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The Oxford Handbook of Education
and Training in Professional Psychology
O X F O R D L I B R A RY O F P S Y C H O L O G Y

editor-in-chief

Peter E. Nathan

Area Editors:

Clinical Psychology
David H. Barlow

Cognitive Neuroscience
Kevin N. Ochsner and Stephen M. Kosslyn

Cognitive Psychology
Daniel Reisberg

Counseling Psychology
Elizabeth M. Altmaier and Jo-Ida C. Hansen

Developmental Psychology
Philip David Zelazo

Health Psychology
Howard S. Friedman

History of Psychology
David B. Baker

Methods and Measurement

Todd D. Little

Neuropsychology
Kenneth M. Adams

Organizational Psychology
Steve W. J. Kozlowski

Personality and Social Psychology

Kay Deaux and Mark Snyder
 OXFORD L I B R A RY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Editor in Chief peter e. nathan

The Oxford Handbook

of Education and
Training in Professional
Psychology
Edited by
W. Brad Johnson
Nadine J. Kaslow

1
1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Oxford handbook of education and training in professional psychology / edited by W. Brad Johnson and Nadine J. Kaslow.
pages cm.–(Oxford library of psychology)
ISBN 978–0–19–987401–9
1.╇ Psychology—Study and teaching (Graduate)—Handbooks, manuals, etc.â•… 2.╇ Psychologists—Training of—Handbooks, manuals,
etc.â•… 3.╇ Psychology—Study and teaching (Internship)—Handbooks, manuals, etc.â•… I.╇ Johnson, W. Brad. II. Kaslow, Nadine J.
BF77.O94 2013
150.71′1—dc23
2013031622

9╇7╇8╇6╇5╇4╇3╇2╇1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
SHORT CONTENTS

Oxford Library of Psychologyâ•… vii

About the Editorsâ•… ix

Contributors â•…xi

Table of Contents â•… xv

Chaptersâ•…1–566

Index â•…567

v
O X F O R D L I B R A R Y O F P S YC H O L O G Y

The Oxford Library of Psychology, a landmark series of handbooks, is published

by Oxford University Press, one of the world’s oldest and most highly respected
publishers, with a tradition of publishing significant books in psychology. The
ambitious goal of the Oxford Library of Psychology is nothing less than to span a
vibrant, wide-ranging field and, in so doing, to fill a clear market need.
Encompassing a comprehensive set of handbooks, organized hierarchically, the
Library incorporates volumes at different levels, each designed to meet a distinct
need. At one level are a set of handbooks designed broadly to survey the major sub-
fields of psychology; at another are numerous handbooks that cover important cur-
rent focal research and scholarly areas of psychology in depth and detail. Planned
as a reflection of the dynamism of psychology, the Library will grow and expand as
psychology itself develops, thereby highlighting significant new research that will
impact on the field. Adding to its accessibility and ease of use, the Library will be
published in print and, later on, electronically.
The Library surveys psychology’s principal subfields with a set of handbooks
that capture the current status and future prospects of those major subdisciplines.
This initial set includes handbooks of social and personality psychology, clinical
psychology, counseling psychology, school psychology, educational psychology,
industrial and organizational psychology, cognitive psychology, cognitive neuro-
science, methods and measurements, history, neuropsychology, personality assess-
ment, developmental psychology, and more. Each handbook undertakes to review
one of psychology’s major subdisciplines with breadth, comprehensiveness, and
exemplary scholarship. In addition to these broadly conceived volumes, the Library
also includes a large number of handbooks designed to explore, in depth, more spe-
cialized areas of scholarship and research, such as stress, health and coping, anxiety
and related disorders, cognitive development, or child and adolescent assessment.
In contrast to the broad coverage of the subfield handbooks, each of these latter
volumes focuses on an especially productive, more highly focused line of scholar-
ship and research. Whether at the broadest or most specific level, however, all the
Library handbooks offer synthetic coverage that reviews and evaluates the relevant
past and present research and anticipates research in the future. Each handbook in
the Library includes introductory and concluding chapters written by its editor to
provide a roadmap to the handbook’s table of contents and to offer informed antici-
pations of significant future developments in that field.
An undertaking of this scope calls for handbook editors and chapter authors who
are established scholars in the areas about which they write. Many of the nation’s

