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The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

Edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman, Meric S. Gertler, and Dariusz Wójcik
Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Online Publication Date: Feb 2018
(p. iv)
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,

United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Oxford University Press 2018
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Page 1 of 2
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958294
ISBN 978–0–19–875560–9Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0
4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Page 2 of 2
Dedication
Dedication

Dedication
(p. v) For Peter and Shirley, Gordon, Joanna, Isabel and Miles, and Ana (p. vi)
Page 1 of 1
Preface
Preface

(p. vii) Preface

THE New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography (NOHEG) brings to the fore a vibrant
field of research and teaching at the interface between a host of disciplines, including ge
ography, economics, the management sciences, and urban and regional planning. In com
missioning essays we sought to engage leading scholars who have made profound and
long-lasting contributions to economic geography along with new voices, new approach
es, and new topics of significance to the first half of the twenty-first century. This sounds
ambitious. And it is. But we have framed NOHEG as a compendium of essays which reach
back to key concepts and ideas and forward to emerging issues and theoretical perspec
tives that together underwrite the field of economic geography.
Quite obviously, NOHEG builds upon the success of the original Oxford Handbook of Eco
nomic Geography (OHEG; 2002). In many respects, that was a very different project than
NOHEG. When we were developing the logic and building blocks of OHEG, the field of
economic geography was less a shared project across social science disciplines and more
a separate thread in the various disciplines that played host to ‘economic geographers’.
In this respect, OHEG sought to bring together scholars who were engaged with related
issues, even if their theories and analytical approaches were quite different. As such, the
compilation was deliberately framed as a dialogue between economists, geographers, and
urban and regional planners comparing and contrasting their approaches to common is
sues. By contrast, NOHEG takes this dialogue as given and seeks to represent the re
markable development of the field within and across disciplines.
Once again, our intention has been to give life to this dialogue without advocating one
specific way of being an economic geographer or, for that matter, restricting the focus of
the Handbook to a set of issues that are the core of economic geography. Throughout this
volume, pluralism reigns supreme. We leave it to the readers to make their own judge
ments about the salience of issues, the virtues of competing theoretical approaches, and
the claims and counterclaims made by contributors about how to conceptualize twenty-
first-century globalization. In part, our pluralism reflects the editorial team, of whom
Page 1 of 2
Preface
three were editors of the original volume. The newly added fourth editor brings his own
programme of financial geography and valuable experience to the project. All benefit the
NOHEG through their expertise in a variety of ways: our first editor has had a longstand
ing career in the economics discipline, the second has successfully transitioned between
economics and geography and public policy and business schools, and our third editor
(before becoming university president) is engaged in issues of innovation at the interface
between economics, geography, and political science. Inevitably, our separate and com
mon experience frames the project.
The OHEG began with a manifesto. Simply and directly, the volume opened with a state
ment regarding the core principles or foundations upon which the volume was based. We
term these principles ‘significant points of departure’, emphasizing difference, (p. viii) dif
ferentiation, and the heterogeneity of the economic landscape. These principles have
stood the test of time. And, as you would expect, they underwrite NOHEG. These princi
ples challenge commonplace expectations of convergence in economic prospects and de
velopment across regions, nations, and the globe. At the same time in this volume these
principles deserve and receive deeper analysis than in the first volume. So much has
changed in the twenty years between conceiving OHEG and realizing NOHEG. And yet, as
many readers of the first volume have observed, these principles remain contested and
contestable. We are pleased that this is the case and hope that NOHEG carries through on
the challenge represented by difference, differentiation, and heterogeneity.
Our Handbook is dedicated to the memory of Susan Christopherson, who died on 14 De
cember 2016. She was a valued colleague and dear friend whose work was motivated by
a desire to understand people, places, politics, institutions, and economic processes. Her
contribution to this book has all this and much more. On behalf of the community whose
work is embodied by this Handbook, we salute her contribution to academic life and her
commitment to friendship.
The Editors, December 2016
Page 2 of 2
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements

(p. ix) Acknowledgements

THIS book was made possible by the support of numerous organizations. In particular, we
would like to acknowledge the support of our home institutions, notably (for Gordon Clark
and Dariusz Wójick) the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, the School of
Geography and the Environment, and the Saïd Business School at Oxford University, and,
further afield, the Department of Banking and Finance in the Monash Business School at
Monash University, the University of Toronto (Meric Gertler), and the University of North
Carolina (Maryann Feldman). Without the administrative and organizational support of
our home institutions, and without the support and encouragement of our colleagues in
those institutions, this book would not have been possible.
At Oxford, we were fortunate to have a team that has carried the Handbook through its
various stages. We would especially like to thank Alice Chautard, Seth Collins, Angelika
Kaiser, Irem Kok, and Sarah McGill for their reading of submissions, their attention to the
form and structure of the book and its various sections, and their help in meeting the var
ious deadlines that a book of this size must meet. Also important in this regard has been
the enthusiasm and encouragement found in our OUP editors, notably Dominic Byatt and
David Musson, Olivia Wells, and the New York-based Handbook staff led by Sarah Kain.
We are very grateful for their engagement with this project, and its previous incarnation.
Along the way, we had an opportunity to present both the book and the role of our con
tributors to the wider academic community through the Fourth Global Conference on
Economic Geography (2015) in Oxford. This event was led by Dariusz Wójcik, along with
the staff of the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment and the School of Geog
raphy and the Environment. Most importantly, Patrizia Ferrari’s conference management
made this possible. At the conference we held a number of meetings with contributors, al
lowing for a dialogue about their contributions and the significance of the book. We are
very grateful to those contributors who participated for their enthusiasm and engage
ment in this initiative.
Page 1 of 2
Acknowledgements
Finally, any long-running project such as this incurs many debts—specifically, the pa
tience of our families and friends. Peter and Shirley, Gordon M. Allen, Joanna, Isabel and
Miles, and Ana have, in their different ways, sustained our academic careers and demon
strated their continued support throughout this particular project. (p. x)
Page 2 of 2
List of Figures
List of Figures

(p. xvii) List of Figures

0.1Frequency of Geographical Bigrams Occurring in Books Included in the English-
language Corpus of Google Books 10
4.1De Facto Urban Population and Urban Hukou Population, 1955–2013 85
5.1India’s Long-term Growth, 1950–2009 100
5.2Headcount Index of Poverty Using the National Poverty Line (Percentage) 103
5.3India: Real Patterns of Consumption Growth 105
6.1Employment (15–64 years) Rates (%) EU27, 2008, 2010, and 2012 117
6.2Unemployment (15–64 years) Rates (%) EU27, 2008, 2010, and 2013 118
6.3Long-term Unemployment Rates, 2008 and 2014 118
6.4Youth Unemployment (15–24 years) Rates (Percentage Labour Force) EU27,
2008, 2012, and 2013 119
6.5At Risk of Poverty or Social Exclusion (Percentage of Total Population) 121
6.6Gross Domestic Product and Employment Rates in Greece, 1996–2011 122
6.7Greek and European Union Small- and Medium-sized Enterprise performance,
2008–14 (estimates for 2011 onwards) 128
10.1Interaction Between the Environment (Resources) and the Nature of the Deci
sion Problem 206
13.1Sewall Wright’s Fitness Landscapes 249
13.2Ecosystem Boundaries—US/Mexico Border 254
13.3Succession and Reorganization of Ecosystems 257
13.4Phase Characteristics of the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem 258
17.1Portfolio of Fifty-one Traded Clusters and their Connections 327
17.2Strong IT and Analytical Instruments Clusters in the U.S., 2011 329
18.1Agglomeration and City Formation 350
18.2Internal Structure of Clusters 355
18.3Tech Sourcing in Silicon Valley Core 357
18.4Tech Sourcing Around Silicon Valley 358
20.1Strategic Coupling and Global–Local Economic Integration Through Production
Networks 388
Page 1 of 2
List of Figures
21.1Ambivalent Effect of Service Commoditization on Geographical Cluster Growth

