A project report on

Analysis of SOC estimation and emission reduction of various

Hybrid electric vehicles

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By
P. VENKATA RAMANA 21U45A0234
M.HARIKA 21U45A0223
K.SAI 21U45A0214
D.SRINIVAS REDDY 21U45A0207

Under the Esteemed guidance of

Mr. B.V. Veeranjaneyulu
Assistant.Prof., Department of EEE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DADI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E., New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU GV)
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade and Inclusion u/s 2(f) & 12(B) of UGC Act
An ISO 9001:2015, ISO 14001:2015 & ISO 45001:2018 Certified Institute.
NH-16, Anakapalle – 531002, Visakhapatnam, A.P.
(2021-2024)

I
 DEPARTMENTOF

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “Analysis of SOC estimation and emission
reduction of various hybrid electric vehicles” submitted by Pilla Venkata Ramana
(21U45A0234), Malla Harika(21U45A0223), Kallempudi Sai(21U45A0214), Dukka
Srinivas(21U45A0207). In partial fulfillment of the requirements for award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, from Dadi Institute of
Engineering & Technology(A), Anakapalle affiliated to JNTUGV, accredited by NAAC with 'A'
grade is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under my guidance and supervision.

PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude to our project guide, B. V. Veeranjaneyulu, Assistant
professor of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his guidance and assistance
throughout the development of this project. Without his supervision, support, and encouragement,
we would not have gained awareness of many new things during our project.

We convey our heartfelt thanks to Dr.A.S.L.K. Gopalamma, Associate Professor & Head of the
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for motivating us to successfully
complete the project.

We would like to thank Principal Dr.R.Vaikunta Rao, Dadi Institute of Engineering &
Technology, for providing the necessary facilities to carry out our project work successfully.

We express our gratitude to the Teaching and Non-teaching Staff of the Department of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering, who have been directly and indirectly involved in this journey, for
their encouragement in completing our project.
We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to honorable Chairman, Sri Dadi
Ratnakar, of Dadi Institute of Engineering & Technology, for providing necessary facilities to
carry out our project work successfully.
Endeavors over a long period can also be successful through constant effort and encouragement.
We wish to take this opportunity to express our deep gratitude to all the people who have extended
their cooperation in various ways during our project. It is our pleasure to acknowledge the help of
all those respected individuals.

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

PILLA VENKATA RAMANA

(21U45A0234) MALLA HARIKA
(21U45A0223) KALLEMPUDI SAI
(21U45A0214)
DUKKA SRINIVAS (21U45A0207)

III
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled “Analysis of SOC estimation and emission
reduction of various hybrid electric vehicles” is submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering under esteemed supervision of B.V.Veeranjaneyulu, Assistant professor .This is
a record of work carried out by us and results embodied in this project report have not been
submitted to any other university for the award of any Degree.

PROJECT ASSOCIATES

PILLA VENKATA RAMANA (21U45A0234)

MALLA HARIKA (21U45A0223)
KALLEMPUDI SAI (21U45A0214)
DUKKA SRINIVAS (21U45A0207)

IV
 ABSTRACT
This document presents a comprehensive analysis of state-of-charge (SOC) estimation and its impact
on emission reduction in various types of hybrid electric vehicles with the increasing adoption of
electric and hybrid vehicles, accurate SOC estimation plays a crucial role in optimizing battery
management systems and enhancing vehicle performance. Furthermore, reducing emissions from
hybrid electric vehicles remains a significant challenge, necessitating advanced control strategies and
emission reduction technologies. This document reveals about IM&PMSM-based series and parallel
hybrid electric vehicles with FWD powertrain configurations and NiMH and Li-ion-based battery
packs. All the designs were tested in a MATLAB/Simulink software environment, and the proposed
series hybrid model with a Li-ion battery driven by a PMSM motor gave optimum results with better
SOC, and NiMH- based series hybrid electric vehicles emitted less contamination to the environment.

Keywords: State-of-charge (SOC), emission reduction, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles,
Internal combustion engine vehicles, Lithium-ion, Nickel metal hydride battery.

V
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

3 PROPOSED CONCEPT

4 RESUSLTS & DISCUSSIONS

5 CONCLUSION
6 REFERENCES

V
 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER Pg. No.

ABSTRACT V

LIST OF FIGURES X

LIST OF TABLES XI

ABBREVIATIONS XII

1. INTRODUCTION 1-42
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Conventional Vehicles 1
1.1.2 Components of Conventional Vehicles 1
1.1.3 Drawbacks of Conventional Vehicles 7
1.1.4 Impact of Conventional Vehicles on Environment 7

1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLES 8

1.2.1 History of Electric Vehicles 8
1.2.2 Components of Electric Vehicles 9
1.2.3 Types of Electric Vehicles 10
1.2.3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles 10
1.2.3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 11
1.2.3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 12
1.2.3.4 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles 13
1.2.4 Advantages of Electric Vehicles 14
1.2.5 Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles 14

1.3 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES 15

1.3.1 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicles 16
1.3.2 Components of Hybrid Electric Vehicles 16
1.3.3 Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles 17

VII
 1.3.3.1 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles 17
1.3.3.1.1 Advantages Series HEVs 18
1.3.3.1.2 Disadvantages Series HEVs 18
1.3.3.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 18
1.3.3.2.1 Advantages Parallel HEVs 19
1.3.3.2.2 Disadvantages Parallel HEVs 20
1.3.3.2.3 Modes of Parallel HEVs 21
1.3.3.3 Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 22
1.3.3.3.1 Advantages Series-Parallel HEVs 23
1.3.3.3.2 Disadvantages Series-Parallel HEVs 24
1.3.3.3.3 Modes of Series-Parallel HEVs 25
1.4 ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 26
1.4.1 Batteries 26
1.4.1.1 Lead-Acid Battery 27
1.4.1.2 Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery 27
1.4.1.3 Lithium-ion Battery 28
1.4.2 Fuel Cells 29
1.4.2.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 30
1.4.2.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells 30
1.4.3 Super/Ultra Capacitors 31
1.4.4 Fly Wheels 32
1.5 MOTORS USED IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES 33
1.5.1 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor 34
1.5.1.1 Advantages of PMSM in HEV 35
1.5.1.2 Disadvantages of PMSM in HEV 36
1.5.2 Induction Motor 36
1.5.2.1 Advantages of Induction Motor in HEV 37
1.5.2.2 Disadvantages of Induction Motor in HEV 38
1.5.3 Switched Reluctance Motor 39
1.5.3.1 Advantages of Switched Reluctance Motor in HEV 39
1.5.3.2 Disadvantages of Switched Reluctance Motor in HEV 40

VII
1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS 42
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 43-49
3. PROPOSED CONCEPT 50-53
4. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 54-59
5. CONCLUSION 60
REFERENCES 61-63
PUBLICATIONS 64

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Block Diagram of Battery Electric Vehicles 10

1.2 Block Diagram of Hybrid Electric Vehicles 11
1.3 Block Diagram of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 12
1.4 Block Diagram of Fuel cell Electric Vehicles 13
1.5 Block Diagram of Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle 17
1.6 Block Diagram of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle 19
1.7 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle 21
1.8 Operating Modes of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 22
1.9 Block Diagram of Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle 23
1.10 Operating Modes of Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles 25
1.11 Lead-Acid Battery 27

1.12 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery 28

1.13 Lithium-Ion Battery 29

1.14 Basic operation of a fuel cell 29

1.15 Basic principles of a typical electric double-layer capacitor 32
1.16 Basic structure of typical flywheel system 33
1.17 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor 34
1.18 Induction Motor 37

1.19 Switched Reluctance Motor 39

3.1 Proposed concept block diagram of series hybrid vehicle 50

3.2 Operating modes of series hybrid electric vehicles 51

3.3 MATLAB/Simulink block diagram for proposed concept of series hybrid vehicle 53

4.1 Series ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75 54

X
4.2 Series ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58 54

4.3 Series ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75 55

4.4 Series ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58 55

4.5 Parallel ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75 56

4.6 Parallel ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58 56

4.7 Parallel ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75 57

4.8 Parallel ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58 57

LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Distance traveled and emission reduction chart of lithium-ion battery-based and 58
nickel metal hydride battery-based IM and PMSM adopted series and
parallel hybrid.

XI
 ABBREVIATIONS

EVs Electric Vehicles

BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles
HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicles
PHEVs Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

FCEVs Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

SHEVs Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles

PHEVs Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

SPHEVs Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

IM Induction Motor

SRM Switched Reluctance Motor

NiMH Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery
Li-ion Lithium-Ion Battery

X
 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES:
Conventional vehicles, also known as internal combustion engine vehicles, are powered by
gasoline or diesel fuel. They rely on an internal combustion engine to convert fuel into
mechanical energy, which propels the vehicle forward. These vehicles have been the dominant
mode of transportation for decades but are facing increasing competition from electric and hybrid
vehicles due to concerns about emissions and fuel efficiency. Conventional vehicles come in
various types, including sedans, SUVs, trucks, and vans, and are widely used for personal and
commercial purposes around the world. Conventional vehicles encompass a diverse range of
transportation modes, from compact cars to heavy-duty trucks. The internal combustion engine, a
fundamental component of these vehicles, ignites a mixture of fuel and air to generate power.
Gasoline and diesel, derived from crude oil, have been the primary fuels for these engines. Over
the years, advancements in engineering and technology have led to improved fuel efficiency,
reduced emissions, and enhanced safety features in conventional vehicles. Despite these
innovations, concerns about the finite nature of fossil fuels, environmental impact, and the
pursuit of cleaner alternatives have intensified. As a result, the automotive industry is witnessing
a paradigm shift toward electric and hybrid vehicles, aiming to mitigate environmental
consequences while redefining the future of transportation.

1.1.2 COMPONENTS OF CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES:

The internal combustion engine (ICE) is the primary power source in conventional vehicles. It
operates by burning fuel inside cylinders to produce mechanical energy. Here's a brief overview
of how it works:
Cylinder and Piston: The engine contains several cylinders, typically ranging from four to eight,
where combustion occurs. Within each cylinder, a piston moves up and down.

Intake Stroke: During this phase, the piston moves downward, drawing in a mixture of air and
fuel (gasoline or diesel) through the intake valve.

1
Compression Stroke: The piston moves upward, compressing the air-fuel mixture. This
compression increases its temperature and pressure, making it more volatile.

Combustion Stroke (Power Stroke): When the air-fuel mixture is compressed, a spark ignites it
(in gasoline engines) or it is ignited by compression (in diesel engines). This ignition causes a
rapid expansion of gases, forcing the piston downward with significant force.

Exhaust Stroke: After the combustion stroke, the piston moves upward again, pushing the
exhaust gases out through the exhaust valve. This process repeats continuously as the engine
runs, generating the power needed to propel the vehicle. The engine's power output is controlled
by varying the amount of air and fuel entering the cylinders, which is regulated by the throttle in
gasoline engines or the fuel injector timing and pressure in diesel engines.

Transmission: The transmission in conventional vehicles is responsible for transferring power

from the engine to the wheels and for allowing the vehicle to change speed and direction. There
are several types of transmissions commonly found in conventional vehicles:

Manual Transmission: Also known as a "stick shift," this type of transmission requires the driver
to manually shift gears using a gear lever and clutch pedal. It typically has five or six forward
gears, as well as reverse.

Automatic Transmission: An automatic transmission shifts gears automatically, without

requiring input from the driver. It uses a hydraulic system, planetary gearsets, and a torque
converter to smoothly transition between gears. Automatic transmissions are available in various
configurations, including traditional torque-converter automatics and more modern continuously
variable transmissions (CVTs).