vii
 and world’s most productive and best-respected psychologists have agreed to edit
Library handbooks or write authoritative chapters in their areas of expertise.
For whom has the Oxford Library of Psychology been written? Because of its
breadth, depth, and accessibility, the Library serves a diverse audience, including
graduate students in psychology and their faculty mentors, scholars, researchers,
and practitioners in psychology and related fields. Each will find in the Library the
information they seek on the subfield or focal area of psychology in which they
work or are interested.
Befitting its commitment to accessibility, each handbook includes a compre-
hensive index, as well as extensive references to help guide research. Because the
Library was designed from its inception as an online as well as a print resource, its
structure and contents will be readily and rationally searchable online. Further,
once the Library is released online, the handbooks will be regularly and thor-
oughly updated.
In summary, the Oxford Library of Psychology will grow organically to provide a
thoroughly informed perspective on the field of psychology, one that reflects both
psychology’s dynamism and its increasing interdisciplinarity. Once published
electronically, the Library is also destined to become a uniquely valuable interac-
tive tool, with extended search and browsing capabilities. As you begin to consult
this handbook, we sincerely hope you will share our enthusiasm for the more
than 500-year tradition of Oxford University Press for excellence, innovation, and
quality, as exemplified by the Oxford Library of Psychology.

Peter E. Nathan
Editor-in-Chief
Oxford Library of Psychology

viii Oxford Library of Psychology

A B O U T T H E E D I TO R S

W. Brad Johnson
W. Brad Johnson is professor of psychology in the Department of Leadership,
Ethics and Law at the United States Naval Academy, and a faculty associate in
the Graduate School of Education at Johns Hopkins University. He currently
serves as senior professor for the Naval Academy's Lead Division. A clinical psy-
chologist and former lieutenant commander in the Navy’s Medical Service Corps,
Dr. Johnson served as a psychologist at Bethesda Naval Hospital and the Medical
Clinic at Pearl Harbor where he was the division head for psychology. He is
a fellow of the American Psychological Association and recipient of the Johns
Hopkins University Teaching Excellence Award. He has served as chair of the
American Psychological Association’s Ethics Committee and as president of the
Society for Military Psychology. Dr. Johnson is the author of numerous publi-
cations including 11 books, in the areas of mentoring, professional ethics, and
counseling.

Nadine J. Kaslow
Nadine J. Kaslow, Ph.D., ABPP, is a professor with tenure, Emory University School
of Medicine Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences; chief psychologist,
Grady Health System; vice chair of the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Sciences; and director of the Postdoctoral Fellowship Program in Professional
Psychology at Emory University School of Medicine. She holds a joint appointment
in the Departments of Psychology, Pediatrics, and Emergency Medicine, and the
Rollins School of Public Health. In 2012, she received an honorary degree (Doctor
of Humane Letters) from Pepperdine University, where she also gave the com-
mencement address. At Emory, she is past president of the university senate and past
chair of the faculty council and former special assistant to the provost. Dr. Kaslow
received her doctorate at the University of Houston and completed her internship
and postdoctoral fellowship training at the University of Wisconsin. Prior to joining
the faculty at Emory University in 1990, Dr. Kaslow was an assistant professor in
the Departments of Psychiatry, Child Study Center, and Pediatrics at Yale University
School of Medicine.
President-elect of the American Psychological Association (APA), she serves as the
editor of the Journal of Family Psychology. She is past president of APA’s Society of
Clinical Psychology (Division 12), Society of Family Psychology (Division 43), and
Division of Psychotherapy (Division 29), as well as the American Board of Clinical
Psychology, the American Board of Professional Psychology, Family Process Institute,
and the Wynne Center for Family Research. From 1998–2002, Dr. Kaslow was the
chair of the Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers, and she