414
(p. xviii) 21.2Global Delivery Model 416
22.1Levels of Cross-border Online Purchases 442

26.1The Growth of the Creative Economy Share 502
26.2Creative Class Shares in US Metropolitan Regions 504
26.3Social, Analytical; and Physical Skills in US Metropolitan Regions 507
29.1The Structure of Finance 559
29.2The Map of Finance 560
29.3Finance in the Global Economy 562
29.4Fordism and Flexible Accumulation 568
29.5The Share of Financial and Business Services in Total Employment 569
30.1Bitcoin to US Dollar Exchange Rates, 2013–15 583
31.1Existing Opaque, Overly Packaged Form of Investment Management 600
31.2Organic Finance: Greater Investor Responsibility on Fees and Efficiency of In
vestment Access Points 600
34.1Notional Amount of Outstanding Over-the-Counter Commodity Derivatives, De
cember 1998–June 2010 (US$ trillion) 651
34.2Financial Investment in Commodities, Assets Under Management, by Product,
2005–11 (US$ billion) 652
36.1Marshall’s Supply-and-Demand Curve 688
36.2Typology of the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Value 691
36.3Economies of Production and Internalization Through the Circulation of Value
693
37.1US Field Production of Crude Oil (1000 Barrels per Day), 1920–2014 706
40.1Commodity Prices Over the Last 100 Years 752
40.2Forecast Exhaustion Dates of Minerals Extend into the Future 753
40.3Selected Planetary Boundaries Already Breached 755
40.4Progress in Solar versus Coal and Nuclear 763
41.1Gini Coefficients Among Selected Developing Countries 773
41.2Differences in Interpersonal and Territorial Income Inequalities Among Selected
Countries (Second Theil Index) 774
45.1Differing City Responses to the Great Recession in the USA, 2007–09: New York,
Chicago, Atlanta, and Phoenix Compared 842
45.2Stylized Reactions of a Regional Economy to a Shock 847
45.3Regional Economic Resilience as Process 849
45.4Some Potential Policy Foci for ‘Building’ Regional Adaptive Resilience 856
Page 2 of 2
List of Tables
List of Tables

(p. xix) List of Tables

1.1Comparative Growth Rates in Real Gross Domestic Product, Selected Countries
21
1.2Comparative Change in Per Capita Gross Domestic Product at Purchasing Power
Parity (Current International Dollars), Selected Countries: 2000–12 22
1.3Value Added by Sector 23
2.1Summary of Income Inequalities in the Five Most Populous European Union
Countries (2012) 44
2.2Summary of UK Household Income Distribution 2012 45
2.3Summary of Income Inequalities in Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the UK in
2012 48
2.4Share of Income Received by Best-off 1 Per Cent Taxpayers in Rich Countries 49
2.5The Radio of Incomes of the Best-off 10 Per Cent of Households Versus the Worst-
off 10 Per Cent Among the World’s Richest Countries 50
2.6Share in Top Incomes of the 1 Per Cent and Gini Measure of Inequality, Fifteen
Affluent Countries Ranked by the Take of the 1 Per Cent 51
2.7Projections for Rich Countries’ Income Inequality, Percentage Take of Top 1 Per
Cent 52
2.8The Numbers of Bankers Paid Over €1,000,000 in 2012 (Highest Numbers in the
European Union) 53
2.9Income Inequality in the USA, 2008 and 1970–2008 (at Real 2008 Rates) 54
2.10Income Received from the State by Households in 2012 56
4.1Urban Hukou Population, Urban Population, and Gross Domestic Product Shares,
1949−2014 (Percentage of National Total) 84
4.2Distribution of Cities, 1982–2010 87
4.3Spatial Gini, 1957–2010 88
4.4Number of Megacities and Urban Population of Large Countries, 2014 89
5.1Ranking of India’s Poorest States by Gross State Domestic Product Per Capita
and Human Development Indicators 106
6.1Top Employment Sectors in Greece, Percentage 2000 and 2008 123
Page 1 of 2
List of Tables
6.2Top Employment Sectors in the Regions of Greece, 2008 124

6.3Top Employment Sectors in Greece, 2009 and 2013 125
6.4Top-six Employment-loss Sectors (NACE rev2.0) Greece and EU27, 2008Q1–
2011Q1 125
(p. xx) 6.5Top-six Employment-gain Sectors (NACE rev2.0) Greece and EU27,
2008Q1–2011Q1 126
6.6Occupational Structure of Employment (000s) in Trade, Greece, 2008–13 130
6.7Greece’s Path-dependent Growth Patterns from the 1980s to 2008–09 Crisis 132
15.1Situating Co-creation 289
15.2A Typology of Co-creation Formats and Practices 290
20.1Strategic Coupling, Global Production Networks, and Local Development Trajec
tories 390
22.1Leading Transnational Retailers, Ranked by International Revenue in 2013 430
22.2Differences in Level of Globalization by Retail Sector, 2010–13 432
22.3Level of Globalization of Top 250 Global Retailers by Region/Country, 2013 433
22.4Top Fifteen e-Retailers, Ranked by Online Sales, 2013 441
25.1Full-time, part-time, and temporary employment in the European Union (per
centages), 2003, 2007, and 2014 489
25.2Survey Results (Selected), UK Employees, 2013 494
Page 2 of 2
List of Editors
List of Editors

(p. xxi) List of Editors

Gordon L. Clark (gordon.clark@smithschool.ox.ac.uk) is the Director of the Smith School
of Enterprise and the Environment with cross-appointments in the Saïd Business School
and the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford University. He holds a Pro
fessorial Fellowship at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He is also Sir Louis Matheson Distin
guished Visiting Professor at Monash University’s Faculty of Business and Economics
(Melbourne) and a Visiting Professor at Stanford University. Previous academic appoint
ments have been at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Law School (Se
nior Research Associate), the University of Chicago, Carnegie Mellon’s Heinz School, and
Monash University. Other honours include being Andrew Mellon Fellow at the US Nation
al Academy of Sciences and Visiting Scholar Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst
at the University of Marburg.
Maryann P. Feldman (maryann.feldman@gmail.com) is the S.K. Heninger Distinguished