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT): Unlike traditional transmissions with a fixed

number of gears, CVTs use a system of pulleys and belts (or chains) to provide an infinite
number of gear ratios. This allows the engine to operate more efficiently by continuously
adjusting to the optimal gear ratio for driving conditions.

Dual-Clutch Transmission (DCT): DCTs combine elements of manual and automatic

transmissions. They use two separate clutches—one for odd gears and one for even gears—to
achieve quick and smooth gear shifts without interrupting power delivery.

2
Semi-Automatic Transmission: Also known as an automated manual transmission (AMT) or
clutch less manual transmission, this type of transmission allows for manual gear shifting
without a clutch pedal. It uses electronic actuators to engage and disengage the clutch and shift
gears automatically or manually via paddle shifters. Each type of transmission has its advantages
and disadvantages in terms of performance, fuel efficiency, and driving experience. The choice
of transmission depends on factors such as vehicle type, driving preferences, and intended use.

Fuel System: The fuel system in conventional vehicles typically consists of a fuel tank, fuel
pump, fuel filter, fuel injectors or carburetor, and fuel lines. The fuel pump draws fuel from the
tank and delivers it to the engine, where it's mixed with air and burned for propulsion. The fuel
filter removes impurities from the fuel before it reaches the engine, and fuel injectors or
carburetor regulate the amount of fuel delivered to the engine cylinders. Fuel lines transport the
fuel from the tank to the engine and back.

Exhaust System: The exhaust system in conventional vehicles is responsible for removing
harmful gases produced during the combustion process and reducing noise. It typically consists
of an exhaust manifold, catalytic converter, muffler, and tailpipe. The exhaust manifold collects
exhaust gases from the engine cylinders and directs them into the exhaust system. The catalytic
converter reduces harmful emissions by converting pollutants into less harmful gases. The
muffler dampens noise produced by the engine, and the tailpipe expels the treated exhaust gases
from the vehicle.

Electrical System: The electrical system in conventional vehicles is a complex network that
provides power to various components and systems. It consists of a battery, alternator, starter
motor, ignition system, lights, sensors, and various electronic control modules. The battery stores
electrical energy and provides power to start the engine and operate electrical components when
the engine is off. The alternator generates electricity while the engine is running, recharging the
battery and powering electrical components. The starter motor is responsible for starting the
engine by turning the crankshaft. The ignition system ignites the air-fuel mixture in the engine
cylinders to initiate combustion. Lights, such as headlights, taillights, and interior lights,
illuminate the vehicle for visibility and safety. Sensors monitor various parameters like engine
temperature, vehicle speed, and emissions, providing data to the engine control unit (ECU) for
optimal performance. Electronic control modules manage and control various functions within
the vehicle, such as engine management, transmission control, and safety systems.
3
Cooling system: The cooling system in conventional vehicles is essential for maintaining the
engine at an optimal operating temperature. It consists of several components working together
to regulate the temperature of the engine:

Radiator: The radiator is a heat exchanger that helps dissipate heat from the engine coolant. It is
typically located at the front of the vehicle and has a network of tubes and fins to facilitate heat
transfer.
Coolant: Coolant, also known as antifreeze, is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol (or other
additives) that circulates through the engine and absorbs heat. It helps prevent the engine from
overheating in hot conditions and protects against freezing in cold weather.

Water Pump: The water pump circulates coolant throughout the cooling system. It is typically
driven by a belt connected to the engine crankshaft and pumps coolant from the radiator, through
the engine, and back to the radiator.

Thermostat: The thermostat regulates the flow of coolant based on the engine temperature. It
remains closed when the engine is cold, allowing it to warm up quickly, and opens as the engine
reaches operating temperature to allow coolant to flow through the radiator.

Cooling Fans: Cooling fans help regulate airflow through the radiator, especially during low-
speed or stationary operation when natural airflow is insufficient. They may be mechanically
driven by the engine or electrically controlled.

Hoses and Connectors: Hoses and connectors carry coolant between the radiator, engine, water
pump, and other components of the cooling system. By circulating coolant and dissipating heat,
the cooling system helps prevent the engine from overheating, ensuring optimal performance and
longevity

Braking system: The braking system in conventional vehicles is responsible for slowing down
and stopping the vehicle safely. It consists of several key components:

Brake Pedal: The brake pedal is the interface between the driver and the braking system. When
pressed, it activates the brakes.

Brake Master Cylinder: The master cylinder converts the force applied to the brake pedal into
hydraulic pressure. It distributes this pressure to the individual brake calipers or wheel cylinders.

4
Brake Lines: Brake lines are metal or flexible hoses that carry hydraulic fluid from the master
cylinder to the brake calipers or wheel cylinders at each wheel.

Brake Calipers and Pads (or Drum Brakes): In disc brake systems, brake calipers squeeze brake
pads against rotating discs (rotors) to create friction and slow down the vehicle. In drum brake
systems, wheel cylinders push brake shoes against brake drums to achieve the same effect.

Brake Rotors (or Brake Drums): Brake rotors are flat, disc-shaped components that rotate with
the wheel. They provide a surface for the brake pads to press against and generate friction. In
drum brake systems, brake drums serve the same purpose.

Brake Fluid: Brake fluid is a hydraulic fluid that transfers force from the brake pedal to the brake
calipers or wheel cylinders. It also lubricates and protects brake system components from
corrosion.

Brake Booster (optional): Some vehicles are equipped with a brake booster, which amplifies the
force applied to the brake pedal, making it easier for the driver to apply the brakes. When the
driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is created in the braking system, causing the
brake pads to press against the rotors (or brake shoes against the drums), resulting in friction that
slows down and stops the vehicle. Regular maintenance and inspection of the braking system are
crucial for safe operation and optimal performance.

Suspension system: The suspension system in conventional vehicles is responsible for providing
a comfortable ride, stable handling, and vehicle control by managing the vehicle's motion and
absorbing shocks from the road surface. It consists of several components:

Springs: Springs are the primary components of the suspension system that support the vehicle's
weight and absorb bumps and vibrations from the road. There are two main types of springs used
in vehicle suspension: coil springs and leaf springs.

Shock Absorbers (Dampers): Shock absorbers, or dampers, work in conjunction with springs to
control the movement of the suspension. They dampen oscillations caused by springs, ensuring
that the vehicle's wheels remain in contact with the road surface for improved traction and
stability.

5
Struts: Struts are similar to shock absorbers but also serve as structural components of the
suspension system. They provide support for the vehicle's weight and help maintain proper
alignment of the wheels.

Control Arms: Control arms, also known as A-arms or wishbones, connect the suspension
components to the vehicle's chassis. They allow for vertical movement of the wheels while
controlling their lateral and longitudinal motion.

Sway Bars (Stabilizer Bars): Sway bars are metal bars that connect the suspension components
on opposite sides of the vehicle. They help reduce body roll during cornering by transferring
forces between the left and right sides of the suspension.

Bushings and Bearings: Bushings and bearings are used to reduce friction and allow for smooth
movement of suspension components. They are commonly found in control arms, sway bars, and
other pivot points.

Steering System: While not technically part of the suspension system, the steering system works
closely with suspension components to control the direction of the vehicle. Components such as
tie rods, ball joints, and steering linkages connect the steering wheel to the wheels, allowing the
driver to maneuver the vehicle. Together, these components work to absorb bumps and
vibrations from the road, maintain stability and control, and ensure a comfortable ride for
occupants. Proper maintenance and alignment of the suspension system are essential for safe and
optimal vehicle performance.

Driveshaft: In rear-wheel-drive and four-wheel-drive vehicles, the driveshaft transfers power

from the transmission to the differential or transfer case, which then distributes power to the
axles.
Differential: The differential is a gear mechanism located between the driveshaft and the wheels.
It allows the wheels to rotate at different speeds when turning corners while still receiving power
from the driveshaft.
Axles: Axles are shafts that connect the differential to the wheels. They transmit power from the
differential to the wheels, allowing them to rotate and propel the vehicle forward or backward
Wheels: The wheels are where the power from the drivetrain is ultimately transferred to the road,
providing traction and enabling the vehicle to move.

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1.1.3 DRAWBACKS OF CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES:
Pollution: Internal combustion engines emit harmful pollutants like carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution and climate change.

Dependence on fossil fuels: Conventional vehicles rely on finite fossil fuels like gasoline and
diesel, which are non-renewable resources and contribute to geopolitical tensions.

Noise pollution: The operation of internal combustion engines generates noise pollution,
affecting both urban and natural environments.

Maintenance and repair: Conventional vehicles often require frequent maintenance and repairs
due to the complexity of their mechanical systems, leading to increased costs and downtime.

Limited energy efficiency: Internal combustion engines have relatively low energy efficiency,
with a significant portion of the energy from fuel being lost as heat during operation.

Traffic congestion: The popularity of conventional vehicles contributes to traffic congestion in

urban areas, leading to wasted time, increased fuel consumption, and air pollution

Safety concerns: Conventional vehicles have safety concerns related to accidents, including the
risk of fire and explosion due to fuel leaks or collisions.

Infrastructure requirements: The widespread use of conventional vehicles necessitates extensive

infrastructure for fueling stations, which can be costly to build and maintain.

Greenhouse gas emissions: Conventional vehicles are a major contributor to greenhouse gas
emissions, which are a primary driver of climate change and its associated impacts.

1.1.4 IMPACT OF CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES ON ENVIRONMENT:

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: They emit carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas
responsible for global warming and climate change.

Air Pollution: Conventional vehicles emit pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), contributing
to air pollution and respiratory problems.

7
Resource Depletion: Production and operation of conventional vehicles require significant
amounts of non-renewable resources like fossil fuels, contributing to resource depletion and
ecosystem destruction.

Oil Spills and Leaks: Accidental oil spills and leaks from conventional vehicles can harm aquatic
ecosystems and wildlife.

Noise Pollution: The operation of internal combustion engines generates noise pollution,
disrupting natural habitats and affecting wildlife.

Urban Sprawl and Land Use: Conventional vehicles contribute to urban sprawl and the
expansion of road networks, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.

1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Electric vehicles (EVs) are automobiles powered by electricity stored in rechargeable batteries.
They produce zero tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution and dependence on fossil fuels. EVs
have gained popularity due to advancements in battery technology, increased charging
infrastructure, and environmental concerns. They come in various forms, including plug-in
hybrids and fully electric vehicles. Electric vehicles (EVs) represent a transformative shift in the
automotive landscape, relying on
electric motors and rechargeable batteries instead of traditional internal combustion engines. The
heart of an electric vehicle is its battery pack, which stores electrical energy. This energy is then
delivered to one or more electric motors that drive the vehicle's wheels. Unlike conventional
vehicles, EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable
transportation ecosystem. The regenerative braking system in electric vehicles converts kinetic
energy back into electrical energy, enhancing overall efficiency and extending the vehicle's
range. Charging infrastructure development has been a key focus in promoting EV adoption,
offering various charging options, from standard household outlets to fast-charging stations. As
advancements in battery technology continue, electric vehicles are becoming more affordable,
with increased range and faster charging capabilities, positioning them as a promising solution to
address environmental concerns and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
1.2.1 HISTORY OF ELECTIRC VEHICLES:
The history of electric vehicles dates back to the 19th century when inventors began experimenting

8
with electric-powered cars. In the early 1800s, Robert Anderson created one of the first crude
electric vehicles using non-rechargeable primary cells. Throughout the 19th and early 20th
centuries, electric vehicles gained popularity, especially in urban areas, due to their quiet
operation and lack of emissions compared to early internal combustion engine vehicles.
One notable milestone was the development of the first practical electric car by Thomas
Davenport in 1835. In the late 19th century, electric vehicles even held several land speed
records.
However, the mass production of gasoline-powered vehicles by companies like Ford in the early
20th century, along with advancements in internal combustion engine technology and the
availability of cheap gasoline, led to a decline in the popularity of electric vehicles.
Interest in electric vehicles resurged in the late 20th century due to concerns about air pollution
and oil dependency. Major automotive companies began investing in electric vehicle research
and development, leading to the introduction of modern electric vehicles like the GM EV1 in the
late 1990s.
Since then, there has been a significant push for the development and adoption of electric
vehicles, driven by advancements in battery technology, government incentives, and growing
environmental awareness. Today, electric vehicles are becoming increasingly mainstream, with
many major automakers offering electric models and governments around the world
implementing policies to promote their adoption.

