute infantile paralysis are due
to a specific infecting agent, some as yet unknown member of the great
class of pathogenic bacteria. It may be noticed, however, that the
occurrence of the spinal accidents after the ordinary infectious diseases,
as scarlatina and measles, should as well indicate that a specific agent
proper to itself was at least not essential to its development.153
153 Perhaps the occurrence of diphtheria in the course of scarlatina and typhoid should
indicate a similar lack of real specificity in the morbid agent of the former disease.
The influence of exposure to cold, which seems to have been sometimes

demonstrated, must probably be interpreted, as in the case of
rheumatism and pneumonia, as effective by means of some poison
generated in the organism when cutaneous secretion, exhalation, or
circulation has been suddenly checked.
DIAGNOSIS.—The diagnosis of the acute anterior poliomyelitis of childhood

is usually easy, but unexpected difficulties occasionally arise.
Typical cases are markedly different from typical cases of cerebral

paralysis, but in exceptional cases these differences disappear. This is
shown in the following table:
SPINAL PARALYSIS. CEREBRAL PARALYSIS.

Hemiplegic, (rule). Monoplegic as residuum of
Paraplegic or monoplegic (rule). hemiplegia or as consequence of solitary tubercle
(exception).
Hemiplegic as residuum from paraplegia, or
original and involving facial nerve (very
exceptional).
Intelligence free (rule). Intelligence depressed (rule).
Intelligence depressed (when spinal paralysis Intelligence free (exception, especially with solitary
has affected imbecile children). tubercle).
Disposition lively. Disposition apathetic or cross.
Initial convulsion unique; general symptoms Convulsions repeated; pyrexia prolonged several
of a few hours' duration (rule). days or weeks (rule).
Convulsion repeated during two to three
weeks before paralysis; fever a month (rare
exceptions).
Sensibility intact (rule). Sensibility intact after initial period.
Occasional hyperæsthesia (exception).
Reflexes cutaneous, and tenderness lowered
Reflexes intact.
or lost (rule).
Reflexes preserved when only single
muscles in groups paralyzed.
Associated movements of hand absent Associated movements frequently observed in
(Seeligmüller). hand.
Extensive and rigid contractions of upper extremity
No rigid contractions of upper extremity.
very frequent.
Atrophy of paralyzed muscles and arrested
Atrophy very slight.
development of limb, very marked.
Faradic contractility diminished or lost;
Electrical reactions normal.
degenerative galvanic reaction.
Rather singularly, the diagnosis from transverse myelitis is less liable to

error than that from cerebral paralysis:
ANTERIOR
TRANSVERSE MYELITIS.
POLIOMYELITIS.
Fever brief or absent. Persistent fever.
Sensibility intact. Hyperæsthesia, then anæsthesia.
Decubitus absent. Presence decubitus.
Reflexes lost. Reflexes increased.
Atrophy of muscles. Atrophy of muscles sometimes as intense.
Electrical muscular Loss of electrical contractility, but not proportioned to sensory and motor
contractility lost. disturbance; less rapidly completed.
The diagnosis from hæmatomyelitis is almost impossible, and practically

useless. For if the hemorrhage be severe, the child dies at once, as in
Clifford Albutt's case. If less severe, it excites a myelitis, and the history
becomes identical with that of the disease we are considering; or if the
clot beyond the anterior cornua, it is identified with a vulgar myelitis of
traumatic origin.
Progressive muscular atrophy is extremely rare in childhood, but is

occasionally seen under hereditary influence (Friedreich's disease). In
adult cases confusion is not only easy to make, but often difficult to avoid,
especially with the rare, chronic form of poliomyelitis. The basis of
distinction is as follows:
ANTERIOR POLIOMYELITIS. PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR ATROPHY.
Onset sudden; maximum of paralysis at the March very gradual; maximum of disease
beginning. not attained for years.
Faradic contractility not lost until atrophy
Faradic contractility lost almost at once.
complete.
Shortening of limbs and atrophy of limbs (in
No arrest of development of limbs.
infantile cases).
Functionally associated muscles frequently Capricious selection of muscles, but frequent
associated in paralysis: hand rarely affected. wasting of these at eminences.
Paralysis from lesion of a peripheric nerve closely imitates anterior spinal