ix
 is now a board member emeritus of this organization. In 2002, she chaired the
multinational 2002 Competencies Conference: Future Directions in Education and
Credentialing in Professional Psychology. Dr. Kaslow was a Fellow in the 2003–
2004 Class of the Executive Leadership in Academic Medicine (ELAM) Program
for Women, a fellow in the 2004 Woodruff Leadership Academy, and a primary-care
public-policy fellow through the United States Public Health Service–Department
of Health and Human Services.

x About the Editors

 CO N T R I B U TO R S

Elizabeth M. Altmaier Stephen T. DeMers

Department of Psychological and Quantitative Association of State and Provincial
Foundations Psychology Boards
University of Iowa Peachtree City, GA
Iowa City, IA Nancy S. Elman
Jeff Baker School of Education
University of Texas Medical Branch University of Pittsburgh
Galveston, TX Pittsburgh, PA
Jeffrey E. Barnett Carol A. Falender
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Loyola University Maryland Pepperdine University
Baltimore, MD Los Angeles, CA
Stephen H. Behnke Eugene W. Farber
Director, Office of Ethics School of Medicine
American Psychological Association Emory University
Washington, D.C. Atlanta, GA
Debora J. Bell Ruth E. Fassinger
Department of Psychology College of Graduate and Professional Studies
University of Missouri-Columbia John F. Kennedy University
Columbia, MO Pleasant Hill, CA
Samantha L. Bernecker Molly Fechter-Leggett
Department of Psychology Stanford Youth Solutions
University of Massachusetts Amherst Sacramento, CA
Amherst, MA Linda Forrest
Clark D. Campbell College of Education
Rosemead School of Psychology University of Oregon
Biola University Eugene, OR
La Mirada, CA Nadya A. Fouad
Robin L. Cautin Department of Educational Psychology
Department of Psychology University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Manhattanville College Milwaukee, WI
Purchase, NY Myrna L. Friedlander
Michael J. Constantino Division of Counseling Psychology
Department of Psychology School of Education
University of Massachusetts Amherst University at Albany
Amherst, MA Albany, NY
Jennifer A. Erickson Cornish Ian D. Goncher
Graduate School of Professional Psychology Department of Behavioral Health Services
University of Denver Johnstown, PA
Denver, CO Catherine L. Grus
David R. Cox American Psychological Association
American Board of Professional Psychology Washington, D.C.
Chapel Hill, NC

xi
Robert L. Hatcher Joseph R. Miles
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
City University of New York University of Tennessee, Knoxville
New York, NY Knoxville, TN
Estee M. Hausman Lavita I. Nadkarni
Department of Psychological Sciences Graduate School of Professional Psychology
University of Missouri-Columbia University of Denver
Columbia, MO Denver, CO
Allison B. Hill Greg J. Neimeyer
School of Medicine Department of Psychology
Emory University University of Florida
Atlanta, GA Gainesville, FL
Jacqueline B. Horn Christopher E. Overtree
Private Practice Department of Psychology
Sacramento, CA University of Massachusetts Amherst
Christina E. Jeffrey Amherst, MA
Texas A & M University Jesse Owen
College Station, TX College of Education and Human Development
W. Brad Johnson University of Louisville
Department of Leadership, Ethics, and Law Louisville, KY
United States Naval Academy Roger L. Peterson
Annapolis, MD Department of Clinical Psychology
Jeffrey H. Kahn Antioch University New England
Department of Psychology Keene, NH
Illinois State University Kelley Quirk
Normal, IL University of Louisville
Nadine J. Kaslow Louisville, KY
School of Medicine Charles R. Ridley
Emory University Department of Psychology
Atlanta, GA Texas A & M University
W. Gregory Keilin College Station, TX
The University of Texas at Austin Emil Rodolfa
Austin, TX University of California, Davis
Nicholas Ladany Davis, CA
School of Education and Counseling Ronald H. Rozensky
Psychology Department of Clinical and Health Psychology
Santa Clara University University of Florida
Santa Clara, CA Gainesville, FL
Dorian A. Lamis Lewis Z. Schlosser
School of Medicine Department of Professional Psychology and
Emory University Family Therapy
Atlanta, GA Seton Hall University
Stephen R. McCutcheon South Orange, NJ
Veterans Affairs, Puget Sound Health Ann Schwartz
Care System School of Medicine
Seattle, WA Emory University
Lynett Henderson Metzger Atlanta, GA
Graduate School of Professional Psychology Edward P. Shafranske
University of Denver Graduate School of Education and Psychology
Denver, CO Pepperdine University
Los Angeles, CA