1.2.2 COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Battery Pack: The battery pack stores electricity used to power the vehicle's electric motor(s).
Electric Motor(s): Electric motors are responsible for converting electrical energy from the
battery into mechanical energy to drive the vehicle's wheels.

Power Electronics: This component controls the flow of electricity between the battery pack and
the electric motor, managing voltage, current, and frequency to optimize performance and
efficiency.

Charging System: EVs require a charging system to recharge the battery pack. This includes the
onboard charger (for AC charging) and, optionally, a DC fast-charging port for rapid charging.

9
Thermal Management System: EVs need a system to manage temperature within the battery
pack, electric motor(s), and power electronics to ensure optimal performance and longevity.

Regenerative Braking System: Regenerative braking captures energy from braking and converts
it into electricity to recharge the battery pack, improving efficiency and extending range.

Onboard Control System: This includes the vehicle's computer systems, sensors, and software
responsible for managing various functions such as power distribution, battery management, and
vehicle dynamics.

Electric Drive Train: The electric drivetrain transmits power from the electric motor(s) to the
wheels, often including components like reduction gears or differential mechanisms.

Auxiliary Systems: These include components such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC), as well as safety systems, entertainment systems, and other vehicle amenities.

Structural Components: The chassis, body, suspension, and other structural elements of an EV
may be specifically designed to accommodate the unique requirements of electric propulsion
systems.

1.2.3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

1.2.3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles:
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are vehicles that are powered entirely by electric energy
stored in onboard batteries. They don't rely on traditional internal combustion engines and

Fig-1.1 Block Diagram of Battery Electric Vehicles

produce zero tailpipe emissions. BEVs are becoming increasingly popular as the automotive

1
industry transitions towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation
options. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) rely solely on electricity stored in high-capacity
battery packs to power an electric motor, which propels the vehicle. These batteries are typically
lithium-ion, known for their high energy density, long life span, and efficiency. BEVs are
distinguished by their simplicity and efficiency compared to internal combustion engine vehicles;
they have fewer moving parts, leading to lower maintenance costs and less wear and tear over
time. The absence of tailpipe emissions makes BEVs an environmentally friendly alternative,
significantly reducing the carbon footprint associated with personal transportation. Charging
these vehicles can be done via domestic outlets, dedicated home charging units, or public
charging stations, with the infrastructure rapidly expanding globally. Innovations in battery
technology and energy management are continually improving BEVs' range and performance,
making them increasingly viable for a wide range of consumer needs. With governments around
the world offering incentives to encourage the adoption of electric vehicles, BEVs are at the
forefront of a shift towards sustainable mobility, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
dependency on fossil fuels.

1.2.3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) combine the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) with

Fig-1.2 Block Diagram of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

an electric propulsion system, offering a bridge between conventional vehicles and fully electric
models. This dual-system approach enhances fuel efficiency and reduces emissions by utilizing
the electric motor at low speeds or during idle situations, where internal combustion engines are

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least efficient. In many HEVs, the electric motor also assists the ICE during acceleration,
providing

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a boost and reducing the fuel consumption typically required for these power-intensive phases.
One of the key features of HEVs is their ability to reclaim energy through regenerative braking,
which captures kinetic energy that would otherwise be lost as heat and converts it into electrical
energy to recharge the battery. Unlike battery electric vehicles, HEVs do not require external
charging, as their batteries are charged by the ICE and through regenerative braking, offering
convenience and eliminating range anxiety. The synergy between the electric motor and the ICE
in hybrid vehicles aims to optimize performance, reduce fuel costs, and lower environmental
impact, making HEVs a popular choice for consumers seeking a balance between sustainability
and practicality.
1.2.3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) represent a versatile and advanced class of hybrids
that blend the characteristics of fully electric vehicles (EVs) with those of conventional hybrids.
Unlike

Fig-1.3 Block Diagram of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

standard hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs are equipped with larger battery packs that can
be charged directly from an external electrical power source. This capability allows PHEVs to
operate over significantly longer distances on electric power alone, often sufficient for daily
commuting, before requiring the use of the internal combustion engine. When the battery's
charge is depleted, the vehicle automatically switches to hybrid mode, utilizing the internal
combustion engine and, when possible, electric propulsion, to optimize fuel efficiency and
reduce emissions. This dual-mode operation offers drivers the flexibility of short-range,
emission-free electric driving along with the extended range and convenience of a traditional
gasoline engine for longer trips. The external charging feature enhances the environmental

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benefits of PHEVs, allowing users

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to take advantage of renewable energy sources when available. Moreover, PHEVs provide a
practical and accessible way for drivers to transition towards more sustainable mobility without
the range anxiety associated with fully electric vehicles, making them a compelling option for a
wide range of consumers.

1.2.3.4 Fuel cell Electric Vehicles:

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) represent an innovative approach to zero-emission
transportation by utilizing hydrogen fuel cells to generate electricity on board. In these vehicles,

Fig-1.4 Block Diagram of Fuel cell Electric Vehicles

hydrogen gas undergoes a chemical reaction within the fuel cell, producing electricity to power
an electric motor and emitting only water vapor as a byproduct. This technology offers several
advantages, including fast refueling times and an extended driving range, addressing some of the
challenges associated with battery electric vehicles. FCEVs contribute to cleaner air and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions, making them a promising solution for sustainable transportation.
However, challenges such as limited hydrogen infrastructure and the energy-intensive process of
hydrogen production currently impact the widespread adoption of FCEVs. As advancements
continue, addressing these challenges, fuel cell electric vehicles have the potential to play a
significant role in the future of eco-friendly mobility, particularly in applications where extended
range and rapid refueling are crucial.

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1.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
Environmental Benefits: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions, thus contributing to mitigating climate change.

Lower Operating Costs: EVs typically have lower fuel and maintenance costs compared to
traditional internal combustion engine vehicles due to cheaper electricity prices and fewer
moving parts.

Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines,
converting a higher percentage of energy from the grid into driving power.

Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: EVs can be powered by renewable energy sources like
solar or wind, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and enhancing energy security.

Quiet Operation: Electric motors are quieter than internal combustion engines, leading to
reduced noise pollution in urban areas.

Innovative Technology: EVs often feature advanced technology, including regenerative braking,
smart charging, and connectivity options, enhancing user experience and convenience.

Government Incentives: Many governments offer incentives such as tax credits, rebates, and
subsidies to promote the adoption of EVs, making them more affordable for consumers.

Long-Term Savings: While upfront costs may be higher, EVs can offer long-term savings due to
lower fuel and maintenance expenses, especially as battery technology improves and prices
decrease

1.2.5 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Limited Range: EVs generally have a shorter driving range compared to conventional vehicles,
which can be a concern for long-distance travel, especially in areas with limited charging
infrastructure.

Charging Infrastructure: Despite improvements, the charging infrastructure for EVs is still
developing, which can make it inconvenient for some users, particularly those without access to
home charging stations.

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Charging Time: Charging an EV typically takes longer than refueling a conventional vehicle,
especially with standard charging methods. Even with fast chargers, it can still take significantly
longer than filling up a gas tank.

Initial Cost: EVs often have a higher upfront cost compared to their gasoline counterparts,
although this difference is decreasing as technology advances and production scales up.

Battery Degradation: The performance and capacity of EV batteries degrade over time,
impacting the vehicle's range and efficiency. Replacing the battery can be a significant expense.

Limited Model Availability: While the selection of EV models is increasing, it's still not as
extensive as traditional vehicles, limiting consumer choice in terms of body styles, features, and
price points.

Weight and Space Constraints: The battery packs in EVs can be heavy, affecting the vehicle's
overall weight and handling. Additionally, integrating these batteries can reduce interior space
compared to conventional vehicles.

Environmental Concerns: While EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, the production of
electricity used to charge them may come from fossil fuels, depending on the energy mix in a
particular region. Additionally, the manufacturing and disposal of EV batteries raise
environmental concerns.

1.3 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion
system with an electric propulsion system. They typically use regenerative braking to recharge
their batteries and improve fuel efficiency. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) emerged as a
pivotal innovation in automotive technology, designed to combine the best attributes of internal
combustion engines (ICEs) and electric propulsion systems. Introduced to the mainstream market
in the late 1990s, HEVs were developed as a response to growing environmental concerns and
the need for more fuel-efficient transportation options. By integrating a conventional ICE with an
electric motor and a battery, HEVs can reduce fuel consumption and emit fewer pollutants
compared to their gasoline-only counterparts. The electric motor supports the ICE by providing
additional power when needed, such as during acceleration, and by powering the vehicle at low
speeds or in idle situations where ICEs are less efficient. Additionally, HEVs feature

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regenerative braking, a process that captures kinetic energy typically lost during braking and
converts it to

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electricity to recharge the battery. This dual power system enables HEVs to offer an appealing
balance of enhanced fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and extended driving range without the
need for external charging, marking a significant step forward in the evolution of eco-friendly
vehicles.
1.3.1 HISTORY OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
The concept of hybrid electric vehicles dates back to the late 19th century when Ferdinand
Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, which used an electric motor to
supplement a gasoline engine. However, the modern development of hybrid electric vehicles
gained momentum in the late 20th century. In 1997, Toyota introduced the Prius, the world's first
mass-produced hybrid car, which popularized the technology. Since then, numerous car
manufacturers have developed their own hybrid models, leading to advancements in hybrid
technology and increased adoption worldwide.
1.3.2 COMPONENTS OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): This is the traditional engine found in vehicles, usually
smaller and optimized for efficiency in HEVs.

Electric Motor: Provides propulsion alongside the ICE, often powered by a battery pack or
regenerative braking.

Battery Pack: Stores electricity for the electric motor, allowing for pure electric driving or
assisting the ICE.

Power Control Unit (PCU): Manages the flow of electricity between the battery, motor, and
engine for optimal performance.

Transmission: May be a conventional gearbox or a specialized transmission to accommodate the

dual power sources.

Regenerative Braking System: Captures kinetic energy during braking, converting it into
electricity to recharge the battery.

Inverter: Converts DC power from the battery into AC power for the electric motor.

Onboard Charger: Charges the battery pack from an external power source, such as a wall outlet
or charging station.

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Control System: Coordinates the operation of all components for seamless integration and
efficiency.

Thermal Management System: Helps regulate temperature within the vehicle to ensure optimal
performance and battery life.

1.3.3 TYPES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

1.3.3.1 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle:

Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles (SHEVs) represent a specific design configuration within the
hybrid vehicle spectrum, where the internal combustion engine (ICE) is not directly connected to
the wheels.

Fig-1.5 Block Diagram of Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Instead, the ICE operates as a generator to produce electricity, which either charges the battery
or powers an electric motor that drives the vehicle's wheels. This setup allows the ICE to run at
an optimal speed and efficiency, reducing fuel consumption and emissions. One of the key
advantages of SHEVs is their ability to run purely on electric power for short distances, making
them suitable for city driving and reducing the reliance on gasoline. Furthermore, since the

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propulsion is entirely

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managed by the electric motor, drivers can enjoy smoother acceleration and quieter operation
compared to conventional vehicles. However, the series hybrid system tends to be more complex
and potentially more expensive due to the need for a larger battery pack and electric motor to
ensure adequate performance. Despite these challenges, SHEVs offer a promising pathway to
reducing carbon footprints and enhancing fuel efficiency, illustrating the diverse approaches
within the realm of hybrid electric vehicle technology.