Professor of Public Policy and Finance at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
and the Kenan Flagler Business School. In 2013, she was awarded with the prestigious
Global Entrepreneurship Research Award from the Swedish Entrepreneurship Forum and
Research Institute of Industrial Economics. She is a member of the Innovation Forum at
the National Academies of Science. Her research interests focus on the areas of innova
tion, the commercialization of academic research, and the factors that promote techno
logical change and economic growth.
Meric S. Gertler (meric.gertler@utoronto.ca) is President of the University of Toronto,

Professor of Geography and Planning and the Goldring Chair in Canadian Studies. He was
the founding co-director of the Program on Globalization and Regional Innovation Sys
tems (PROGRIS) at the Munk School of Global Affairs. His research focuses on the geog
raphy of innovative activity, the economies of city regions, and economic restructuring in
North America and Europe. He is the author, co-author, and co-editor of more than ninety
scholarly articles and chapters, and nine books, including Manufacturing Culture: The In
stitutional Geography of Industrial Practice. He has served as an advisor to local, region
Page 1 of 2
List of Editors
al, and national governments in Canada, the USA, and Europe, and international agencies
such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. He is the founding
associate editor of the Journal of Economic Geography.
Dariusz Wójcik (dariusz.wojcik@spc.ox.ac.uk) is a Professor of Economic Geography in

the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford University, a Fellow of St Peter’s
College, and a Visiting Professor at Beijing Normal University. His research focuses on fi
nance, corporate governance, and economic globalization. His current project, funded by
the European Research Council, investigates how financial and business services have
been (p. xxii) affected by the global financial crisis, and how they change in response to
new financial regulation, the rise of the Global South, and the digital revolution. The
project also focuses on the impacts of finance on regional development. Dariusz is a mem
ber of the editorial board of Economic Geography, the Journal of Economic Geography,
Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space and GeoJournal and leads the Global
Network on Financial Geography (FinGeo).
Page 2 of 2
List of Abbreviations

(p. xxiii) List of Abbreviations

Prelims
NOHEG New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography
OHEG Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography
Introduction
GDP gross domestic product
IMF International Monetary Fund
Chapter 1
FDI foreign direct investment
GFC global financial crisis
SOEs state-owned enterprises
Page 1 of 10
Chapter 2
EU European Union
EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
(p. xxiv) Chapter 3
CMSA Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SBTC skill-biased technological change
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
AJR Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson
BJP Bharatiya Janata Party
PPP purchasing power parity
TFP total factor productivity
Page 2 of 10
Chapter 6
EC European Commission
ECB European Central Bank
EEC European Economic Community
EMU European Monetary Union
EU European Union
GVA gross value added
HRADF Hellenic Republic Asset Development Fund
SME small- and medium-sized enterprise
(p. xxv) Chapter 7
EU European Union
Chapter 11
EEG evolutionary economic geography
RIS regional innovation system
Chapter 12
CME coordinated market economy
Page 3 of 10
EEG evolutionary economic geography
LEP local enterprise partnership
LME liberal market economy
Chapter 13
MSA metropolitan statistical area
Chapter 14
ISP Internet service provider
IT information technology
Chapter 15
DCA dichloroacetic acid
GPS Global Positioning System
(p. xxvi) Chapter 16
IP intellectual property
MNE multinational enterprise
Chapter 17
B2C business-to-consumer
BCD Benchmark Cluster Definitions
DSC Dual Specialization Correlation
Page 4 of 10
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
USCMP U.S. Cluster Mapping Project
Chapter 19
GCN global city network
HFDI horizontal FDI
IDP investment development pathway
KCM Knowledge Capital Model
MNE multinational enterprise
NEG new economic geography
OLI Ownership–Location–Internalization
PLC product life cycle
VFDI vertical FDI
Chapter 20
GPN global production network
GVC global value chain
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
WTO World Trade Organization
Page 5 of 10
(p. xxvii) Chapter 21
BPO business process outsourcing
CMMI Capability Maturity Model Integration
GDM global delivery model
GE General Electric
ICT information and communication technology
IS impact sourcing
KSC knowledge services cluster
Chapter 22
TNC transnational corporation
Chapter 23
CSR corporate social responsibility
GPN global production network
GVC global value chain
ILO International Labour Organization
NGO non-governmental organization
UN United Nations
Page 6 of 10
Chapter 24
EU European Union
INE involuntary non-standard employment
SER standard employment relationship
Chapter 28
DSGE dynamic stochastic general equilibrium
(p. xxviii) Chapter 29
CEO chief executive officer
EU European Union
FABS financial and business services
GFN global financial networks
GPN global production networks
TNC transnational corporation
Chapter 30
AP Associated Press
Page 7 of 10
EU European Union
HFT high-frequency trading
Chapter 31
LTI long-term investor
Chapter 33
EU European Union
SUNFED Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development
UN United Nations
Chapter 34
CFTC Commodity Futures Trading Commission
ETP exchange-traded product
GSCI Goldman Sachs Commodity Index
OTC over the counter
(p. xxix) Chapter 35
ILS insurance-linked securitization
Chapter 36
CO2 carbon dioxide
EU ETS European Union Emissions Trading System
Page 8 of 10
Chapter 37
Chapter 38
MNC multinational corporation
NGO non-governmental organization
Chapter 39
SEC Securities and Exchange Commission
Chapter 40
tCO2 total carbon dioxide
USGS United States Geological Survey
(p. xxx) Chapter 41
LED local economic development
Chapter 42
CBA community benefits agreement
Page 9 of 10
Chapter 44
GOI geography of innovation
IIG innovation for inclusive growth
NIS national innovation system
NSI national systems of innovation
WTO World Trade Organization
Chapter 45
NEG new economic geography
Page 10 of 10
List of Contributors

(p. xxxi) List of Contributors
Philip E. Auerswald (philip.auerswald@gmail.com) is an associate professor at the

Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University. He leads the Glob
al Entrepreneurship Research Network, an initiative of the Kauffman Foundation, and
is the co-founder and co-editor of Innovations, a quarterly journal published by MIT
Press about entrepreneurial solutions to global challenges. He is most recently the
author of The Code Economy: A Forty-Thousand Year History, published by Oxford
University Press in 2017. He has served as a consultant to foundations, corporations,
and national governments, including the World Bank, Gates Foundation, the National
Academy of Sciences, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology. From
2010 to 2013 he was an advisor to the Clinton Global Initiative, focusing on job cre
ation and market-based solutions.
Harald Bathelt (harald.bathelt@utoronto.ca) is the Canada Research Chair in ‘Inno

vation and Governance’ at the Department of Political Science, University of Toronto,
Canada. He also holds an appointment as Professor in the University of Toronto’s De
partment of Geography and Planning. His research and teaching interests are in the
areas of industrial and economic geography, political economy, and methodology,
specifically in the analysis of knowledge generation and innovation processes over
distance, industrial clustering, and the socio-economic impacts of regional and indus
trial change. For the past six years, Professor Bathelt was a Visiting Professor at the
East China Normal University in Shanghai, China, and was previously a Visiting Pro
fessor at the University of Heidelberg, Germany and HEC Montréal, Canada. Since
2012, he has been editor of the Journal of Economic Geography.
Page 1 of 22
Michael Berry (mike.berry@rmit.edu.au) is Emeritus Professor at Urban Studies and