paralysis.154 It is distinguished by closely following the distribution of the
injured nerve, and, usually, by concomitant lesions of the sensibility and of
cutaneous nutrition.
154 The importance of this fact has been shown in the section on Pathogeny. (See also
quotations from Leyden and remarks on lesions of peripheric nerves.)
The pseudo-paralysis sometimes observed in syphilitic children as a

consequence of a gummatous infiltration of the bones at the junction of
the epiphysis and diaphysis155 might easily be mistaken for a spinal
paralysis. But it is an affection peculiar to the new-born; the electrical
reactions of the paralyzed muscles are intact; careful examination will
show that the movements of the muscles are not impossible, but
restrained by pain; often other syphilitic affections are present.
155 Parrot, Wagner.
The diagnosis from diphtheritic paralysis is embarrassed, from the fact

that true anterior poliomyelitis may develop in the course of diphtheria as
of other infectious diseases. The paralysis of the soft palate, preservation
of faradic reaction, absence of atrophy, and the usually rapid recovery
must establish the differentiation.
In spinal paralysis there is loss of the reflexes,156 and also of faradic

contractility, both of which are preserved in hysteria. In hysterical
paralysis, also, there is no wasting of the affected muscles.
156 See Gowers's monograph on “Spinal-Cord Diseases” for an excellent summary of the
spinal reflexes.
Various diseases of the bony skeleton or articulations may simulate spinal
paralysis. Congenital club-foot, caused by unequal development of the
bones and cuticular surfaces, is to be distinguished from the paralytic
variety by the date of its appearance,157 by the deformity of the tarsal
bones, and by the extreme difficulty of reduction.
157 Though in some cases paralysis of the muscles of the foot seems to take place during
fœtal life, and a club-foot result which is both congenital and paralytic.
Caries of the calcaneum, leading the child to walk on the anterior part of
the foot to avoid pressure on the heel, may leave after recovery such a
retraction of the plantar fascia as to cause a degree of equinus and varus,
with apparent paralysis of the peroneal muscles. I have seen one such
case.
Congenital luxation of the hip may simulate paralysis; indeed, by Verneuil,

it has been attributed to an intra-uterine spinal paralysis. There is,
however, no change in the electrical reactions of the muscles surrounding
the joint.
In coxitis, however, Newton Shaffer158 has demonstrated a moderate

diminution of faradic contractility in such muscles, and a corresponding
degree of atrophy; and this fact might complicate the diagnosis of
paralysis from arthritis of the hip-joint. Gibney159 has called attention to
the facility with which this confusion may arise, and Sayre160 relates cases
of infantile paralysis mistaken for coxitis.
158 Archives of Medicine.
159 Am. Journ. Med. Sci., Oct., 1878.
160 Orthopædic Surgery.
In a case observed by myself, which had been previously diagnosed as

coxitis, the mistake was all the more interesting as the paralysis which
really existed seemed to have been caused by a meningitis rather than
primary myelitis of the cornua.161 It thus corresponded to the meningo-
myelitic case related by Leyden.
161 The details of this case are as follows: C. P——, aged 11, ten months previous to
consultation suffered from febrile attack, accompanied by retraction of head, severe pains
diffused through body and intense at nape of neck; unconsciousness for thirty-six hours;
vomiting; no convulsions. Case diagnosed as cerebro-spinal meningitis by attendant
physician. Convalescence in a week, but with pain in lumbar region of back, predominating
on right side, so aggravated by standing or walking that both acts impossible. Coincidently,
pain in right calf; exquisite tenderness to pressure even from stocking. No complaint in
recumbent position. Child could not get from floor to bed, nor raise right leg from ground. As
pain subsided walking became possible, but right leg dragged. Chronic twitchings on left
side, face, arm, leg. These symptoms lasted ten or twelve weeks, but at end of nine weeks
patient could walk up stairs. In ten months power of walking almost recovered, but there
remained a certain amount of lordosis and oscillation of pelvis, which is jarred on the left
side while the right leg is swung forward. Recumbent, all movements executed equally well
on both sides and passive motion of the hip-joint perfectly free. Circumference of right thigh
and leg diminished from one-half to one inch as compared with the left. Faradic contractility
diminished on the right side in the gluteal muscles, vastus externus, and rectus, and in the
gastrocnemii. The sacro-lumbalis muscle was, unfortunately, not examined, but from the
lordosis was probably affected. The remaining muscles were intact. Pain on pressure
persisted over right side of second, third, and fourth lumbar vertebræ. Diagnosis was made
of a limited meningeal exudation, with compression of anterior part of cord or of a portion of
the lumbar and of the sacral plexus.
Scoliosis, which may be caused by the relatively rare unilateral paralysis