1.3.3.1.1 Advantages of Series HEV:

The series hybrid is a simple system with no complexity in connection. A multispeed
transmission system, clutch or converters are not required since the electric motor drives the
reduction gear for movement. It works like a pure Electric Vehicle that runs on a battery source.
It helps to reduce harmful gas emissions and promotes an eco-friendly environment.

1.3.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Series HEV:

The series hybrid vehicle propulsion is entirely dependent on the battery source. The energy
conversions happening in each stage result in the overall efficiency loss. All these propulsion
devices need to be sized to sustain maximum power requirements. In the case of long-grade
ability conditions, the vehicle's performance is poor. So, a powerful motor is required in this
situation, making the Series HEV expensive. This system may require a battery and motor with a
large capacity to meet its power needs, which adds to the vehicle's weight and decreases the
vehicle's overall driving range, Thereby, making it undesirable for consumers to use. It is
recommended for short trips as the corresponding IC engine set with a lower power rating is
used.

1.3.3.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle:

Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) operate with a system where the internal combustion
engine (ICE) and the electric motor are both connected to the vehicle's transmission and can
simultaneously or separately propel the vehicle. This configuration allows for more flexibility in
optimizing fuel efficiency and reducing emissions, as the vehicle can switch between the ICE,
the electric motor, or use both power sources depending on the driving conditions. The electric
motor

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can serve as a generator during braking or coasting to recharge the battery through regenerative
braking, further enhancing the vehicle's efficiency. One of the main advantages of parallel
hybrids

Fig-1.6 Block Diagram of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle

is their ability to directly utilize the ICE for high-speed driving, where it is most efficient, and
rely on the electric motor for lower-speed, stop-and-go traffic conditions, where electric
propulsion excels. This hybrid system tends to be simpler and potentially less costly than series
hybrids, making it a popular choice among manufacturers. Parallel hybrid vehicles offer a
balanced compromise between the efficiency and low emissions of electric drive and the long
range and quick refueling capabilities of conventional ICE vehicles, contributing to their
widespread adoption in the quest for more sustainable transportation solutions.

1.3.3.2.1 Advantages of Parallel HEV:

Improved Fuel Efficiency: Parallel hybrid systems allow the vehicle to operate using the electric
motor alone, the internal combustion engine alone, or a combination of both. This flexibility
optimizes fuel consumption, especially in city driving conditions where the electric motor can be
used more frequently.

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Reduced Emissions: By utilizing electric power at lower speeds and during stop-and-go traffic,
parallel hybrid vehicles produce fewer emissions compared to traditional gasoline-powered
vehicles.

Regenerative Braking: Parallel hybrids often incorporate regenerative braking systems, which
capture kinetic energy during braking and convert it into electrical energy to recharge the battery.
This feature increases overall efficiency and reduces wear on the braking system.

Enhanced Performance: Electric motors provide instant torque, leading to smoother acceleration
and improved performance, especially at low speeds. This translates to a more responsive driving
experience.

Lower Operating Costs: Although hybrid vehicles typically have a higher initial purchase price,
they can offer lower operating costs over the vehicle's lifespan due to reduced fuel consumption
and maintenance requirements, particularly for components like brakes and transmission.

Extended Range: Parallel hybrid systems provide the flexibility to rely solely on the internal
combustion engine for longer trips, eliminating range anxiety associated with pure electric
vehicles.

Potential for Energy Independence: By reducing reliance on fossil fuels, hybrid vehicles
contribute to energy independence and can be powered by a variety of sources, including
renewable energy.

Tax Incentives and Rebates: Many governments offer incentives, such as tax credits or rebates,
for purchasing hybrid vehicles, which can help offset the initial higher cost and make them more
financially attractive to consumers.

1.3.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Parallel HEV:

Complexity: Parallel hybrid systems are more complex than conventional vehicles, requiring
additional components such as electric motors, batteries, and control systems.
Cost: The added complexity of parallel hybrid systems generally leads to higher manufacturing
costs, which can result in higher purchase prices for consumers.

Limited electric-only range: Parallel hybrids typically have a smaller battery capacity compared
to plug-in hybrids, limiting their electric-only range and overall fuel efficiency benefits.

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Space constraints: Integrating both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor/battery
system can lead to space constraints within the vehicle, potentially reducing cargo or passenger
space.

Maintenance: Hybrid systems may require specialized maintenance and repair procedures,
leading to potentially higher maintenance costs compared to conventional vehicles.

Weight: Adding electric components to a vehicle increases its weight, which can affect
performance and handling, especially if not properly balanced.

Charging infrastructure: While not as reliant on charging infrastructure as pure electric vehicles,
parallel hybrids still require access to fuel stations for the internal combustion engine, which may
be a limitation in certain areas.

1.3.3.2.3 Modes of Parallel HEVs:

Significant portion of the propulsive power in parallel hybrid electric vehicle is supplied by the
electric machine. Typical electromechanical integration of the parallel hybrid electric vehicle is
depicted in Figure 1.7 and it has two independent propulsive power low paths such as electrical
and mechanical paths. Therefore, depending upon the propulsive power requirement of the
vehicle, electric only, mechanical only, or a combination of both can be chosen. Since
parallel hybrid electric vehicles incorporate bigger electric machines; they have better
regenerative braking capability compared to the mild hybrids, and therefore they show better
fuel economy for city driving cycle a certain highway driving condition.

Fig-1.7 Parallel hybrid electric vehicle

As depicted in Figure 1.8, there are four different operating modes that can be obtained in
parallel hybrid electric vehicle.
a. IC engine supplies the propulsive torque/power demand.

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b. Electric machine is the only propulsive medium.

c. IC engine and electric machines supply the propulsive torque/power demand.

d. Regenerative braking mode of the vehicle.

Fig-1.8 Operating modes of parallel hybrid electric vehicles

1.3.3.3 Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle:

Series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles, also known as power-split or dual-mode hybrids,

combine the features of both series and parallel hybrid systems to offer greater flexibility and
efficiency in how they manage power. In this sophisticated configuration, the vehicle can operate
in series mode, parallel mode, or a blend of both, thanks to a complex transmission system that
intelligently directs power from the internal combustion engine (ICE), the electric motor, or both,
depending on driving conditions. This allows the vehicle to optimize fuel efficiency and reduce
emissions by automatically selecting the most efficient mode of operation.
For example, at low speeds or in stop-and-go traffic, the vehicle might operate more like a series
hybrid, relying primarily on electric power, while at higher speeds; it could shift to parallel
mode,

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using the ICE or combining both power sources for optimal performance. The ability to recharge
the battery through regenerative braking further enhances the vehicle's efficiency. Series-parallel
hybrids are recognized for their ability to provide a balance between the

Fig-1.9 Block Diagram of Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle

energy efficiency of electric motors and the long-range capability of gasoline engines, making
them a versatile and eco-friendly choice for a wide range of driving scenarios. This adaptability,
however, comes at the cost of increased complexity and potential expense in their design and
manufacturing.

1.3.3.3.1 Advantages of Series-Parallel HEV:

Fuel Efficiency: HEVs combine the benefits of both series and parallel configurations, allowing
for optimized fuel efficiency by utilizing both electric and internal combustion engine power
sources as needed.

Reduced Emissions: By incorporating electric propulsion, HEVs emit fewer greenhouse gases
and pollutants compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, contributing to
improved air quality and reduced environmental impact.

Regenerative Braking: HEVs utilize regenerative braking systems to capture and store kinetic
energy during braking, which is then used to recharge the battery. This feature enhances overall
energy efficiency and extends the vehicle's range.

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Flexible Powertrain: The series-parallel configuration provides flexibility in powertrain
operation, allowing the vehicle to operate solely on electric power, gasoline power, or a
combination of both based on driving conditions and driver demand.

Enhanced Performance: HEVs often deliver smooth and responsive acceleration due to the
combined power of the electric motor and internal combustion engine. This can result in
improved performance compared to conventional vehicles.

Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: By incorporating electric propulsion, HEVs reduce

reliance on fossil fuels, thereby decreasing vulnerability to fluctuations in oil prices and
enhancing energy security.

Tax Incentives and Rebates: Many regions offer tax incentives, rebates, or other financial
incentives to promote the adoption of hybrid vehicles, making HEVs an attractive option for
cost- conscious consumers.

1.3.3.3.2 Disadvantages of Series-Parallel HEV:

Complexity: The series-parallel configuration adds complexity to the vehicle's powertrain
system, which can lead to increased maintenance costs and potential reliability issues compared
to conventional vehicles.

Cost: HEVs tend to be more expensive to manufacture than traditional internal combustion
engine vehicles due to the additional components required for hybrid propulsion, such as electric
motors, batteries, and control systems. This higher upfront cost can deter some consumers.

Weight: The integration of electric components, such as batteries and motors, adds weight to the
vehicle, which can impact performance, handling, and overall efficiency.

Limited Electric Range: While HEVs can operate in electric-only mode under certain conditions,
their electric range is typically limited compared to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or
fully electric vehicles (EVs). This limitation may not fully satisfy consumers looking for a
significant reduction in fuel consumption and emissions.

Charging Infrastructure Dependency: Unlike PHEVs and EVs, HEVs do not rely on external
charging infrastructure since they generate electricity through regenerative braking and the
internal

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combustion engine. However, they still depend on conventional refueling stations for gasoline,
which may pose challenges in regions with limited access to such infrastructure.

Environmental Impact: While HEVs reduce emissions compared to traditional vehicles, they still
rely on gasoline combustion, contributing to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. They
are not as environmentally friendly as fully electric vehicles or even PHEVs when considering
lifecycle emissions.

Battery Degradation: Like all battery-powered vehicles, HEVs are susceptible to battery
degradation over time, which can affect their performance and efficiency. Replacement or
refurbishment of hybrid batteries can be costly.

1.3.3.3.3 Modes of Series-Parallel HEVs:

The most popular hybrid electric vehicle in the market (Toyota Prius) is a series–parallel hybrid
electric vehicle type, which incorporates two electric machines and an internal combustion
engine for propulsion purposes

Fig-1.10 Operating modes of series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles

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As depicted in Figure 1.10, there are six different operating modes that can be obtained in series-
parallel hybrid electric vehicle.
(a) IC engine is the only propulsive medium. Here part of the power produced by the IC engine
is converter via motor generator to the traction wheels.
(b) IC engine and electric batteries are supplying the propulsive torque/power demand.
(c) IC engine is supplying the propulsive torque/power demand while the battery is charging.
(d) Batteries are supplying the propulsive demand.
(e) IC engine charges the battery while the vehicle is standstill.
(f) Regenerative braking of the vehicle.
1.4 ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS:
1.4.1 Batteries:
Battery packs are the primary type of energy storage for hybrid electric vehicles. The only
reasonable alternative is the ultracapacitor. Unless significant all-electric range is desired, energy
requirements for hybrid electric vehicles are fairly modest. Energy storage is primarily used for
acceleration, regenerative braking, and low-speed, low-power operation. At higher loads, it is
more cost-efficient to use the engine to power the vehicle than it is to increase the size
of the battery pack. Thus, hybrid vehicle electric power requirements are either brief or low load.
Although some energy reserve is needed for extended hill climbs, energy storage demands are
relatively small.
Achieved, the electric motor must provide at least a 50% torque boost at low engine speeds. On
the other hand, power requirements are substantial. If significant engine downsizing is to be
Although the electric motor can be biased to provide its maximum power at relatively low engine
speeds, this still requires an electric motor that has at least 15% of the power output of the
engine. Even for a small car, the electric motor needs to be at least 10 kW (about 13 hp). The
electric motor power requirements scale up with vehicle size and with the use of electric-only
operation. Thus, batteries for hybrid vehicles must be able to provide or absorb high power rates
to support acceleration and to recapture high amounts of energy during brief braking
events. Batteries developed for electric vehicles in the 1990s were optimized for energy storage,
because they needed to maximize all-electric vehicle range. These batteries are not suitable for
hybrid vehicles. Batteries were redesigned for hybrid vehicles to provide much higher power
density, with the trade-off of lower energy density. Even with the redesign, most battery packs
still must be
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sized to deliver maximum power without overheating. This results in more energy storage than is
needed for the vast majority of driving conditions, which increases the cost and weight of the
battery pack.
1.4.1.1 Lead-Acid Battery:
The primary advantage of the lead-acid battery is low cost. Being developed for hybrid vehicles
are advanced lead-acid batteries with higher power, such as the valve-regulated lead-acid
(VRLA) battery. However, even VRLA batteries have relatively low energy density and short
cycle life.