Public Policy, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. His
research has focused on urban development processes, urban social theory, econom
ics and public policy, and housing markets and policy. His focus has been on alterna
tive financing approaches for affordable housing, and the impact of housing markets
on the macro-economy for which he has been awarded numerous significant grants,
most notably from the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, which he
helped found. He has been on the editorial board of a number of journals, including
Housing,Theory and Society and Urban Policy and Research. He has visited a number
of universities in Europe, Asia, and North America, most recently as Helen Kam visit
ing fellow at Girton College, Cambridge.
Ron Boschma (r.a.boschma@uu.nl) is Professor in Regional Economics at the Urban

and Regional Research Centre Utrecht (URU) at Utrecht University, the Netherlands.
He is also Professor II in Innovation Studies at UiS Business School and Stavanger
Centre for (p. xxxii) Innovation Research, University of Stavanger, Norway. In 2013,
Professor Boschma received an Honorary Doctorate in the Natural Sciences (‘Doktor
der Naturwissenschaften ehrenhalber’) from Marburg University (Fachbereich Geo
graphie) in Germany. His research interests include evolutionary economic geogra
phy; spatial evolution of industries; geography of innovation; geography of knowledge
networks; agglomeration externalities and regional growth; and regional diversifica
tion. He is editor of the Cambridge Journal of Region, Economy and Society, and asso
ciate editor of Industrial and Corporate Change, Papers in Regional Science, and Re
gional Studies.
Kam Wing Chan (kwchan@uw.edu) is Professor of Geography at the University of

Washington. His main research focuses on China’s cities, migrant labour, and the
household registration system. He is the author of Cities with Invisible Walls: Reinter
preting Urbanization in Post-1949 China (Oxford University Press, 1994). He is Asso
ciate Editor of Eurasian Geography and Economics. In the last two decades he has
worked as a consultant for the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, United Nations,
and McKinsey & Co. on several major policy projects on China. His recent commen
taries and interviews have appeared in The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times,
The Economist, South China Morning Post, BBC, CBC Radio, Caixin, Ming Pao, and
China Daily.
Page 2 of 22
Karen Chapple (chapple@berkeley.edu) is a Professor of City and Regional Planning

at the University of California, Berkeley. Chapple specializes in housing, community,
and economic development, as well as regional planning. She has most recently pub
lished on job creation on industrial land (in Economic Development Quarterly), re
gional governance in rural Peru (in the Journal of Rural Studies), and accessory
dwelling units as a smart-growth strategy (in the Journal of Urbanism). Her recent
book (Routledge, 2014) is entitled Planning Sustainable Cities and Regions: Towards
More Equitable Development. In 2015 she launched the Urban Displacement Project,
a research portal examining patterns of residential, commercial, and industrial dis
placement, as well as policy and planning solutions.
Susan Christopherson She published a series of key articles and a prize-winning

book examining how market governance regimes influence regional economic devel
opment and firm strategies. She was a recognized expert in the field of media studies
with a record of research and publication on the media entertainment industries. Pro
fessor Christopherson published more than 100 articles and book chapters on topics
illuminating the spatial dimensions of economy and society, and served on numerous
editorial boards. Most recently, she was editor-in-chief of the Regional Studies Associ
ation/Taylor Francis Book Series on Cities and Regions.
Gordon L. Clark (gordon.clark@smithschool.ox.ac.uk) DSc (Oxon) FBA is the Direc

tor of the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment with cross-appointments at
the Saïd Business School and the School of Geography and the Environment at Oxford
University. He holds a Professorial Fellowship at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He is also
Sir Louis Matheson Distinguished Visiting Professor at Monash University’s Faculty of
Business and Economics (Melbourne) and a Visiting Professor at Stanford University.
Previous academic appointments have been at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Govern
ment, Harvard Law School (Senior Research Associate), the University of Chicago,
Carnegie Mellon’s Heinz School, and (p. xxxiii) Monash University. Other honours in
clude being Andrew Mellon Fellow at the US National Academy of Sciences and Visit
ing Scholar Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst at the University of Marburg.
Jennifer Clark (jennifer.clark@gatech.edu) is Director of Georgia Tech’s Center for

Urban Innovation and an Associate Professor in the School of Public Policy. Dr Clark
publishes work on the development and discussion of urban and regional policies and
their effect on cities and their economic resilience. Her book, Remaking Regional
Economies (with Susan Christopherson), won the Best Book Award from the Regional
Page 3 of 22
Studies Association in 2009. She published Working Regions in 2013 and the Hand
book of Manufacturing Industries in the World Economy in 2015. She has worked on
innovation policy projects with a broad range of organizations, including the OECD
and the Canadian, UK, and US governments. She earned her PhD from Cornell Uni
versity, an MPlan from the University of Minnesota, and a BA from Wesleyan Universi
ty in Connecticut. She is the current chair of the Economic Geography Specialty
Group (EGSG) of the Association of American Geographers and an editor of Regional
Studies.
Neil M. Coe (geonmc@nus.edu.sg) is Professor of Economic Geography at the Na

tional University of Singapore, where he is also co-director of the Global Production
Networks Research Centre. His research interests are in the areas of global produc
tion networks and local economic development; the geographies of local and transna
tional labour markets; the geographies of innovation; and institutional and network
approaches to economic development. He has published over seventy-five articles and
book chapters on these topics, and is a co-author or co-editor of six books. He is cur
rently an editor of the Journal of Economic Geography, and on the editorial board of
European Urban and Regional Studies.
Stuart Corbridge (vice.chancellor@durham.ac.uk) is the Vice Chancellor and War

den of Durham University. Among his previous appointments were a Lectureship in
South Asian Geography at Cambridge University, a Professorship of International
Studies at the University of Miami, and a Chair in Geography at the London School of
Economics. In 2013, he was appointed as the first Deputy Director and Provost of
LSE. He has consulted with the UK’s Department for International Development on is
sues of public service delivery, joint forest management, and participation and em
powerment in Jharkhand, India. His major publication (with Glyn Williams, Manoj Sri
vastava, and Rene Veron) remains Seeing the State: Governance and Governmentality
in India. He was also a Managing Editor for the Journal of Development Studies
(2005–10) and Economy and Society (2008–12).
Lokesh Dani (ldani@masonlive.gmu.edu) is a doctoral candidate in public policy at

the Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University. He is a re
search assistant for the Center for Regional Analysis where his interests focus on
measuring entrepreneurial ecosystems, as well as evaluating the skill composition of
regional labour forces. He has an MS degree from New York University with a con
centration in International Business, Economics and Development, and a BA from
Page 4 of 22
Bucknell University in English. Prior to his studies in economics he worked in biomed

ical research at the Cardiovascular Research Foundation in New York City.
Mercedes Delgado (delgadom@mit.edu) is a Senior Lecturer at the MIT Sloan