of some of the muscles of the trunk, may also be simulated by paralysis
with shortening of one lower extremity. To compensate the shortening, the
trunk is bent over on the paralyzed side; hence a lateral curvature, easily
reducible, but easily leading into error.
It would seem easy to distinguish traumatic cases of subluxation of the

humerus from those due to paralysis of the deltoid. Yet sometimes only
the history will serve to establish, and that somewhat doubtfully, the
diagnosis.162
162 A child of four was brought to me with a stiffness and rigidity of the shoulder-joint which
could only very partially be overcome by passive motion, and not at all by voluntary effort.
The mother stated that several months previously the child had, without apparent cause,
become suddenly unable to move the arm. After two months' delay it was taken to a
dispensary, and told that the arm was out of joint, and had it reset under ether. From this
date the stiffness had gradually developed. The deltoid was atrophied, with marked
diminution of the faradic contractility. Question: Were these signs merely symptomatic of an
arthritis consequent on a dislocation, or was the latter the result of a spinal paralysis of the
deltoid?
THERAPEUTICS.—The treatment of anterior poliomyelitis embraces two
stages. In the first it is directed against inflammation of the spinal cord
and the paralysis of the muscles; in the second period the spinal lesion
has run its course and the paralysis is considered incurable. Treatment is
then directed to the prevention or palliation of deformities or toward
facilitating the functions of the limb in spite of them.
These two periods are not, however, rigidly separated from each other in
chronological order. From the very outset it is important to take certain
precautions to prevent deformities, and while palliating these with
orthopædic apparatus it is important for years to continue treatment of the
paralyzed muscles in the hope that at least a remnant of them may be
saved. To abandon the case to the orthopædic instrument-maker, or to
neglect the problem of dynamic mechanics while applying electricity and
studying the progress of fatty degeneration, are errors greatly to be
condemned.
The treatment of the initial stage is necessarily purely symptomatic for the
fever and convulsions, since the diagnosis cannot be made out until these
have subsided.
As soon as the diagnosis is clear, however, certain measures should be

adopted to diminish the hyperæmia of the spinal cord. Dally163
recommends the ventral decubitus; almost all modern authorities advise
ice to the spine and ergot internally or subcutaneously. Thus, Althaus164
makes hypodermic injections of ergotin in doses of one-fourth of a grain
for a child between one and two years old; one-third of a grain between
three and five; and one half grain from five to ten; and these doses
repeated once or twice daily. The only objection to this treatment is the
degree of local irritation it can hardly fail to occasion. Hammond, who
“affirms ergot to be of great service, the only medicine capable of cutting
short the disease or of limiting its lesions,” recommends the internal
administration of the fluid extract—ten drops three times a day for infants
of six months, half a drachm for children between one and two years.165
163 Journ. Thérap., t. viii., 1880.
164 On Infantile Paralysis.

165 I have elsewhere quoted one case of early recovery under the use of ice and ergot; or
was this a case of temporary paralysis?
The belladonna treatment, at one time so warmly praised by Brown-

Séquard, retains to-day few adherents.
Simon advises cutaneous revulsives to divert the circulation to the