Fig-1.11 Lead-Acid Battery

The short cycle life is a particular concern, because periodic replacement raises the effective cost
of the system. It is uncertain how customers will react to the cost and hassle of periodically
replacing the hybrid battery pack. Despite the concerns, lead-acid batteries will be used in some
relatively low-power hybrid vehicle applications due to their low cost.

1.4.1.2 Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery:

NiMH batteries have higher power and energy density and a much longer life cycle compared to
lead-acid batteries. They are also completely safe and their power output is not affected by the
battery state of charge.
The main concern with nickel–metal hydride batteries is that they are very expensive. Other
concerns are high self-discharge rates, low-temperature operation, and higher cooling
requirements. NiMH batteries are used in higher power hybrid designs, such as the Toyota Prius,

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the Honda Insight and Civic Hybrid, and the upcoming small sport utility hybrid vehicles from
Ford and General Motors.

Fig-1.12 Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery

1.4.1.3 Lithium-Ion Battery:

Lithium-ion batteries, a pivotal technology in the modern era of portable electronics and electric
vehicles, harness lithium ions' unique properties to store and release energy. This type of battery
operates on the principle of lithium ions moving between the cathode and anode during charging
and discharging cycles. The cathode is typically made from lithium metal oxides, while the
anode consists of carbon or graphite. During charging, lithium ions are driven from the cathode
to the anode and stored in the anode's structure. When the battery discharges, these ions move
back to the cathode, releasing the stored energy for use.
Lithium-ion batteries are favored for their high energy density, which means they can store more
energy per unit of weight than most other types of rechargeable batteries. They also have a
relatively low self-discharge rate, meaning they lose
their charge slowly when not in use, and they do not suffer significantly from the memory effect,
a phenomenon that can reduce the effective capacity of a battery over time. However, they
require sophisticated control systems to manage charging and discharging safely, as mishandling
can lead to overheating, battery damage, or even fires.

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Continuous advancements in materials science and battery technology are aimed at improving
the safety, efficiency, and energy density of lithium-ion batteries, making them increasingly
central to the transition towards renewable energy sources and the reduction of carbon emissions
in transportation and beyond.

Fig-1.13 Lithium-Ion Battery

1.4.2 Fuel Cells:

A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which the chemical energy of a fuel is converted directly into
electrical energy by means of electrochemical processes. The fuel and oxidizing agents are
continuously and separately supplied to the two electrodes of the cell, where they undergo a
reaction. An electrolyte is necessary to conduct the ions from one electrode to the other as shown

Fig-1.14 Basic operation of a fuel cell

in Figure 12.1. The fuel is supplied to the anode or positive electrode, where electrons are
released from the fuel under catalyst. The electrons, under the potential difference between these
two electrodes, flow through the external circuit to the cathode electrode or negative electrode,
where, in combination with positive ions and oxygen, reaction products, or exhaust, are
produced. Fuel cells represent a promising technology for clean and efficient energy

3
generation. These devices

3
operate by converting chemical energy directly into electrical energy through electrochemical
reactions, typically involving hydrogen and oxygen. Various types of fuel cells exist, including
proton exchange membrane (PEM), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), and molten carbonate fuel
cells (MCFC), each with its own advantages and applications. Fuel cells offer high efficiency,
with some configurations achieving up to 60% efficiency in converting fuel into electricity. They
are also versatile, finding applications in stationary power generation, transportation (such as fuel
cell vehicles), and portable electronics. Despite these benefits, challenges such as high
production costs, the need for hydrogen infrastructure, and material durability remain. Research
and development efforts are ongoing to address these challenges and further improve the
performance and cost-effectiveness of fuel cell technology, with the aim of facilitating its
widespread adoption and contributing to a more sustainable energy future.

1.4.2.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells:

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are a type of fuel cell known for their
efficient and clean energy conversion process. Operating at relatively low temperatures, typically
below 100°C, PEMFCs utilize a polymer electrolyte membrane, such as Nafion, to facilitate the
exchange of protons between electrodes. Hydrogen gas is supplied to the anode, where it is split
into protons and electrons. The protons migrate through the membrane to the cathode, while the
electrons flow through an external circuit, generating electrical power. At the cathode, oxygen
from the air combines with the protons and electrons to form water, the only byproduct of the
reaction. PEMFCs offer high power density, fast start-up, and response times, making them
suitable for applications requiring dynamic operation, such as automotive propulsion systems
and portable electronics. They are also known for their efficiency and clean operation, producing
no harmful emissions. However, challenges such as sensitivity to impurities in the hydrogen fuel,
high cost of platinum catalysts, and durability issues with the membrane remain areas of focus
for ongoing research and development efforts. Despite these challenges, PEMFCs are widely
used in various applications, including transportation, stationary power generation, and portable
electronics, with ongoing efforts to improve their performance and affordability for wider
adoption.
1.4.2.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells:
Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) are a type of fuel cell that utilizes an alkaline electrolyte, typically
potassium hydroxide (KOH), to facilitate the electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and
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oxygen. Operating at relatively low temperatures compared to some other fuel cell types,
typically between 60°C to 80°C, AFCs offer several advantages including high efficiency, low-
cost materials, and the ability to use non-noble metal catalysts such as nickel and silver. In AFCs,
hydrogen gas is supplied to the anode where it undergoes oxidation, releasing protons and
electrons. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, while the electrons are
forced through an external circuit, generating electrical power. At the cathode, oxygen from the
air combines with the protons and electrons to form water, the only byproduct of the reaction.
AFCs have been used in various applications including space missions, submarines, and
stationary power generation due to their reliability and durability. However, challenges such as
sensitivity to carbon dioxide contamination, corrosion of electrodes, and slow start-up times have
limited their widespread commercialization. Nonetheless, ongoing research aims to address these
challenges and improve the performance and cost-effectiveness of AFCs for broader adoption in
the future.
1.4.3 Supercapacitors/Ultracapacitors:
Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors, are advanced energy storage devices that bridge
the gap between traditional capacitors and batteries. They store energy electrostatically, utilizing
a double-layer capacitance mechanism or pseudo capacitance depending on the electrode
material. Unlike batteries, which store energy through chemical reactions, supercapacitors store
charge on the surface of electrodes, typically made of porous carbon materials. This design
allows supercapacitors to charge and discharge rapidly, providing high power density and
efficiency. While supercapacitors have lower energy density compared to batteries, they offer
advantages such as long cycle life, rapid charge/discharge capabilities, and high reliability. They
find applications in various fields, including transportation (e.g., hybrid vehicles, regenerative
braking systems), renewable energy (e.g., smoothing out fluctuations in solar and wind power),
consumer electronics (e.g., providing backup power in smartphones), and industrial applications
(e.g., buffering power in factory equipment).
Ongoing research focuses on improving energy density, reducing costs, and enhancing
performance to further expand the applications of supercapacitors in diverse industries.
Ultracapacitors have very high-power density. They excel at rapid transfer of power and offer the
potential for higher durability and lower cooling requirements. They are ideal for assisting
acceleration and at recapturing regenerative braking energy. Unfortunately, they have very low
energy density and cannot store enough energy to cover longer load demands, such as hill
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climbs.

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The energy density is so low that no manufacturers are considering their use for hybrid vehicles,
although some manufacturers are using them to provide momentary assist on fuel cell vehicles.
Double-layer capacitor technology is the major approach to achieving the ultracapacitor concept.
The basic principle of a double-layer capacitor is illustrated in Figure 10.8. When two carbon
rods are immersed in a thin sulfuric acid solution, separated from each other and charged with
voltage

Fig-1.15 Basic principles of a typical electric double-layer capacitor

increasing from zero to 1.5 V, almost nothing happens up to 1 V; then at a little over 1.2 V, a
small bubble will appear on the surface of both the electrodes. Those bubbles at a voltage above
1 V indicate electrical decomposition of water. Below the decomposition voltage, while the
current does not
1.4.4 Flywheels:
Flywheels are mechanical devices designed to store rotational energy by utilizing the principle of
inertia. Consisting of a heavy wheel mounted on an axle, flywheels function by converting
kinetic energy into rotational motion. When a force, such as an engine or a human-operated
mechanism, applies torque to the flywheel, it begins to spin and stores energy in the form of
rotational kinetic energy. The stored energy can then be released when needed, providing a
consistent source of power or aiding in smoothing out fluctuations in energy supply.
Flywheels are utilized in a variety of applications, including energy storage systems, mechanical
energy storage devices, automotive systems, industrial machinery, and aerospace technologies.
Advanced materials, such as carbon fiber composites, are often employed to make flywheels
3
lighter, more efficient, and capable of storing larger amounts of energy. With ongoing
advancements in materials science and engineering, flywheel technology continues to evolve,
offering solutions for energy storage, power management, and stabilization in various industries.

Fig-1.16 Basic structure of typical flywheel system

In contrast to applying the ultrahigh-speed flywheel for energy storage in stationary plants, its
application to EVs and HEVs suffers from two specific problems. First, gyroscopic forces occur
whenever a vehicle departs from its straight-line course, such as in turning and in pitching
upward or downward from road grades. These forces essentially reduce the maneuvrability of the
vehicle. Secondly, if the flywheel is damaged, its stored energy in mechanical form will be
released in a very short period of time. The corresponding power released will be very high,
which can cause severe damage to the vehicle. For example, if a 1-kWh flywheel breaks apart in
1 to 5 sec, it will generate a huge power output of 720 to 3600 kW. Thus, containment in case of
failure is presently the most significant obstacle to implementing the ultrahigh-speed flywheel in
EVs and HEVs.

1.5 Motors used in Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) utilize sophisticated propulsion systems that combine the
efficiency and low emissions of electric motors with the range and power of internal combustion
engines (ICEs). At the heart of these hybrid systems are electric motors, which are key to
achieving enhanced fuel efficiency and reduced emissions. The types of motors used in HEVs
include Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM), Induction Motors (IM), Switched

3
Reluctance Motors (SRM), and Brushless DC Motors (BLDC). Each motor type offers distinct
advantages,

4
from the high efficiency and power density of PMSMs to the robustness and cost-effectiveness
of IMs. The choice of motor in a hybrid vehicle is influenced by various factors, including
performance requirements, cost constraints, and vehicle design specifics. These electric motors
not only assist in driving the vehicle but also enable regenerative braking, a feature that captures
kinetic energy during braking and converts it to electrical energy to recharge the vehicle's
battery. This synergy between electric motors and ICEs in hybrid systems represents a
significant technological advancement in the automotive industry, contributing to the ongoing
evolution towards more sustainable and efficient transportation options.
1.5.1 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor:
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSMs) play a crucial role in hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) due to their efficiency and compact design. These motors use permanent magnets to
generate a magnetic field, synchronizing with the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator.
In the context of HEVs, PMSMs contribute to improved energy conversion and regenerative
braking, enhancing overall system efficiency. The inherent high-power density of PMSMs makes
them well-suited for the limited space within hybrid vehicles. Their ability to operate at variable
speeds aligns with the dynamic nature of driving conditions in HEVs, providing optimal
performance across a range of speeds. Overall, the adoption of Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors in hybrid electric vehicles contributes to a more sustainable and energy-efficient
transportation system. PMSMs are capable of providing high torque at low speeds, which is ideal

Fig-1.17 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

for vehicle acceleration, and maintain efficiency over a wide range of speeds and loads, adapting
seamlessly to changing driving patterns. Moreover, the precise control over motor speed and

4
torque enables effective use of regenerative braking, a process where kinetic energy from the
vehicle's motion is converted back into electrical energy during deceleration, further enhancing
the energy efficiency of HEVs. With advancements in power electronics and control strategies,
the integration of PMSMs into HEV drive trains has led to significant improvements in vehicle
performance, energy consumption, and emission reductions, aligning with global sustainability
goals.