School of Management, and the Research Director and Research Scientist of the MIT
Innovation (p. xxxiv) Initiative Lab for Innovation Science and Policy. She also serves as
Senior Associate at the Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness at Harvard Busi
ness School. Delgado’s research focuses on the relationship between the regional
business environment and the performance of firms, regions, and countries. She ex
amines the role of regional clusters in job creation, innovation, entrepreneurship, and
resilience. In recent work she explores the interaction between the spatial organiza
tion of firms, their location choices through the value chain, and firm performance.
Delgado has published articles in top economic, policy, and strategy journals. She re
cently served as a lead researcher on the U.S. Cluster Mapping Project.
Danny Dorling (danny.dorling@ouce.ox.ac.uk) is the Halford Mackinder Professor of

Geography, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford. He was
previously Professor for the Public Understanding of Social Science, University of Sh
effield. Additionally he has been appointed Adjunct Professor, Department of Geogra
phy, University of Canterbury, New Zealand. He has served on leading boards and
committees, including the Public Health England Mortality Surveillance Steering
Group, the Economics and Health Special Interest Group, Faculty of Public Health,
and Advisor UK Government Office for Science, Foresight Team. His work concerning
issues of housing, health, employment, education, and poverty has resulted in more
than a dozen books and several hundred journal papers.
Gilles Duranton (duranton@wharton.upenn.edu) is the Dean’s Chair in Real Estate

Professor and the Chair of the Real Estate Department at Wharton, University of
Pennsylvania. He has published several key articles on urban and transportation is
sues, and his recent work examines urban growth and the effects of transportation in
frastructure on urban development and the evaluation of local policies. His theoreti
cal research concerns the distribution of city sizes, the skill composition, and sectori
al patterns of activities in the cities. He is also co-editor of the Journal of Urban Eco
nomics and the Handbook for Regional and Urban Economics, as well as an editorial
board member of several other journals.
Page 5 of 22
Another random document with
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like articles of Porto Rican manufacture: Provided, That on
and after the date when this Act shall take effect, all
merchandise and articles, except coffee, not dutiable under
the tariff laws of the United States, and all merchandise and
articles entered in Porto Rico free of duty under' orders
heretofore made by the Secretary of War, shall be admitted
into the several ports thereof, when imported from the United
States, free of duty, all laws or parts of laws to the
contrary notwithstanding; and whenever the legislative
assembly of Porto Rico shall have enacted and put into
operation a system of local taxation to meet the necessities
of the government of Porto Rico, by this Act established, and
shall by resolution duly passed so notify the President, he
shall make proclamation thereof, and thereupon all tariff
duties on merchandise and articles going into Porto Rico from
the United States or coming into the United States from Porto
Rico shall cease, and from and after such date all such
merchandise and articles shall be entered at the several ports
of entry free of duty; and in no event shall any duties be
collected after the first day of March, nineteen hundred and
two, on merchandise and articles going into Porto Rico from
the United States or coming into the United States from Porto
Rico.
"SECTION 4.
That the duties and taxes collected in Porto Rico in pursuance
of this Act, less the cost of collecting the same, and the
gross amount of all collections of duties and taxes in the
United States upon articles of merchandise coming from Porto
Rico, shall not be covered into the general fund of the
Treasury, but shall be held as a separate fund, and shall be
placed at the disposal of the President to be used for the
government and benefit of Porto Rico until the government of
Porto Rico herein provided for shall have been organized, when
all moneys theretofore collected under the provisions hereof,
then unexpended, shall be transferred to the local treasury of
Porto Rico, and the Secretary of the Treasury shall designate
the several ports and sub-ports of entry in Porto Rico, and
shall make such rules and regulations and appoint such agents
as may be necessary to collect the duties and taxes authorized
to be levied, collected, and paid in Porto Rico by the
provisions of this Act, and he shall fix the compensation and
provide for the payment thereof of all such officers, agents,
and assistants as he may find it necessary to employ to carry
out the provisions hereof: Provided, however, That as soon as
a civil government for Porto Rico shall have been organized in
accordance with the provisions of this Act and notice thereof
shall have been given to the President he shall make
proclamation thereof, and thereafter all collections of duties
and taxes in Porto Rico under the provisions of this Act shall
be paid into the treasury of Porto Rico, to be expended as
required by law for the government and benefit thereof instead
of being paid into the Treasury of the United States."
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1900 (April).

Act to provide temporarily for the civil government
of the Island.
The fundamental provisions of the act of the Congress of the