surface; thus, hot-air baths, mustard powder sprinkled on cotton
enveloping the limbs. Ross advises mercurial inunction along the spine,
followed by iodine and blisters. At the same time, iodide of potassium
should be given internally in large doses. The action of this drug upon
inflammations of the nerve-centres seems, within certain limits, to be
indisputable, but its mode of action is certainly very obscure. Where the
lesion can be attributed to a meningo-myelitis,166 the iodide may be
expected to facilitate the absorption of the exudation. In these cases it
should be continued for a long time.167
166 As in Leyden's first case, and my own.
167 Binz explains the local action of iodine by an exudation of leucocytes which follows the
dilatation of blood-vessels. These elements break down the exudation into which they are
poured, and thus facilitate its absorption.
Electrical treatment may be begun by the end of the first week after the
paralysis. At this stage Erb recommends central galvanization as an
antiphlogistic remedy for the myelitis. For this purpose a large anode
must be placed over the spine at the presumed seat of the lesion, while
the cathode is applied over the abdomen. By a slight modification of the
method the cathode is placed over the paralyzed muscles. The
application is stabile, and, according to Erb, should last from three to ten
minutes; according to Bouchut, several hours daily. Erb's method is
intended exclusively as a sedative to the local inflammation. When the
cathode is placed on the muscles it is hoped that the descending current,
replacing the lost nervous impulses, may avert the threatening
degeneration of the muscle and nerve.
Faradization cannot modify the inflammatory lesions of the cord. As a

means of averting degeneration in completely paralyzed muscles it is
inferior to galvanism, and should not therefore be used in those muscles
which refuse to contract under its stimulus. Its immense utility, however, is
as a stimulus to muscles imperfectly paralyzed, but liable to degenerate
from inaction and to be overborne by their antagonists. The excitation of
contractions in such muscles is a powerful local gymnastic, helping to
maintain nutrition by artificially-excited function.
For the same purpose, muscles inexcitable to the faradic current should
be, when this is possible, made to contract by the interrupted galvanic
current. After this treatment has been prolonged during several months,
the faradic contractility often returns, and the current then should be
changed (Seguin).
The value of electrical treatment has been very differently estimated. Erb
remarks that “its results are not precisely brilliant.” Roth, whose testimony
perhaps is not above suspicion, since evidently prejudiced, insists that
numerous cases fall into his hands which have submitted for months to
electrical treatment without the slightest benefit. On the other hand,
Duchenne, as is well known, has expressed almost unbounded
confidence in the therapeutic efficacy of faradization, declaring that it was
capable of “creating entire muscles out of a few fibres.”
The sensitiveness of children to the electrical current, and their terror at

its application, seriously interfere with its persistent use; as, if the
patience of the physician is maintained, that of the parents is very likely to
fail in the presence of the cries and resistance of the child.
It is very probable that some of the failures of electrical treatment are due
to the attempt to rely upon it exclusively, instead of suitably combining
both electrical methods with each other and with other remedial
measures. With our present knowledge it is safe to assert the desirability
of persistent electrical treatment during at least the first two years
following the paralysis. The currents must never be too strong—the
faradic, at least, never applied for longer than ten minutes at a time. The
muscles should be relaxed by the position of the limbs (Sayre). If the
muscles continue to waste, and especially if they become fatty, the
electrical response will grow less and less, and finally cease altogether.168
In the contrary case the galvanic contraction will become normal in
quality, and the faradic contractility will return and increase, while the
atrophy is arrested and the muscle regains its bulk and voluntary powers.
Sometimes, as already stated, the latter is regained, while faradic
contractility remains greatly diminished.169
168 Passing through three stages: faradic contractility diminished, galvanic contraction
increased; faradic response lost, galvanic degenerative; absence of contraction to either
current.
169 Sayre (loc. cit.) has noticed cases in which the muscle would contract several times
under faradism, then refuse to do so for a day or two. This observation, if valid and not due
to unequal working of the battery, is a most curious one.
A succedaneum to electricity that is highly prized by some authorities is

strychnia, especially when subcutaneously administered. Pelione170
relates the cure of two cases in children of four and five years, after three
and four years' duration of the paralysis, by strychnia—one-half
milligramme daily. None should be given to children under six months, but
over that age one-ninety-sixth of a grain may be given (Hammond). It
should not be given subcutaneously more than two or three times a week
(Seeligmüller).171
170 L'Union médicale, 1883.
171 Duchenne relates a case of a paralysis general at the outset and remaining so for six
months. It was then treated by strychnine for five or six months, and at the end of that time
had become limited to the lower extremities (Elect. local., ed. 1861, p. 278).
The incidental action of electricity in attracting blood to the paralyzed

muscles may be sustained by several other methods.
Among these the external application of heat, either dry or in the form of
hot douches, alternating with cold, is an adjuvant remedy of real
importance. Beard has suggested tubing, malleable to the limbs, for the
conduction of hot water. It is desirable to employ massage immediately
after cessation of the hot applications.
On the value of massage and passive gymnastics opinion is even more