xii Contributors
David S. Shen-Miller Carol Webb
College of Education Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Tennessee State University Sciences
Nashville, TN Emory University
Jennifer M. Taylor Atlanta, GA
Department of Psychology Christina K. Wilson
University of Florida School of Medicine
Gainesville, FL Emory University
Wendy L. Vincent Atlanta, GA
Commonwealth Psychology Associates Erica H. Wise
Newton, MA Clinical Psychology Program
University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill
Chapel Hill, NC

Contributors xiii
CONTENTS

╇ 1. On Developing Professional Psychologists: The State of the Art and a Look
Aheadâ•…1
W. Brad Johnson and Nadine J. Kaslow

Part Oneâ•… •â•…Overview and Evolution of Education and Training in

Psychology
╇ 2. A History of Education and Training in Professional Psychology╅ 17
Robin L. Cautin and David B. Baker
╇ 3. Training Models in Professional Psychology Doctoral Programs╅ 33
Debora J. Bell and Estee M. Hausman
╇ 4. Rethinking the Core Curriculum for the Education of Professional
Psychologistsâ•…52
Roger L. Peterson, Wendy L. Vincent, and Molly Fechter-Leggett
╇ 5. Theoretical Orientation in the Education and Training of Psychologists╅ 67
Eugene W. Farber
╇ 6. Accreditation of Education and Training Programs╅ 87
Elizabeth M. Altmaier

Part Twoâ•… •â•…Competence and Competencies in Professional

Psychology
╇ 7. Competency-Based Education and Training in Professional Psychology╅ 105
Nadya A. Fouad and Catherine L. Grus
╇ 8. The History and Importance of Specialization in Professional Psychology╅ 120
Jeff Baker and David R. Cox
╇ 9. Practicum Training in Professional Psychology╅ 133
Robert L. Hatcher and Erica H. Wise
10. Internship Trainingâ•… 155
Stephen R. McCutcheon and W. Gregory Keilin
11. Postdoctoral Training in Professional Psychologyâ•… 171
Christina K. Wilson, Allison B. Hill, Dorian A. Lamis, and Nadine J. Kaslow
12. Research Training in Professional Psychologyâ•… 185
Jeffrey H. Kahn and Lewis Z. Schlosser
13. Psychology Licensure and Credentialing in the United States and
Canadaâ•…201
Stephen T. DeMers, Carol Webb, and Jacqueline B. Horn

xv
 14. Ten Trends in Lifelong Learning and Continuing Professional
Developmentâ•…214
Greg J. Neimeyer and Jennifer M. Taylor