United States to provide temporarily for the civil government
of Porto Rico, which the President approved April 12, 1900,
are the following:
"SECTION 6.
That the capital of Porto Rico shall be at the city of San
Juan and the seat of government shall be maintained there.
"SECTION 7.
That all inhabitants continuing to reside therein who were
Spanish subjects on the eleventh day of April, eighteen
hundred and ninety-nine, and then resided in Porto Rico, and
their children born subsequent thereto, shall be deemed and
held to be citizens of Porto Rico, and as such entitled to the
protection of the United States, except such as shall have
elected to preserve their allegiance to the Crown of Spain on
or before the eleventh day of April, nineteen hundred, in
accordance with the provisions of the treaty of peace between
the United States and Spain entered into on the eleventh day
of April, eighteen hundred and ninety-nine; and they, together
with such citizens of the United States as may reside in Porto
Rico, shall constitute a body politic under the name of The
People of Porto Rico, with governmental powers as hereinafter
conferred, and with power to sue and be sued as such.
{416}
"SECTION 8.
That the laws and ordinances of Porto Rico now in force shall
continue in full force and effect, except as altered, amended,
or modified hereinafter, or as altered or modified by military
orders and decrees in force when this Act shall take effect,
and so far as the same are not inconsistent or in conflict
with the statutory laws of the United States not locally
inapplicable, or the provisions hereof, until altered,
amended, or repealed by the legislative authority hereinafter
provided for Porto Rico or by Act of Congress of the United
States: Provided, That so much of the law which was in force
at the time of cession, April eleventh, eighteen hundred and
ninety-nine, forbidding the marriage of priests, ministers, or
followers of any faith because of vows they may have taken,
being paragraph four, article eighty-three, chapter three,
civil code, and which was continued by the order of the
secretary of justice of Porto Rico, dated March seventeenth,
eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, and promulgated by
Major-General Guy V. Henry, United States Volunteers, is
hereby repealed and annulled, and all persons lawfully married
in Porto Rico shall have all the rights and remedies conferred
by law upon parties to either civil or religious marriages:
And provided further, That paragraph one, article one hundred
and five, section four, divorce, civil code, and paragraph
two, section nineteen, of the order of the minister of justice
of Porto Rico, dated March seventeenth, eighteen hundred and
ninety-nine, and promulgated by Major-General Guy V. Henry,
United States Volunteers, be, and the same hereby are, so
amended as to read: 'Adultery on the part of either the
husband or the wife.' …
"SECTION 14.
That the statutory laws of the United States not locally
inapplicable, except as hereinbefore or hereinafter otherwise
provided, shall have the same force and effect in Porto Rico
as in the United States, except the internal-revenue laws,
which, in view of the provisions of section three, shall not
have force and effect in Porto Rico.
"SECTION 15.
That the legislative authority hereinafter provided shall have
power by due enactment to amend, alter, modify, or repeal any
law or ordinance, civil or criminal, continued in force by
this Act, as it may from time to time see fit.
"SECTION 16.
That all judicial process shall run in the name of 'United
States of America, ss: the President of the United States,'
and all criminal or penal prosecutions in the local courts
shall be conducted in the name and by the authority of 'The
People of Porto Rico'; and all officials authorized by this
Act shall before entering upon the duties of their respective
offices take an oath to support the Constitution of the United
States and the laws of Porto Rico.
"SECTION 17.
That the official title of the chief executive officer shall
be 'The Governor of Porto Rico.' He shall be appointed by the
President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate;
he shall hold his office for a term of four years and until
his successor is chosen and qualified unless sooner removed by
the President; he shall reside in Porto Rico during his
official incumbency, and shall maintain his office at the seat
of government; he may grant pardons and reprieves, and remit
fines and forfeitures for offenses against the laws of Porto
Rico, and respites for offenses against the laws of the United
States, until the decision of the President can be
ascertained; he shall commission all officers that he may be
authorized to appoint, and may veto any legislation enacted,
as hereinafter provided; he shall be the commander in chief of
the militia, and shall at all times faithfully execute the
laws, and he shall in that behalf have all the powers of
governors of the Territories of the United States that are not
locally inapplicable; and he shall annually, and at such other
times as he may be required, make official report of the
transactions of the government in Porto Rico, through the
Secretary of State, to the President of the United States:
Provided, That the President may, in his discretion, delegate
and assign to him such executive duties and functions as may
in pursuance with law be so delegated and assigned.
"SECTION 18.
That there shall be appointed by the President, by and with
the advice and consent of the Senate, for the period of four
years, unless sooner removed by the President, a secretary, an
attorney-general, a treasurer, an auditor, a commissioner of
the interior, and a commissioner of education, each of whom
shall reside in Porto Rico during his official incumbency and
have the powers and duties hereinafter provided for them,
respectively, and who, together with five other persons of
good repute, to be also appointed by the President for a like
term of four years, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, shall constitute an executive council, at least five
of whom shall be native inhabitants of Porto Rico, and, in
addition to the legislative duties hereinafter imposed upon
them as a body, shall exercise such powers and perform such
duties as are hereinafter provided for them, respectively, and
who shall have power to employ all necessary deputies and
assistants for the proper discharge of their duties as such
officials and as such executive council. …
"SECTION 27.
That all local legislative powers hereby granted shall be
vested in a legislative assembly which shall consist of two
houses; one the executive council, as hereinbefore
constituted, and the other a house of delegates, to consist of
thirty-five members elected biennially by the qualified voters
as hereinafter provided; and the two houses thus constituted
shall be designated 'The legislative assembly of Porto Rico.'
"SECTION 28.
That for the purposes of such elections Porto Rico shall be
divided by the executive council into seven districts,
composed of contiguous territory and as nearly equal as may be
in population, and each district shall be entitled to five
members of the house of delegates.
SECTION 29.
That the first election for delegates shall be held on such
date and under such regulations as to ballots and voting as
the executive council may prescribe. … At such elections all
citizens of Porto Rico shall be allowed to vote who have been
bona fide residents for one year and who possess the other
qualifications of voters under the laws and military orders in
force on the first day of March, 1900, subject to such
modifications and additional qualifications and such
regulations and restrictions as to registration as may be
prescribed by the executive council. …
{417}
"SECTION 32.
That the legislative authority herein provided shall extend to
all matters of a legislative character not locally inapplicable,
including power to create, consolidate, and reorganize the
municipalities, so far as may be necessary, and to provide and
repeal laws and ordinances therefor; and also the power to
alter, amend, modify, and repeal any and all laws and
ordinances of every character now in force in Porto Rico, or
any municipality or district thereof, not inconsistent with
the provisions hereof: Provided, however, That all grants of
franchises, rights, and privileges or concessions of a public
or quasi-public nature shall be made by the executive council,
with the approval of the governor, and all franchises granted
in Porto Rico shall be reported to Congress, which hereby
reserves the power to annul or modify the same.
"SECTION 33.
That the judicial power shall be vested in the courts and
tribunals of Porto Rico as already established and now in
operation, including municipal courts. …
"SECTION 34.
That Porto Rico shall constitute a judicial district to be
called 'the district of Porto Rico.' The President, by and
with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint a
district judge, a district attorney, and a marshal for said
district, each for a term of four years, unless sooner removed
by the President. The district court for said district shall
be called the district court of the United States for Porto
Rico.
"SECTION 35.
That writs of error and appeals from the final decisions of
the supreme court of Porto Rico and the district court of the
United States shall be allowed and may be taken to the Supreme
Court of the United States in the same manner and under the
same regulations and in the same cases as from the supreme
courts of the Territories of the United States. …
"SECTION 39.
That the qualified voters of Porto Rico shall, on the first
Tuesday after the first Monday of November, anno Domini
nineteen hundred, and every two years thereafter, choose a
resident commissioner to the United States, who shall be
entitled to official recognition as such by all Departments,
upon presentation to the Department of State of a certificate
of election of the governor of Porto Rico, and who shall be
entitled to a salary, payable monthly by the United States, at
the rate of five thousand dollars per annum: Provided, That no
person shall be eligible to such election who is not a bona
fide citizen of Porto Rico, who is not thirty years of age,
and who does not read and write the English language.
"SECTION 40.
That a commission, to consist of three members, at least one
of whom shall be a native citizen of Porto Rico, shall be
appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate, to compile and revise the laws of Porto Rico; also
the various codes of procedure and systems of municipal
government now in force, and to frame and report such
legislation as may be necessary to make a simple, harmonious,
and economical government, establish justice and secure its
prompt and efficient administration, inaugurate a general
system of education and public instruction, provide buildings
and funds therefor, equalize and simplify taxation and all the
methods of raising revenue, and make all other provisions that
may be necessary to secure and extend the benefits of a
republican form of government to all the inhabitants of Porto
Rico."
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1900 (May).

Organization of civil government.
Appointment of Governor Allen.
Under the Act to establish civil government in Porto Rico,

Honorable. Charles H. Allen, formerly a representative in
Congress from Massachusetts, and lately Assistant-Secretary of
the Navy, was appointed to the governorship of the island. Mr.
J. H. Hollander, of Maryland, was appointed Treasurer, and Mr.
John R. Garrison, of the District of Columbia, Auditor.
Governor Allen was inducted into office with considerable
ceremony, at San Juan, on the 1st of May.
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1900 (August-October).