variable than in regard to electricity. Roth, a specialist in orthopædics,
places it at the head of all remedial measures, and denounces electricity
in comparison. Many professional manipulators, ignorant of medical
science, continually claim wonderful triumphs over regular physicians
obtained by means of systematized massage. Volkmann, on the other
hand, dismisses the pretensions of the Heilgymnastik with considerable
contempt, declaring that faradization is the only method which can really
secure exercise to paralyzed muscles.
The Swedish movement cure consists in passive movements imparted to
a limb by the manipulator, at the same time that they are strenuously
resisted by the patient. From the nature of this method, and its aim in
stimulating the voluntary innervation of the muscles, it is admirably
adapted to hysterical paralysis. Theoretically, it is difficult to perceive the
applicability of this method in organic atrophic paralysis, especially in
young children, whose voluntary efforts cannot be commanded. There
are, however, several real indications for passive gymnastics in the
treatment of infantile paralysis. Surface friction and deep massage have
some influence in dilating the blood-vessels and causing an afflux of
blood to the cold and wasting muscles. A probably more important effect
may be produced upon the contraction caused by malposition and
adapted atrophy of certain groups of muscles. It is these contractions
which formerly constituted the special objection of the orthopædist, and
were treated almost universally by tenotomy. They are in any case the
proximate cause of deformities; and, generally existing on the side of the
joint opposite to the most severely paralyzed muscles, they keep these
over-stretched and prevent them from receiving the benefit of the
electrical treatment. Muscles which will not contract to the faradic current
while thus stretched will often begin at once to do so when the rigidity of
their antagonists has been overcome.
Persevering stretching by the hands will often overcome this rigidity as

completely, and even more permanently, than will the tenotomy-knife. It is
in this part of the treatment that entirely ignorant and even charlatan
manipulations do, not unfrequently, achieve remarkable results.172
172 Of course many of those on record, and to some of which I have been a witness, relate
to hysterical contractions, hysterical scoliosis, etc.
It is the retracted tendo Achillis and plantar fascia which most frequently
require this manipulation. In the paralytic club-foot of young children all
authorities agree in the value of repeated manipulations and restorations
of the foot as nearly as possible to a position where it may be retained by
simple bandaging. While turning the foot out it becomes perfectly white,
but on releasing hold of it the circulation is restored, after which the
manœuvre may be repeated (Sayre).
This principle of intermittent stretching by seizure of the segments of the

limb above and below the joint applies to all forms of paralytic contraction.
In the trunk the pelvis should be held by the mother, while the
manipulator, seizing the thorax of the child between both hands, moves it
gently but forcibly to and fro in the required direction. Great care is
required in these manipulations—not merely to avoid exhausting the
muscles, but even to avoid fracturing atrophied bones.
It may be laid down as a positive rule that tenotomy should never be

performed in the contractions of spinal paralysis until the resources of
manipulation have been exhausted. It is to be remembered that the
rigidity depends on no active contraction of the muscle, but on its elastic
retraction. The manœuvre of stretching does not appeal to the force of
contractility, which may have been lost, but to the force of elasticity, which
remains and can be made to act in a reverse direction. Finally, in the
cases where the retracted muscles have not been originally paralyzed,
but have lost the power of contracting during the process of shortening,
this power may be restored if the muscle regain its normal length.
The operation of tenotomy, apparently a far more heroic measure, is often