1.5.1.1 Advantages of PMSM in HEV:

High Efficiency: PMSMs are known for their high efficiency, particularly at partial loads and
low speeds. This characteristic is crucial in HEVs, where frequent variations in driving
conditions demand a motor that can consistently deliver optimal performance.
Compact and Lightweight: PMSMs have a high power density, meaning they can provide a
significant amount of power in a relatively small and lightweight package. This is advantageous
for HEVs where space and weight constraints are critical for achieving fuel efficiency.
Regenerative Braking Efficiency: PMSMs facilitate effective regenerative braking, converting
kinetic energy during deceleration into electrical energy that can be stored or reused. This feature
enhances overall energy efficiency and contributes to the extended range of HEVs.
Precise Speed and Torque Control: PMSMs allow for precise control of speed and torque,
enabling seamless integration with the vehicle's powertrain. This control flexibility is essential
for optimizing energy consumption and enhancing the overall drivability of HEVs.
Reduced Maintenance: The absence of brushes, common in some other motor types, leads to
reduced wear and maintenance requirements for PMSMs. This characteristic improves the
reliability and longevity of the motor, contributing to the overall durability of HEV systems.
Quiet Operation: PMSMs operate with minimal noise and vibration, providing a smoother and
quieter driving experience. This is particularly relevant for hybrid vehicles, where a quieter
operation complements the electric drive mode.
Environmental Impact: PMSMs contribute to reducing the environmental impact of HEVs by
improving energy efficiency and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. The efficiency gains
translate to reduced fuel consumption and, consequently, decreased overall carbon footprint.

4
1.5.1.2 Disadvantages of PMSM in HEV:

Cost: PMSMs typically use rare-earth materials for their permanent magnets, which can be
expensive and subject to price volatility. This can increase the overall cost of the motor and, by
extension, the vehicle.

Temperature Sensitivity: The performance of permanent magnets can degrade at high

temperatures, affecting the motor's efficiency and power output. This necessitates sophisticated
cooling systems to maintain optimal operating temperatures, potentially adding complexity and
cost.
Supply Chain and Material Availability: The reliance on rare-earth elements, which are often
sourced from limited geographic locations, can lead to supply chain vulnerabilities.
Environmental and political factors affecting these regions can impact the availability and cost of
these critical materials.
Demagnetization Risk: Permanent magnets can demagnetize if exposed to excessive heat or if
operated beyond their design limits. This can lead to a permanent reduction in motor
performance or even motor failure.
Design and Manufacturing Complexity: PMSMs require precise manufacturing and assembly
processes to achieve the desired performance and efficiency levels. This can lead to increased
manufacturing complexity and costs.
Recycling and Environmental Concerns: The recycling of PMSMs, particularly the extraction
and recovery of rare-earth materials, can be challenging and costly. This presents an
environmental concern regarding the disposal and recycling of these motors at the end of their
lifecycle.
1.5.2 Induction Motor:
Induction motors play a significant role in the realm of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), offering
a distinct set of advantages in propulsion systems. Unlike Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors, induction motors do not rely on permanent magnets in the rotor. Instead, they induce a
magnetic field by applying alternating current to the stator windings. This characteristic makes
induction motors robust and cost-effective, contributing to the overall affordability of HEV
technology. Their simple construction and fewer reliance on rare-earth materials also make
induction motors appealing for environmentally conscious applications. In HEVs, these motors
provide efficient power delivery, especially during high-speed operation, making them well-

4
suited for diverse

4
driving conditions. The adaptability and reliability of induction motors make them a compelling
choice for manufacturers seeking effective and economical solutions for the electric propulsion
systems in hybrid vehicles.

Fig-1.18 Induction Motor

1.5.2.1 Advantages of Induction Motor in HEV:

Simplicity and Durability: Induction motors have a simple and rugged design with fewer moving
parts, which translates to high durability and reliability. This simplicity also leads to lower
maintenance requirements, enhancing the vehicle's overall lifespan.
Cost-Effectiveness: Unlike motors that require rare-earth permanent magnets, induction motors
utilize readily available materials, which helps keep manufacturing costs down. This cost-
effectiveness is particularly appealing in the competitive automotive market.
High Efficiency: Modern induction motors offer high efficiency over a wide range of operating
conditions. They are particularly efficient at high speeds, making them suitable for HEV
applications where variable speed operation is common.
Robustness to Harsh Conditions: The absence of permanent magnets and the motor's inherent
design make induction motors less susceptible to damage from high temperatures, vibration, and
shock. This robustness is crucial for the demanding environments in which vehicles operate.
Good Thermal Performance: Induction motors can handle high temperatures better than motors
with permanent magnets. Their ability to operate at higher temperatures without significant
performance degradation is beneficial for HEVs, where cooling systems can be a limiting factor.
Flexibility in Control: The control of induction motors is well understood and can be highly

4
flexible, allowing for sophisticated algorithms to optimize performance and efficiency across a
broad range of speeds and loads.
Regenerative Braking Capability: Like other electric motors, induction motors can be used for
regenerative braking, capturing kinetic energy during braking and converting it into electrical
energy. This process improves the overall energy efficiency of the vehicle.
Reduced Dependence on Rare-Earth Elements: By avoiding the use of rare-earth elements
required for permanent magnets, induction motors reduce vulnerability to the fluctuating costs
and supply chain risks associated with these materials.
1.5.2.2 Disadvantages of Induction Motor in HEV:

Lower Efficiency at Low Speeds: Induction motors typically exhibit lower efficiency at low
speeds compared to some alternatives, such as permanent magnet motors. This can be a
disadvantage in urban driving conditions where low-speed operation is frequent.
Larger Size for Equivalent Power: To achieve the same power output as a permanent magnet
motor, an induction motor might need to be larger due to its lower power density. This can pose
design and integration challenges in the compact spaces of HEVs.
Complex Control Systems: While induction motors are flexible in terms of control, achieving
optimal performance requires sophisticated and sometimes complex control systems. These
systems must dynamically adjust to varying load conditions, which can increase the cost and
complexity of the vehicle's electronic control unit.
Reactive Power Consumption: Induction motors consume reactive power for creating the
magnetic field, which can reduce the overall power system efficiency. This necessitates the use
of power electronics to compensate and optimize performance, adding to system complexity.
Thermal Management: Although induction motors can operate at high temperatures, their
efficiency and performance might decrease as temperature rises. Effective thermal management
systems are necessary to dissipate heat, especially under heavy load conditions or in hot climates,
which can add to the vehicle's weight and cost.
Weight: For the same power output, induction motors can be heavier than their permanent
magnet counterparts. This increased weight can affect the overall efficiency and performance of
HEVs.
Regenerative Braking Limitations: While capable of regenerative braking, induction motors may
not be as efficient in this mode as permanent magnet motors. The efficiency of energy recovery

4
during braking can vary, potentially impacting the vehicle's overall energy efficiency.

4
1.5.3 Switched Reluctance Motor:
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is gaining attention as a promising propulsion option in
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) due to its distinct advantages over traditional electric motors.
Characterized by its simple and robust construction, the SRM operates on the principle of
magnetic reluctance, where the rotor moves in a direction that minimizes the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit. One of the motor's key features is the absence of permanent magnets and
windings on the rotor, significantly reducing the risk of demagnetization and leading to lower
manufacturing costs. This design inherently provides high fault tolerance and the ability to
operate in a wide range of temperatures, making it well-suited for the demanding environments
found in automotive applications.

Fig-1.19 Switched Reluctance Motor

The SRM can efficiently handle high-speed operations and offers a wide range of speed control,
which is beneficial for the varying driving conditions encountered by HEVs. Despite these
advantages, the SRM's application in HEVs has been limited by challenges such as torque ripple
and acoustic noise, which can affect the vehicle's performance and passenger comfort. However,
ongoing research and technological advancements in control strategies and power electronics are
addressing these issues, enhancing the SRM's viability as a cost-effective, durable, and efficient
option for HEVs.

1.5.3.1 Advantages of Switched Reluctance Motor in HEV:

Simplicity and Robustness: SRMs have a straightforward construction with fewer moving parts
compared to conventional motors, leading to higher reliability and lower maintenance
requirements.

4
High Torque at Low Speeds: They are capable of producing high torque at low speeds, which is
particularly beneficial for vehicles that require strong initial acceleration.
Wide Speed Range: SRMs can operate efficiently over a wide range of speeds, making them
well- suited for the variable driving conditions encountered by HEVs.
Cost-Effectiveness: The motor's construction does not require rare-earth materials for its
magnets, which are often expensive and subject to market volatility. This aspect makes SRMs
potentially more cost-effective and less sensitive to supply chain disruptions.
High Efficiency: SRMs exhibit high efficiency over a broad range of operating conditions. Their
efficiency at converting electrical energy into mechanical energy can contribute to the overall
energy efficiency of HEVs, extending the driving range.
Regenerative Braking Capability: Like other electric motors, SRMs can be used for regenerative
braking, capturing kinetic energy during braking and converting it into electrical energy to
recharge the battery, further enhancing the vehicle's efficiency.
Fault Tolerance: The design and control of SRMs allow for continued operation even if some
components fail. This fault tolerance is beneficial for automotive applications where reliability is
crucial.
Thermal Management: Due to their construction and the absence of permanent magnets, SRMs
can typically handle higher temperatures better than other types of motors, reducing the need for
complex cooling systems.
1.5.3.2 Disadvantages of Switched Reluctance Motor in HEV:

Noise and Vibration: One of the significant drawbacks of SRMs is their tendency to produce
higher levels of acoustic noise and vibration compared to other motor types. This is due to the
motor's operating principle, which involves sudden changes in magnetic attraction within the
motor structure. These issues can impact passenger comfort and require additional noise
reduction and vibration damping measures.
Torque Ripple: SRMs typically exhibit torque ripple, which is a fluctuation in the output torque
as the motor rotates. This can lead to uneven power delivery and may affect the driving
experience, necessitating complex control strategies to minimize its impact.
Complex Control: Achieving optimal performance from an SRM requires sophisticated control
algorithms. The motor's efficiency and performance characteristics are heavily dependent on the
control strategy, which can increase the system's overall complexity and cost.

4
Power Electronics Requirements: SRMs need power electronics and controllers that can handle
high switching frequencies and complex control algorithms. This requirement can add to the cost
and complexity of the drive system.
Limited High-Speed Efficiency: While SRMs are efficient over a wide range of speeds, their
efficiency can drop at very high speeds due to increased iron and switching losses. This
limitation might affect their suitability in applications requiring sustained high-speed operation.

5
1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

The project work is organized into five chapters as follows.