First steps in the creation of a public school system.
"The report of M. G. Brumbaugh, commissioner of education, on

education in Porto Rico, dated October 15, 1900, shows what
has been accomplished in the short time that elapsed after the
commissioner entered upon his duties on August 4, 1900. … The
people want schools … and the pupils will attend them. In
1899, 616 schools were opened in Porto Rico. In 1900 the
department will maintain at least 800 schools, an increase of
30 per cent, which will provide for nearly 9,000 additional
pupils.
"In 1899 there were 67 Americans in the teaching force of the

island. Since October 1, 1900, the number has increased to
100. The commissioner criticises one class of teachers who are
'seekers after novelty and new experiences, who imposed upon the
administration and the children, and who used the salary and
position of teacher solely to see a new country for a year and
then return. … The people of Porto Rico have patiently borne
with these adventurers, and quietly longed for their
departure.' This class of teachers is now gone and the newly
selected American teachers have some knowledge of Spanish and
are graduates of universities, colleges, and normal schools in
the States, and are for the most part young men and women of
ability and discretion. The salaries of American teachers were
fixed by law at $40 per month for nine months in cities of
less than 5,000 population. In cities of larger population the
salary was $50 per month for nine months and both are
inadequate, although at the time the salaries were fixed the
War Department provided free transportation from and to the
United States. This transportation may now be withdrawn at any
time, and the small inducement held out by the meager salary
offered to teachers is not calculated to invite the best class
of them to the island.
"The new normal and industrial school at Fajardo, which was to

have been established by the joint efforts of the local
municipality and the American Government, was only so far
advanced that the land had been purchased by the end of
September, 1900. The normal department was opened October 1,
in a rented building, while the industrial department cannot
be opened until suitable quarters are provided. The
commissioner recommends that the United States make this place
the site of an agricultural experiment station for which it is
pre-eminently fitted. On account of the industries of the
country—coffee, sugar, tobacco, and fruit—agriculture could be
well studied here, and free boarding, lodging, and tuition would
be given the students, who would be for the most part poor
boys and girls.
"As to the school accommodation, the commissioner states that

there are no public school buildings in Porto Rico. The
schools are conducted in rented houses or rooms which are
often unfit for the purpose, and the hygienic conditions are
bad. There is a wide field, or rather a demand, for
improvement in this direction, as well as in the school
equipment and material.
{418}
In 1899, $33,000 was expended for school-books, and in 1900,

$20,000 will be expended for books and supplies, which shall
be free. In the United States 'free books' means usually their
purchase by local boards and free use by the pupils. In Porto
Rico the books and supplies will be free to the pupils without
expense to the local boards. A pedagogical museum and library
has been established for the benefit of teachers and others.
About 300 volumes have been contributed to the library from
friends in the States, and the Department will make the number
up to 500 by purchase. A library of 5,000 volumes of standard
Spanish and American literature was found in a building in San
Juan, which has been installed in suitable rooms as a public
library.
"Many of the leading institutions of the United States have

responded cordially to the application of the Department of
Education on behalf of young Porto Ricans who wish to
prosecute their studies in colleges and universities. Some
have offered free tuition, some have added free lodging, while
others have offered even free living to all such students as
wish to avail themselves of their instruction. Many young
Porto Ricans have availed themselves of these generous offers.
"There are now 800 schools in Porto Rico, and 38,000 pupils
attending them, while there are 300,000 children of school age
for whom there are no accommodations. But the commissioner
expresses the hope that gradually the great illiteracy in
Porto Rico will be reduced, and the people prepared for the
duties of citizenship in a democracy by means of the schools
that shall be established. … The total expenditure for
education in Porto Rico from the 1st of May to the end of
September was $91,057.32."
United States, Secretary of the Interior,

Annual Report, November 28, 1900, page 116.
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1900 (November-December).

The first election under U. S. law.
Meeting of the Legislative Assembly.
The first election in the Island under the provisions of the

Act recited above occurred on the 6th of November
simultaneously with the elections in the United States. It
seems to have been almost entirely a one-sided vote. "About
two weeks before election day," says a despatch from San Juan,
November 7, "the Federal Party, which carried the island at
the election of less than a year ago by a majority of 6,500
votes, suddenly withdrew from the electoral contest. The
Federal leaders sent instruction to their followers not to
appear at the polls, but the Federal Election Judges were
instructed to appear and watch the proceedings until the
elections were concluded in order to gather evidence of any
unfairness in the registration and any irregularity in the
voting. The Federal Party intends to institute court
proceedings after the election in the hope of nullifying it,
claiming that gross irregularities in the registration and
voting will be shown, and alleging that the districting was
not done according to law." Only about 200 Federals voted, it
is stated, while some 60,000 votes were cast for the
candidates of the Republicans. Governor Allen cabled the
following announcement of the election to President McKinley:
"I am gratified and delighted. The outcome in Porto Rico is a
guarantee of the island's future. To bring people who had long
been under different rules and conditions to their first
general election, to have the election pass off as quietly and
orderly as in any State of the North conducted by the people
without let or hindrance, and without a soldier or armed force
of any sort, and to have nearly 60.000 men march to the polls
to deposit their first ballot for self-government in such a
manner, are good reasons for congratulation, not only to the
people of the island, but to the painstaking members of the
Administration, who had worked diligently and patiently to
this end. This overwhelming Republican victory also means
legislation for the good of the island in line with the
American Administration. It means stable government and the
protection of property interests, with which prospective
investors in Porto Rico are deeply concerned. It means
education, public works, and all the beneficent works which
follow legislation wisely and conscientiously undertaken. It
is an emphatic declaration of unqualified loyalty to the
United States."
The newly elected Legislative Assembly met and the House of

Delegates was organized December 3. A correspondent of the
"New York Tribune," writing a week later, said: "Already
nineteen bills have been introduced. To introduce nineteen
bills in six days after organizing, as well as forming the
regular committees, is not bad work when it is considered that
not one of the members had the slightest idea of parliamentary
procedure. During the session one of the members may be seen
making frequent trips to the Executive Mansion, where he
confers with Secretary Hunt in regard to some doubtful point.
It is said by some that in a short time the lower house will
be controlled entirely by the portfolio members of the
Council. It is known that the five Porto Rican members of the
Council, when considering the question of franchises, etc.,
often vote contrary to their own ideas in order that the
Council may continue harmonious. But it is not likely that the
heads of departments will be able to control the thirty-five
members of the House. The House, although regularly elected,
is not representative of the island; the Federals refraining
from voting kept over half the natives from the polls. The
Federal party, it is asserted, is made up of the richest and
best element of Porto Rico. The Republicans, though in power,
do not feel that they are able to run things alone, so the
majority is willing to be dictated to by the Council.
Nevertheless there is a certain element in the House which
will not be dictated to. So soon as any really important bill
comes up for debate it is predicted that the House will divide
against itself. And a little later, when the House passes some
pet bill and the Council rejects it, the House will probably
resign in a body. It is a natural trait of the people.'
After another fortnight had passed, the same correspondent

wrote very discouragingly of the disposition shown by a
majority of the members of the House of Delegates, and their
conduct of business, and stated: "The popular opinion among
the Americans, even among some of the higher officials, is
that if the House continues as it is Congress will abolish it
altogether, and govern the island through a Governor and
Cabinet. Such irregular procedure has been followed that it is
a question here whether any business has been legally done."
{419}
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1901 (January),

Close of the first session of the Legislative Assembly.
The first session of the first Legislative Assembly of the

island came to a close on the 31st of January, 1901, and the
following remarks on its work were made in a newspaper
despatch of that date from San Juan: "Over one hundred bills
have been introduced in the House of Delegates, and dozens
have been passed by both houses, and are awaiting the
Governor's approval. … Committees have a hard day's work if
they get together and agree to pass the bills on hand before
midnight to-night. Ever since the House of Delegates resumed
business after the new year, eight or nine members have been
continually absent. There are only thirty-five members
altogether, and the island is small, yet twenty-six has been
the average attendance. A full attendance for even one day is
not recorded. It was predicted that a number of the members
would resign; they did not. They simply remained away, like
truant schoolboys. A bill has been passed providing for the
education of certain young Porto Rican men and women in the
United States, about two hundred of them having petitioned the
House of Delegates to be sent north at the island's expense.
It is not known on what ground these petitions have been made.
The island expends about $400,000 yearly on education, and
excellent educational facilities are offered. But the people,
in a way, seem to discredit the value of the opportunities at
hand."
PORTO RICO: A. D. 1901 (April).