a less efficacious means of arriving at the results. Unless followed by the
application of apparatus which permits motion in the joint, section of
contracted tendons is only of brief utility.
Though the edges of the cut tendon have been kept apart until the
intervening space is filled by new tissue, union is finally effected by the
latter, and retraction through elasticity is again imminent. Often, therefore,
the deformity is repeated in spite of repeated operations; when it is not,
the happy issue is due to the fact that, with increased freedom of
locomotion immediately after the tenotomy, the patient has been enabled
to bring the influence of weight to bear in such a manner as to fix the limb
in a new and more convenient position. Thus, after section of the tendo
Achillis for pes equinus, if the patient begins at once to walk on the
paralyzed foot, the weight of the body, pressing down the heel, may keep
the tendon stretched. So walking immediately after section of the
hamstring muscles will have a tendency to produce genu-recurvation by
the same mechanism which produces it in total paralysis, and the original
deformity will not recur.
Besides the tendo Achillis, the parts which may be occasionally submitted
to tenotomy are the plantar fascia, the peroneal muscles, very rarely the
anterior tibial and extensors, the hamstrings, the thigh adductors. Section
of the external rotators of the thigh or of the tensors of the fascia lata
could hardly ever be required, and among these operations Hueter173
rejects that on the plantar aponeurosis as inadequate. The excavation in
the foot it is designed to remedy depends upon alteration in the form of
the tarsal bones, and can only be cured by means of forcible pressure
exerted on their dorsal surface. Section of the peroneal muscles, often
recommended by Sayre, is considered by Hueter to be superfluous after
section of the tendon achilleis. Paralytic contraction of the hamstrings or
of the hip flexors is rarely sufficiently severe to demand tenotomy.
173 Loc. cit., p. 416.
From what has preceded it is evident that maintenance of locomotion is of

great importance, in order to avoid the deformities which are threatened
by prolonged repose. Locomotion, however, can only be safely permitted
with the assistance of apparatus capable of restraining the movements
liable to be produced by the weight of the body. The supporting
instrument which restrains movement in certain directions must, however,
facilitate it in others: immovable apparatus, such as is not infrequently
applied after tenotomy, is always injurious.
In young children unable to walk, the development of pes equinus may

often be prevented by drawing down the foot to a sole splint made of thin
wood, gutta-percha, or felt, and fastening it with a flannel bandage. The
point of the foot may be drawn up toward the tibia by a strip of diachylon
plaster. If the equinus has already developed, a splint of gutta-percha or
of felt (Sayre) may be modelled to the leg and foot while the latter is held
forcibly in dorsal flexion. The splint is attached by means of strips of
adhesive plaster. It should extend as far as the knee, and be suitably
padded (Seeligmüller).
In children able to walk a sole splint of thin metal, to which the foot had
been previously attached by a flannel band, should be inserted in a stout
leather boot. On the outer side of this boot should run a metallic splint,
jointed at the ankle and extending to a leather band surrounding the leg
just below the knee. A broad leather band, attached to the outer edge of
the sole anterior to the talo-tarsal articulation, also passes up on the
outside of the foot, gradually narrowing until, opposite the ankle, it passes
through a slit in the side of the shoe, to be attached to the leg-splint. This
band tends to draw the point of the foot outward, and thus correct the
varus (Volkmann). Sayre174 has improved on this shoe by dividing the sole
at the medio-tarsal articulation, in which lateral deviation takes place, and
uniting the anterior and posterior parts by a ball-and-socket joint,
permitting movement in every direction.
174 Loc. cit., p. 88.
The orthopædic boot for the treatment of calcaneo-valgus is constructed

on the same principle. But the splint runs up the inner side of the leg, and
the leather strap passing to it from the edge of the sole draws the point of
the foot inward and raises its depressed inner border (Volkmann).
Essential to the treatment of this deformity, however, is the elevation of
the heel. This is effected by means of a gutta-percha strap which is
attached below to a spur projecting from the heel of the shoe, and above
to a band encircling the leg. If, by rare exception, a paralytic calcaneus
exists in a child unable to walk, a simple substitute may be found for the
shoe in a board sole-splint projecting behind the heel, attached to the foot
by a strip of adhesive plaster, which finally passes from the posterior
extremity of the board up the back of the leg, and is there secured by a
roller bandage.
The device of the gutta-percha elastic band to replace the gastrocnemius

muscle illustrates a principle of wide application in orthopædic apparatus.
The suggestion to replace paralyzed muscles by artificial ones was first
made by Delacroix175 in an apparatus designed for the hand. The
suggestion was repeated by Gerdy;176 and in 1840, Rigal de Gaillac
proposed to exchange the metallic springs hitherto used for India-rubber
straps. Duchenne elaborated the suggestion in a remarkable manner,177
using delicate spiral springs as a substitute for the lost muscles, and
taking the greatest pains to make the insertion-points of these to exactly
correspond with the insertions of the natural muscles. This was effected
by means of sheaths, imitating natural tendinous sheaths, sewed to a
glove or gaiter in which the hand or foot was encased.
175 Article “Orthopédie,” Dict. des Sciences médicales, quoted by Duchenne.
176 Traité des Bandages, 2d ed., Paris, 1837, quoted by Duchenne.
177 See chapter on “Prothetic Apparatus” in his treatise De l'Électrisation localisée.