Chapter 1 describes conventional vehicles and their drawbacks and impacts on the environment.
It also describes electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles, their advantages and
disadvantages, and their types. This chapter also includes the various electrical energy storage
systems and types of motors used in HEVs and EVs.

Chapter 2 describes the literature review.

Chapter 3 describes the proposed concept and various modes of operation of the series hybrid
electrical vehicle.

Chapter 4 describes the simulation results and the discussion of the work done.

Chapter 5 describes the conclusion of the work done.

5
 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW:
1. TITLE: OPTIMIZED STATE OF CHARGE ESTIMATION OF LITHIUM-ION
BATTERY IN SMES/BATTERY HYBRID ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM FOR
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
AUTHORS: Qiang Sun; Haiying Lv; Shasha Wang; Shuang Gao; Kexin Wei
PUBLISHED IN: IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity (Volume: 31, Issue: 8,
November 2021)
Abstract: With the increasing capacity of large-scale electric vehicles, it's necessary to stabilize
the fluctuation of charging voltage in order to achieve improvement of lithium-ion battery
lifecycle, and the hybrid energy storage system (HESS) including superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES) and lithium-ion battery is introduced, which is significant to reduce the
high frequency discharge cycles and to manage the state of charge (SOC) for batteries with an
optimized integration scheme based on power grading approach. With the unscented Kalman
filter (UKF) method for battery SOC estimation and the extended Kalman filter (EKF) method
for battery internal resistance estimation, the approach for estimating the lithium-ion battery state
through adaptive unscented Kalman filter (AUKF) is derived. The AUKF approach takes the
form of iterative loop to estimate system parameters and state, so the system strategy has well
adaptive characteristics. Experimental results illustrate that the SOC estimation based on the
proposed optimized approach for lithium-ion battery in HESS can achieve the well robustness
and fast convergence.[2]
2. TITLE: A ROBUST STATE OF CHARGE ESTIMATION APPROACH BASED ON
NONLINEAR BATTERY CELL MODEL FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES IN
ELECTRIC VEHICLES.
AUTHORS : Wooyong Kim; Pyeong-Yeon Lee; Jonghoon Kim; Kyung-Soo Kim
PUBLISHED IN: IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology (Volume: 70, Issue: 6, June
2021) Abstract: This study proposes a robust SOC estimation scheme for lithium-ion batteries
in commercialized electric vehicles: pure electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles.
Development of a nonlinear-model-based robust SOC estimation method and comprehensive
performance comparison with the existing SOC estimation methods under the two kinds of
operating scenarios
5
are considered. The features of the results of this study are summarized as follows: a) a robust
SOC estimator is designed to deal with the model uncertainty and parameter variation, b) an
analysis of asymptotic stability of the proposed robust SOC estimator is provided and c) a
comprehensive analysis was performed not only on the different aging levels of battery cells but
also on the different operational conditions of the electrified vehicles. The effectiveness of the
proposed SOC estimation method was experimentally verified using two 18 650 cylindrical
battery cells with different degradation levels. The proposed SOC estimation scheme ensures
considerable accuracy under both pure electric vehicle operating mode and hybrid vehicle
operating mode even if the battery cell is aged.[1]
3. TITLE: NONLINEAR STATE OF CHARGE ESTIMATOR FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE BATTERY
AUTHORS: Il-Song Kim
PUBLISHED IN: IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics ( Volume: 23, Issue: 4, July 2008)
Abstract: A new method for battery state of charge estimation using a sliding mode observer has
been developed. A nonlinear battery dynamic modeling technique is established and design
methodology with the sliding mode observer is presented. Contrary to the conventional methods
using complicated battery modeling, a simple resistor-capacitor battery model was used in this
work. The modeling errors caused by the simple model are compensated by the sliding mode
observer. The structure of the sliding mode observer is simple, but it shows robust control
property against modeling errors and uncertainties. The convergence of the proposed observer
has been proved by the equivalent control method. The performance of the system has been
verified by the sequence of urban dynamometer driving schedule test. The test results of the
proposed observer system show robust tracking performance under real driving environments.
[26]
4. TITLE: POWER–TRANSPORTATION COORDINATION: TOWARD A HYBRID
ECONOMIC-EMISSION DISPATCH MODEL
AUTHORS: Si Lv; Sheng Chen; Zhinong Wei; Hongcai Zhang
PUBLISHED IN: IEEE Transactions on Power Systems (Volume: 37, Issue: 5, September
2022)
Abstract: The increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) results in growing
interdependency between power and transportation networks. This paper proposes a hybrid
economic-emission dispatch model to coordinate the operation of both networks toward social
5
optima. Specifically, carbon emission from gasoline vehicles (GVs) is quantified by the
macroscopic emission model, while the emission from EVs is indirectly characterized by that
emitted from fossil power plants. To enhance regulation efficiency and improve social welfare, a
differentiated pricing scheme is proposed to independently regulate GV traffic flow, EV traffic
flow, and EV charging flow. Logarithmic transformation, combined with an accuracy-aware
adaptive piecewise linearization (AAPWL) approximation method, is developed to reformulate
the original nonlinear model into a tractable mixed-integer quadratic constrained programming.
Numerical results from two test systems demonstrate the relationship between economic dispatch
and emission dispatch. Meanwhile, the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed pricing
scheme and the AAPWL method are validated.
5. TITLE: OPTIMAL SELECTION OF NAVIGATION MODES OF HEVS
CONSIDERING CO2 EMISSIONS REDUCTION
AUTHORS: Fernando V. Cerna; Mahdi Pourakbari-Kasmaei; Javier Contreras; Luis A. Gallego
PUBLISHED IN: IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology (Volume: 68, Issue: 3, March
2019)
Abstract: In this paper, a mixed-integer linear programming model is proposed to optimize
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) navigation modes on the city map, namely the problem of the
optimal selection of navigation modes (OSNMs). The OSNMs problem of the HEV as part of the
operating strategy is obtained considering a constraint set related to CO 2 emissions reduction,
efficient battery charging, and the optimal scheduling of deliveries. Uncertainties in the HEV
navigation on urban roads are modeled using probability values assigned to an established set of
traffic density values according to the levels of service. The model is implemented in a
mathematical programming language (AMPL) and solved using the commercial solver CPLEX.
The case study considers real data related to the Prius Prime technology and shows the
effectiveness of automating the HEV navigation modes considering CO 2 emissions reduction
levels during an operating strategy.
6. TITLE: A NOVEL SIMULATION MODEL FOR ANALYZING THE STATE OF
CHARGE OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
AUTHORS: S. M. Arif, T. -T. Lie and B. -C. Seet
PUBLISHED IN: 2018 IEEE Innovative Smart Grid Technologies - Asia (ISGT Asia).
Abstract: One of the biggest challenges in the research and development of the electric vehicle

5
and hybrid electric vehicle is the battery technology and it's charging time interval. We proposed
a Novel simulation model for the electric vehicle. In addition, the mode of operations including
Start and low to midrange speeds, Driving Under Normal Conditions, Sudden Acceleration, and
Deceleration for the hybrid electric vehicle have been studied.[21]
7. TITLE: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF STATE OF CHARGE ESTIMATION
TECHNIQUES FOR TWO-WHEELER ELECTRIC VEHICLES
AUTHORS: Tyagi, L. Padmavathi and A. Abhishek
PUBLISHED IN: 2022 International Virtual Conference on Power Engineering Computing and
Control: Developments in Electric Vehicles and Energy Sector for Sustainable Future
(PECCON) Abstract: In this article, a comparative study of the various state of charge (SOC)
estimation methods, for example, coulomb count (CC), Kalman filter (KF), and extended
Kalman filter (EKF), has been presented for a two-wheeler electric vehicle's Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
battery. Accurate estimation of SOC is a critical requirement in EV for its range prediction,
charging mode selection, remaining useful life estimation, etc. However, SOC prediction is a
challenging task due to the nonlinearities of the battery. Therefore, an electrical equivalent circuit
model of Li-ion battery is devised in this work, and the above-said methods, i.e., CC, KF, and
EKF, are developed in MATLAB Simulink for battery's SOC estimation under different
discharge test profiles. A 39 Ah capacity Li-ion battery with a nominal voltage rating of 72 V,
suitable for two-wheeler EV application, is considered for study with all the estimation
techniques. It has been found that the EKF method provides minimal error (< ±0. l %) in SOC
estimation under all loading conditions since it can incorporate the nonlinearities of battery in its
estimation technique.[22]
8. TITLE: DESIGN OF STATE OF CHARGE AND HEALTH ESTIMATION FOR LI-ION
BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
AUTHORS: M. Kim and J. So
PUBLISHED IN: 2022 19th International SoC Design Conference (ISOCC)
Abstract: Recently, researches on the battery management system (BMS) have been actively
conducted due to the increase in various electric vehicles. The main function of the BMS is to
predict the state of charge (SOC) and the state of health (SOH)of the battery cell to ensure the
stability of the vehicle and to achieve optimal performance. This paper designs block IP for
estimating SOC and SOH for lithium-ion batteries up to 15 cells and implements an FPGA
testbed to verify the block IP to be mounted in an SoC for BMS to accurately estimate SOC and
5
SOH for

5
multiple battery cells.[23]
9. TITLE: ELECTRIC VEHICLE SMART CHARGING AIMS FOR CO2 EMISSION
REDUCTION?
AUTHORS: V. Tikka, J. Lassila, J. Haakana and J. Partanen
PUBLISHED IN: 2016 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference Europe
(ISGT-Europe)
Abstract: In this paper, a methodology for electric vehicle charging by minimizing CO2
emissions and minimizing charging electricity costs is presented in an actual Nordic electricity
market environment. The target of the paper is to illustrate the difference of smart charging and
dumb charging schemes from the perspectives of CO2 emissions and electricity end-user
electricity costs. The study takes advantage of a national transportation survey and actual
electricity market data including generation-type-specific CO2 information.[24]
10. TITLE: OPTIMAL DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE TYPES FOR
MINIMIZING TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS
AUTHORS: M. Barazesh, J. Saebi and D. B. M. Hossein Javidi
PUBLISHED IN: 2015 23rd Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering
Abstract: With the rapid growth of electric vehicles, power systems would face serious
difficulties to supply the excessive electricity demand in the near future. In this paper, a planning
method is introduced to prevent the environmental and technical issues that the introduction of
electric vehicles may cause for nonsmart electricity grids. The idea of this method is to employ
the differences between EV types in order to achieve the minimum total emission which is the
sum of vehicles emission and power system emission. The proposed method considers the
importance of decreasing urban area emission and determines the optimal number of every EV
type. The IEEE RTS 24 system, and real-world vehicle specifications is used to demonstrate the
capability of the proposed method. Results suggest that for low daily trip distances, the best
option depends on the priority of urban area emission reduction. On the other hand, for higher
distances, the plug-in types would lead to lower total emissions.[17]
11. TITLE: "IMPACT OF USING ELECTRIC VEHICLE ON CARBON EMISSION,"
AUTHORS: R. Zhi and W. Luo.
PUBLISHED IN: 2022 14th International Conference on Computer Research and Development
(ICCRD)