Part Threeâ•… •â•… Trainee Selection, Development, and Evaluation

15. Selecting Graduate Students: Doctoral Program and Internship
Admissionsâ•…237
Jesse Owen, Kelley Quirk, and Emil Rodolfa
16. Trainee Evaluation in Professional Psychologyâ•… 251
David S. Shen-Miller
17. Mentoring in Psychology Education and Training: A Mentoring
Relationship Continuum Modelâ•… 272
W. Brad Johnson
18. Clinical Supervision and the Era of Competenceâ•… 291
Carol A. Falender and Edward P. Shafranske
19. Trainees with Problems of Professional Competenceâ•… 314
Linda Forrest and Nancy S. Elman
20. Ethics Issues in Training Students and Superviseesâ•… 336
Jeffrey E. Barnett and Ian D. Goncher
21. Remedial and Disciplinary Interventions in Graduate Psychology Training
Programs: 25 Essential Questions for Faculty and Supervisorsâ•… 356
Stephen H. Behnke
22. When Training Goes Awryâ•… 377
Nadine J. Kaslow, W. Brad Johnson, and Ann C. Schwartz

Part Fourâ•… •â•… Culture and Context in Education and Trainingâ•…

23. A Contextual Perspective on Professional Trainingâ•… 397
Lynett Henderson Metzger, Jennifer A. Erickson Cornish, and Lavita
I. Nadkarni
24. Sex and Gender in Professional Psychology Education and Trainingâ•… 419
Nicholas Ladany and Myrna L. Friedlander
25. Race and Ethnicity in the Education and Training of Professional
Psychologistsâ•…437
Charles R. Ridley and Christina E. Jeffrey
26. Sexual Identity Issues in Education and Training for Professional
Psychologistsâ•…452
Joseph R. Miles and Ruth E. Fassinger
27. Religion in Education and Trainingâ•… 472
Clark D. Campbell

xvi Contents
Part Fiveâ•… •â•… Emerging Trends in Education and Trainingâ•…
28. Professionalism: Professional Attitudes and Values in Psychologyâ•… 491
Catherine L. Grus and Nadine J. Kaslow
29. Emerging Technologies and Innovations in Professional
Psychology Trainingâ•… 510
Michael J. Constantino, Christopher E. Overtree, and Samantha L. Bernecker
30. Professional Psychology Program Leaders: Competencies and
Characteristicsâ•…529
Mary Beth Kenkel
31. Employment Trends for Early Career Psychologists: Implications for
Education and Training Programs in Professional Psychology and for
Those Who Wish to Become Successful Early Career Psychologistsâ•… 548
Ronald H. Rozensky

Indexâ•…567

Contents xvii
 CH A P T E R

1 On Developing Professional Psychologists:

The State of the Art and a Look Ahead

W. Brad Johnson and Nadine J. Kaslow

Abstract
Education and training in professional psychology have a rich history. In the last half century, the scientific
and theoretical literature bearing on training future psychologists has dramatically accelerated. This
chapter introduces the Oxford Handbook of Education and Training in Professional Psychology, the most
comprehensive treatment of the topic to date. This handbook covers the full spectrum of historical
developments, salient issues, current standards, and emerging trends in professional psychology education
and training. We summarize the contributions of chapter authors—all luminaries in the discipline, and
highlight the current state of the art in distinct domains of psychology education and training. We
conclude this chapter with several bold predictions for the future of training in psychology.
Key Words:╇ professional psychology, competence, education, training

Formal efforts to educate and train professional
psychologists date to the start of the 20th century
when psychologists working in applied settings such
as government, education, and health care recog-
nized a need to articulate training standards in their
new profession. Today, there are hundreds of accred-
ited doctoral training programs in professional psy-
chology in the U. S. and Canada (http://www.apa.
org/education/grad/applying.aspx) and thousands
of internship and postdoctoral fellowship training
programs. Although scholarly literature on gradu-
ate and postgraduate education and training in psy-
chology has been rapidly accumulating for several
decades; and although thousands of psychologists
are employed full-time as faculty members and clin-
ical supervisors in graduate, practicum, internship,
and postdoctoral training programs; and a journal
focused on Training and Education in Professional
Psychology; until now there has been no single ref-
erence work for psychologists engaged in training
and educating professional psychologists. Enter,
the Oxford Handbook of Education and Training in
Professional Psychology.
This handbook covers the full spectrum of
historical developments, salient issues, current
standards, and emerging trends in professional
psychology education and training. The handbook
focuses on doctoral and postdoctoral training for
psychologists in the health-service professions.
Because competencies are moving to the forefront
in the design of educational and training programs
and the evaluation of trainee performance, models
and standards for competency are a pervasive theme
throughout the chapters. Although certain training
issues, such as curriculum content and sequence
of training experiences, often are in-flux or under
review by various associations, this volume captures
the current state of education and training while
emphasizing emerging trends and forecasting future
directions.
Professional psychology training program �leaders
and directors may easily feel overloaded by the