At the present day the prothetic apparatus the most employed is that
contrived by Barwell.178 The principle is the same as Duchenne's, but the
artificial muscles are made of India-rubber, to which a small metallic chain
is adjusted, and they are attached to the limb by means of specially-
devised bands of adhesive plaster and pieces of tin bearing loops for the
insertion of the muscle. In this apparatus the artificial muscles do not
attempt to imitate the situation of the natural muscles with the precision
which Duchenne claimed for his. Barwell's own dressing for talipes valgus
consists of two rubber muscles which pass from the inner border of the
foot, one to the inner, the other to the anterior, part of a band which
encircles the leg just below the knee. For talipes calcaneus another band
is required behind the leg, passing to the heel, as in Volkmann's
apparatus, already mentioned. For talipes varus a rubber band should
pass on the outside of the foot; for equinus, one or more from the anterior
part of the leg to the sides of the anterior part of the foot.
178 A tolerably minute account of the Barwell dressing is given by Sayre, loc. cit., p. 84.
Sayre endorses Barwell's dressing as entirely adequate for the treatment

of any form of club-foot, but modifies it by substituting a ball-and-socket
shoe for the adhesive plaster which should encircle the foot. The artificial
muscles are then passed from the sides of the shoe to a padded leather
girdle encircling the leg. A straight splint, jointed opposite the ankle, runs
up from each side of the foot to this girdle, and from it two lateral upright
bars, jointed at the ankle, pass to the heel of the shoe; and from below
the joint passes forward on each side a horizontal bar reaching the point
of origin of the artificial muscles and giving attachment to them.
In equinus it is necessary to bind the heel of the foot down firmly in the
heel of the shoe; and this is accomplished by means of two chamois-
leather flaps which are attached to the inside walls of the shoe and lace
firmly across the foot.179
179 “The aim of the dressing or instrument is simply to imitate the action of the surgeon's
hand; accordingly, any apparatus combining elastic force is far superior to any fixed
appliance; and, moreover, that is to be preferred which is the most readily removable.
Shoes, therefore, are better than bandages or splints. A proper shoe must have joints
opposite the ankle and the medio-tarsal articulation; it must permit the ready application of
elastic power; and it must not so girdle the limb as to interfere with the circulation” (Sayre,
loc. cit., p. 91).

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Interactive Approach to Writing Essays

and Research Reports in Psychology

Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology, 4th ed

Introduction to Clinical Psychology. An evidence-based

Test Bank Psychology 4th Ed by Daniel Schater 4th

Cultural Psychology 4th Edition Steven J. Heine

Writing a Research Paper in Political Science 4th

Longman Academic Writing Series 3 Paragraphs to Essays

Culinary Math, 4th ed 4th Edition Linda Blocker

From Inquiry to Academic Writing 4th Edition Greene

First edition published 2002

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Quantitative research In‐text citations 171

vi ABOUT THE AUTHOR

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Why research is reported

2 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

1.2 Essays versus research reports

Sections of a research report

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 3

1.3 Finding the right information

Searching the literature

4 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

Using the library

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 5

6 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

Useful psychology sites

Tips for searching the internet more effectively

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 7

8 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

1.4 Reviewing the literature

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 9

1.5 Academic integrity

10 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

An important finding of this study is that a relationship between self‐report

included as the stimuli to be imagined on imagery questionnaires.

A relationship between self‐report imagery and spatial abilities occurs

when spatial shapes are the stimuli imagined on imagery questionnaires

jective measures of visual imagery and spatial abilities. These measures

stimuli imagined on visual imagery questionnaires.

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 11

12 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

CHAPTER 1 Where to begin 13

14 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

Writing in APA style

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

the good, the bad, and the ugly

red, white, and blue

. . . in a study by Collins, Barnes, and Milne (2004)

pages 21, 36, 52, and 89

the apple, pear, or orange

The winner of the competition, Bob Smith, was overjoyed.

16 An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

tired by the end of the day.

received a high mark.

(Crook, 2010, discovered . . .)