5
Abstract: In order to reduce carbon emissions, electric vehicles began to be produced and
promoted. Electric vehicles have the potential to reshape the transportation sector across the
world, drastically cutting carbon emissions and clearing the way for significant climate progress.
Many organizations have adopted electric vehicles (EV s) for their fleets as a result of rising fuel
expenses and a push for greener initiatives. EV s, which are known for their fuel economy, might
be a cost- effective solution to save running costs. A collection of statistical procedures for
estimating connections between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables is
known as regression analysis. It may be used to determine the strength of a relationship between
variables and to predict how they will interact in the future. In order to study whether electric
vehicles really reduce carbon emissions, the project uses relevant data sets about the United
States to find the relationship between electric vehicle sales and total carbon emissions. Through
regression analysis, the corresponding data were processed and analyzed.[18]
12. TITLE: MODELING AND CONTROL FOR THE TOYOTA PRIUS UNDER
CONSIDERATION OF EMISSIONS REDUCTION
AUTHORS: Liu De-xing, Zou Yuan and Liu Teng.
PUBLISHED IN: 2014 IEEE Conference and Expo Transportation Electrification Asia-Pacific
(ITEC Asia-Pacific)
Abstract: The Toyota Prius equipped with a combustion engine and two electric machines is a
power-split hybrid electric vehicle. This hybrid electric vehicle uses a power-split planetary gear
system to combine the benefits of series and parallel hybrid vehicles. This paper develops a
dynamic model and then we apply it for the optimal control development. Dynamic
Programming (DP) is utilized to minimize a combination of fuel consumption and selected
emission species over a given driving cycle. A trade-off study between fuel economy and
emissions was performed compared to the simulation results performed in ADVISOR. It was
found that significant emission reduction could be achieved at the cost of just a small increase in
fuel consumption.[19]
13. TITLE: STATE-OF-THE-ART AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF
LITHIUM- ION BATTERIES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE APPLICATIONS: ISSUES AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
AUTHORS: M. A. Hannan, M. M. Hoque, A. Hussain, Y. Yusof and P. J. Ker.
Abstract: A variety of rechargeable batteries are now available in world markets for powering
electric vehicles (EVs). The lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is considered the best among all battery
5
types and cells because of its superior characteristics and performance. The positive
environmental impacts and recycling potential of lithium batteries have influenced the
development of new research for improving Li-ion battery technologies. However, the cost
reduction, safe operation, and mitigation of negative ecological impacts are now a common
concern for advancement. This paper provides a comprehensive study on the state of the art of
Li-ion batteries including the fundamentals, structures, and overall performance evaluations of
different types of lithium batteries. A study on a battery management system for Li-ion battery
storage in EV applications is demonstrated, which includes a cell condition monitoring, charge,
and discharge control, states estimation, protection and equalization, temperature control and
heat management, battery fault diagnosis, and assessment aimed at enhancing the overall
performance of the system. It is observed that the Li-ion batteries are becoming very popular in
vehicle applications due to price reductions and lightweight with high power density. However,
the management of the charging and discharging processes, CO2 and greenhouse gases
emissions, health effects, and recycling and refurbishing processes have still not been resolved
satisfactorily. Consequently, this review focuses on the many factors, challenges, and problems
and provides recommendations for sustainable battery manufacturing for future EVs. This review
will hopefully lead to increasing efforts toward the development of an advanced Li-ion battery in
terms of economics, longevity, specific power, energy density, safety, and performance in
vehicle applications.[20]

5
 PROPOSED CONCEPT
Fig.3.1 shows us a series of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which are vehicles that run solely
on electricity from an internal combustion engine (ICE) to power an electric motor. The ICE
does not supply the wheels with mechanical power directly. Instead, it charges the battery or
powers an electric generator, which powers the motor. This setup allows for greater fuel
selection flexibility than conventional cars, which could result in better fuel economy and fewer
pollutants.

Fig-3.1 Proposed concept block diagram of series hybrid vehicle

The operating modes of a series of hybrid vehicles are described in Fig. 3.2. (a) It informs us that
the sedan is operating solely on electricity, with the engine disabled and the batteries providing
propulsion. (b) It informs us that the vehicle is in pure engine mode, meaning that the batteries
are not drawing or supplying any power from the drive train; instead, the vehicle's traction power
is solely derived from the engine generator. The electric machines function as an electric
transmission, connecting the engine to the driven wheels. (c) It indicates that the vehicle is
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operating in hybrid mode, using both the engine generator and the batteries to provide traction
power. (d) It provides information about the engine's traction and battery charging mode, in
which the engine generator powers both the vehicle's propulsion and the batteries. (e) It provides
information about the regenerative braking mode, in which the engine generator is turned off and
the traction motor functions as a generator, using the energy produced to charge the batteries. (f)
It provides information on the battery charging mode, in which the engine-generator charges the
batteries while the traction motor is powered off.

Fig-3.2 Operating modes of series hybrid electric vehicles:(a) Electric machine is the only
propulsive medium;(b) IC engine is supplying the propulsive torque/power demand;(c) IC engine
and electric machines are supplying the propulsive torque/power demand;(d) regenerative
braking mode of the vehicle;(e) IC engine supplies the propulsive torque/power demand of the
vehicle;(f) IC engine charges the battery system (also battery can receive power from
regenerative braking).

Internal combustion engine-powered conventional vehicles consume limited fossil fuels, which
degrades the environment and poses health risks. They also contribute to air pollution,
greenhouse gas emissions, and noise pollution.

Due to the intricacy of their systems, they also frequently have higher maintenance costs and are
more vulnerable to changes in the price of oil, which affects economies and owners alike.

6
Electric vehicles (EVs)with zero tailpipe emissions, lower operating costs from less fuel and
maintenance,

6
and superior energy efficiency, electric vehicles (EVs) outperform conventional cars. They also
provide a more environmentally friendly and quieter driving experience while lowering reliance
on finite fossil fuels. Furthermore, they present a viable option for environmentally friendly
transportation due to their cutting-edge technology and capacity to support grid stability.

Compared to electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have advantages since they
combine the advantages of electric power with the increased range of a conventional engine.
Because HEVs alleviate range anxiety, they can be used for long-distance driving without
requiring regular recharging or being restricted by infrastructure. They also offer better fuel
economy and reduced emissions when compared to conventional gasoline-powered cars,
providing a transitional choice for customers who aren't yet ready to switch to electric cars.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM): PMSMs are perfect for supplying electric
propulsion in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) due to their high efficiency, power density, and
torque output. Induction motors: Induction motors are an excellent choice for electric propulsion
motors in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) due to their durability, dependability, and
affordability. Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries: NiMH batteries are used extensively in
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) because of its high-power density, track record of dependability,
and affordability when compared to alternative options.

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries: Li-ion batteries are becoming more and more common in
contemporary HEVs, particularly in plug-in hybrid electric cars (PHEVs), because they are more
efficient, lighter, and have a higher energy density than NiMH batteries. In this document we
have designed an IM&PMSM based series hybrid vehicles with FWD powertrain configuration
and all the designs were tested in a MATLAB/Simulink real time practical embedded system
software environment and the proposed model gave optimum results with better SOC and low
emissions. This work aims to define an optimal Machine learning (ML) structure of automatic
detection and diagnosis algorithm for common PV array faults, namely, permanent (Arc Fault,
Line-to-Line, Maximum Power Point Tracking unit failure, and Open-Circuit faults), and
temporary (Shading) under a wide range of climate datasets, fault impedances, and shading
scenarios. To achieve the best-fit ML structure, three distinct ML classifiers are compared,
namely, Decision Tree (DT) based on different splitting criteria, K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
based on the different metrics of distance and weighting functions, and Support Vector Machine
(SVM) based on different Kernel
6
functions and multi-classification approaches. Also, Bayesian Optimization is adopted to assign
the optimal hyperparameters to the fault classifiers. To investigate the performance of classifiers
reported, both simulation and experimental case studies are carried out and presented.

Fig-3.3 MATLAB/Simulink block diagram for proposed concept of series hybrid vehicle

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 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
In the Fig.4.1, we have used series hybrid vehicle with lithium- ion battery with a nominal
voltage of 267v which is approximately 25 modules and here we have used AC induction motor
with a rating of 75kw(continuous).

Fig-4.1 Series ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75

In the Fig.4.2, we have used series hybrid vehicle with lithium- ion battery with a nominal
voltage of 267v which is approximately 25 modules and here we have used Permanent magnet
motor with a rating of 58kw(continuous).

Fig-4.2 Series ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58

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In the Fig.4.3, we have used series hybrid vehicle with Nickel metal hydride battery with a
nominal voltage of 436v which is approximately 65modules and here we have used AC
induction motor with a rating of 75kw(continuous).

Fig-4.3 Series ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75

In the Fig.4.4, we have used series hybrid vehicle with Nickel metal hydride battery with a
nominal voltage of 436v which is approximately 65modules and here we have used Permanent
magnet motor with a rating of 58kw(continuous).

Fig-4.4 Series ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58

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In the Fig.4.5, we have used parallel hybrid vehicle with lithium-ion battery with a nominal
voltage of 267v which is approximately 25 modules and here we have used AC induction motor
with a rating of 75kw(continuous).

Fig-
4.5 Parallel ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75

In the Fig.4.6, we have used parallel hybrid vehicle with lithium-ion battery with a nominal
voltage of 267v which is approximately 25 modules and here we have used Permanent magnet
motor with a rating of 58kw(continuous).

Fig-4.6 Parallel ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58

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In the Fig.4.7, we have used parallel hybrid vehicle with Nickel metal hydride battery with a
nominal voltage of 436v which is approximately 65modules and here we have used AC
induction motor with a rating of 75kw (continuous).

Fig-4.7 Parallel ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75

In the Fig.4.8, we have used parallel hybrid vehicle with Nickel metal hydride battery with a
nominal voltage of 436v which is approximately 65modules and here we have used Permanent
magnet motor with a rating of 58kw(continuous).

Fig-4.8 Parallel ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58

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 Figures 4.1 through 4.8 make it evident that, when compared to both series and parallel hybrids
integrated with PMSM and IM and powered by Lithium-ion batteries, the series HEV energized
with NiMH battery and driven by PMSM motor and induction motor has discharged less
efficiency. When operated with either PMSM or IM, series HEV integrated with NiMH battery
produced the best results regarding SOC charging and discharging cycles, however PMSM series
HEV predominated over AC motor driven HEV.

TABLE-4.1: Distance traveled and emission reduction chart of lithium-ion battery-based and
nickel metal hydride battery-based IM and PMSM adopted series and parallel hybrid.

S.NO TYPE BATTERY MOTOR DISTANCE EMISSIONS

TRAVELLED

1 SERIES ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75 53.3km HC-0.179

CO-1.011
NOx-0.297
2 SERIES ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58 53.3km HC-0.175
CO-1.038
NOx-0.286
3 SERIES ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75 53.3km HC-0.132
CO-0.58
NOx-0.213
4 SERIES ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58 53.3km HC-0.128
CO-0.566
NOx-0.202
5 PARALLEL ESS_LI7_temp MC_AC75 53.3km HC-0.162
CO-0.789
NOx-0.175
6 PARALLEL ESS_LI7_temp MC_PM58 53.3km HC-0.158
CO-0.741
NOx-0.167
7 PARALLEL ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_AC75 53.3km HC-0.158
CO-0.816
NOx-0.168

8 PARALLEL ESS_Annex_VII_SHEV_NIMH28 MC_PM58 53.3km HC-0.155

CO-0.782
NOx-0.161

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As can be seen from Table 1, the series HEV with PMSM motor (MC_PM58) fueled by a NiMH
battery emitted less pollution into the atmosphere than the parallel hybrid that included an
Induction & Permanent Magnet Synchronous motor and was driven by either NiMH or Lithium-
ion battery.
When compared to a series hybrid driven by a PMSM, the identical hybrid that included an
induction motor with a lithium-ion battery did not achieve the best emissions results.

7
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this document provides a comprehensive analysis of SOC estimation and emission
reduction for various types of series hybrid vehicles. Accurate SOC estimation is essential for
optimizing battery management systems in electric and hybrid vehicles, while emission reduction
technologies are crucial for mitigating the environmental impact of internal combustion engine
vehicles. By integrating SOC estimation with emission reduction, vehicles can achieve improved
energy efficiency and reduced emissions, contributing to a more sustainable transportation
ecosystem.

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