1
substantial and varied duties required of their roles.
Kenkel (this volume) observes that training program
leaders often are tasked with the following responsi-
bilities: (a) recruiting, reviewing, and selecting train-
ees; (b) advising and monitoring trainee progress;
(c) developing and implementing training program
curriculum, policies, and procedures; (d) selecting
and supervising training faculty and staff; (e) shaping
and monitoring the training program climate and cul-
ture; (f) representing the training program to external
constituencies and review bodies; and (g) ensuring
sufficient financial resources in the context of
long-term planning. Of course, this list offers only a
partial glimpse of the duties weighing on both pro-
gram leaders, faculty, and supervising psychologists in
the day-to-day work of preparing the next generation
of psychologists. This handbook was launched with
the guiding vision of helping training psychologists
to better understand, appreciate, and conceptualize
the work of training professional psychologists. We
hope that it promotes competence and inspires excel-
lence within the community of training psychologists
(Johnson, Barnett, Elman, Forrest, & Kaslow, 2012).
The 30 chapters that follow have been clustered
into five parts:
Part 1. Overview and Evolution of Education
and Training in Psychology (2–6)
Part 2. Competence and Competencies in
Professional Psychology (7–14)
Part 3. Trainee Selection, Development, and
Evaluation (15–22)
Part 4. Culture and Context in Education and
Training (23–27)
Part 5. Emerging Trends in Education and
Training (28–31)
Each chapter is authored by one or more luminar-
ies in the field of training. Readers will note that the
table of contents constitutes a veritable “who’s who”
of scholars in the domain of professional psychology
education and training. Each chapter incorporates a
comprehensive literature review with an emphasis
on evidence-based and competency-focused profes-
sional psychology education and training, articu-
lates the current state of the art in a distinct training
domain, and each concludes with prescient predic-
tions for the future of training in psychology.
In the balance of this introductory chapter we
set the stage and offer a preview of the highlights to
come. We provide a brief overview of the literature
on professional psychology education and training
followed by a series of bold predictions regarding
the future of training.
2 On Developing Professional Psychologists
Evolution of Education and
Training in Psychology
Benjamin (2007) observed that a profession
comprises “specialized knowledge involving inten-
sive training; high standards of practice, usually
supported by a code of ethics; continuing educa-
tion so that practitioners stay current with the lat-
est developments in the profession; and provision
of service to the public” (p. 155). Cautin and Baker
(this volume) reflect that the 100-year evolution of
psychology as a profession has been shaped by its
application to everyday life. G. Stanley Hall (1894)
first promoted psychology as an applied discipline,
but it was not until 1917 and the founding of the
American Association of Clinical Psychologists that
there was a concerted effort to organize professional
psychology (Routh, 1994). Yet, for most of the early
20th century, psychology promulgated no standard
training guidelines, and the training of psycholo-
gists remained largely unsystematic and informal
(Cautin & Baker, this volume).
It was the aftermath of World War II, the addi-
tion of 16 million new veterans to the Veterans’
Administration (VA) system, and the VA’s subse-
quent urgent request for more well-trained clinical
psychologists that finally galvanized psychology to
begin articulating standards for use in evaluating
training programs and facilities. Under the leader-
ship of David Shakow (1942), various committees
began to formulate psychology’s first professional
training standards (e.g., American Psychological
Association [APA] Committee on Training in
Clinical Psychology). Simultaneously, the VA initi-
ated a training program in 1946, under the leader-
ship of James Miller, in which psychologists would
perform diagnostic, therapeutic, and research func-