Distress of the workingmen of the Island.
Their appeal to the President of the United States.
The following petition, signed by 6,000 of the workingmen of
Porto Rico, was brought to the United States by a delegate
from the Federation of Labor in Porto Rico and presented to
President McKinley on the 15th of April:
"The undersigned, workers of Porto Rico, without distinction

of color, political or religious creed, have the honor to
bring to your attention the following facts: Misery, with all
its horrible consequences, is spreading in our homes with
wonderful rapidity. It has already reached such an extreme
that many workers are starving to death while others, that
have not the courage to see their mothers, wives, sisters and
children perish of hunger, commit suicide by drowning
themselves in the rivers or hanging themselves from branches
of trees. All this, honorable sir, is due to the scarcity of
work, which keeps us in enforced idleness, the mother of our
misery. Our beautiful estates are idle; our lands are not
being cultivated; our shops remain closed; and our Chambers do
absolutely nothing to prevent our misery on this once so rich
an island. The Government and municipality do not undertake
any public works to keep us out of idleness. The emigration of
workers, unknown in this island before, increases day by day,
in proportion as misery increases. Under these trying
conditions we are no longer a happy and contented people. We
therefore, beg of you, honorable sir, to interest yourself in
our cause, leading us, as the father of our country, in the
path that will bring us work, and with it the means of
subsistence. We want work; nothing but work. We want to earn
the means of subsistence by the sweat of our brows; and nobody
better than our Chief Magistrate can help us by lending ear to
our appeals. "
----------PORTO RICO: End--------
PORTUGAL: A. D. 1891-1900.
Delagoa Bay Arbitration.
See (in this volume)
DELAGOA BAY ARBITRATION.
PORTUGAL: A. D. 1898.
Alleged Treaty with Great Britain.
There is said to be knowledge in diplomatic circles of a

treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, concluded in 1898,
which has never been made public, but which is understood to
engage the former to assist the latter financially and to
protect the kingdom as against dangers both external and
internal. In return it is believed that England received the
right to embark and disembark troops, stores and ammunitions
at any point on Portuguese territory in Africa, to keep them
there, or to convey them across Portuguese territory to any
point she might see fit, irrespective as to whether she was at
war with any third Power. Circumstances have given some
support to this rumor, but it has no positive confirmation.
PORTUGAL: A. D. 1899.
Reciprocity Treaty with the United States.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899-1901.
PORTUGAL: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

PEACE CONFERENCE.
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896.

War with Gungunhana.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896 (PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA).
POSTAGE, British Imperial Penny.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (DECEMBER).
POWERS, Concert of the.

CONCERT OF EUROPE.
POWERS, The four great.

NINETEENTH CENTURY: EXPANSION.
PRATT, Consul:
Interviews with Aguinaldo at Singapore.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY: PHILIPPINES).
"PREDOMINANT MEMBER," Remarks of Lord Rosebery on the.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1894-1895.
PREHISTORIC DISCOVERIES.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH.
PREMPEH, Overthrow of King.

ASHANTI.
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES: Union in Scotland.

SCOTLAND: A. D. 1900.
PRESS, The:
Relaxation of restrictions in Poland.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1897.
PRESS, The:
Prosecutions in Germany.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (OCTOBER 9).
PRETORIA: A. D. 1894.
Demonstration of British residents.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1894.
PRETORIA: A. D. 1900.
Taken by the British forces.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1900 (MAY-JUNE).
PRIMARY ELECTION LAW.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1898.
PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND.

CANADA.
{420}
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY:
Celebration of 250th anniversary.
Assumption of new name.

EDUCATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1896.
PRINSLOO, Commandant: Surrender.

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1900 (JUNE-DECEMBER).
PROCTOR, Senator Redfield:

Account of the condition of the Cuban Reconcentrados.

CUBA: A. D. 1897-1898 (DECEMBER-MARCH).
PROGRESSISTS,
PROGRESSIVES.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1897;
JAPAN: A. D. 1890-1898, and after;
SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1898,
and 1898 (MARCH-OCTOBER).
PROHIBITION PARTY, The.

A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER);
and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
PROHIBITION PLEBISCITE, Canadian.

CANADA: A. D. 1898 (SEPTEMBER).
PROTECTIVE TARIFFS.

TARIFF LEGISLATION.
PROTOCOL, for suspension of Spanish-American War.

A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).
PRUSSIA: Census, 1895.

GERMANY: A. D. 1895 (JUNE-DECEMBER).
PRUSSIA: A. D. 1899-1901.
Canal projects.

GERMANY: A. D. 1899 (AUGUST); and 1901 (JANUARY).
PRUSSIA: A. D. 1901.
Bicentenary celebration.
The bicentenary of the coronation of the first King of Prussia

was celebrated with much ceremony and festivity on the 18th of
January, 1901.

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The New Oxford Handbook of

Economic Geography Gordon L. Clark

The Oxford Handbook of Corporate Law and Governance

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The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

© Oxford University Press 2018

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First Edition published in 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958294

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. vii) Preface

The Editors, December 2016

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. ix) Acknowledgements

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xvii) List of Figures

21.1Ambivalent Effect of Service Commoditization on Geographical Cluster Growth

22.1Levels of Cross-border Online Purchases 442

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xix) List of Tables

6.2Top Employment Sectors in the Regions of Greece, 2008 124

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xxi) List of Editors

Maryann P. Feldman (maryann.feldman@gmail.com) is the S.K. Heninger Distinguished

Meric S. Gertler (meric.gertler@utoronto.ca) is President of the University of Toronto,

Dariusz Wójcik (dariusz.wojcik@spc.ox.ac.uk) is a Professor of Economic Geography in

Print Publication Date: Jan 2018 Subject: Economics and Finance

(p. xxiii) List of Abbreviations

NOHEG New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

OHEG Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography

GDP gross domestic product

IMF International Monetary Fund

FDI foreign direct investment

GDP gross domestic product

GFC global financial crisis

IMF International Monetary Fund

SOEs state-owned enterprises

EU-SILC European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions

IMF International Monetary Fund

(p. xxiv) Chapter 3

CMSA Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area

IMF International Monetary Fund

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

SBTC skill-biased technological change

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

FDI foreign direct investment

GDP gross domestic product

AJR Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson

BJP Bharatiya Janata Party