tions. It was Miller who established the doctoral
degree as the minimum requirement for aspiring
psychologists in the VA. At the urging of the VA,
the APA established the Committee on Training in
Clinical Psychology (CTCP) to formulate a stan-
dard training program in clinical psychology for use
in early efforts at peer evaluations of training enti-
ties. APA soon organized the Boulder Conference
on Graduate Education in Psychology at which
a common model of professional training—the
scientist-practitioner model, or “Boulder Model”—
was affirmed (Raimy, 1950). Cautin and Baker
note that the Boulder Model designated the core
skills that professional psychologists should dem-
onstrate as well as the nature of both clinical and
research training required to help trainees achieve
competence in the role of professional psychologist.
Subsequent conferences articulated training models
in other specialties, such as counseling psychology
(e.g., Ann Arbor Conference—1948, Northwestern
Conference—1951) and school psychology (Thayer
Conference—1954).
Training Models in Professional
Psychology
Bell and Hausman (this volume) observe that
since 1949, training models have defined training
in professional psychology, often providing a clear
identity for graduate programs yet simultaneously
fracturing the field in various ways. Today, there are
three predominant models of doctoral education in
professional psychology, the scientist-practitioner,
practitioner-scholar, and clinical scientist models.
The Boulder Conference and its 70 resolu-
tions established the scientist-practitioner model
of training. Several of these resolutions became
the foundation for all of professional psychology
(e.g., inclusion of both research and applied train-
ing, foundations in the broader field of psychology,
ethics training, attention to student qualifications,
and faculty involvement: Bell & Housman, this
volume). Explicit and ongoing integration of
research and practice has remained the hallmark
of scientist-practitioner training over the years
(Raimy, 1950).
The practitioner-scholar (or scholar-practitioner)
model, an alternative to the scientist-practitioner
approach, was formulated at the Vail (Colorado)
Conference in 1973 (Korman, 1973) and resulted
in the development of the PsyD degree. This model
prepares trainees primarily for careers in profes-
sional practice, emphasizes comprehensive clinical
experiences beginning early in training, and offers
science training focused on translating research
and theory into practice. The local-clinical scientist
model, represents a more recent evolution of this
research into practice model at the level of the indi-
vidual psychologist’s local practice.
Finally, the clinical-scientist model (McFall,
1991) places greater emphasis than the other mod-
els on science and research in doctoral training,
with a focus on preparing trainees for science-based
careers. Use of the term “clinical-scientist” repre-
sents an attempt to address perceived weaknesses in
prior training models by placing scientific methods
and evidence at the core of education and training
(Bell & Housman, this volume). Central to this
model is a commitment to contribute to scientific
knowledge in all one’s professional activities, both
research and applied.
In terms of demonstrable outcomes associated
with programs espousing different training mod-
els, research is preliminary at best. Various efforts
to compare doctoral programs by degree type (PhD
versus PsyD) have yielded several trends (Rozensky,
this volume). First, PsyD doctoral programs, par-
ticularly those located in specialized schools that
do not provide broad academic programing, tend
to admit much larger proportions of applicants
while utilizing less stringent admissions criteria
(Sayette, Norcross, & Dimoff, 2011). Second pro-
fessional psychologists trained in PhD programs
pass the Examination for Professional Practice of
Psychology (EPPP) national licensing exam at a rate
at a higher rate (82%) than those trained in PsyD
programs (69%) (Schaffer et al., 2012). Finally,
Graham and Kim (2011) reported that students
enrolled in PhD programs, compared to those in
PsyD programs, were significantly more likely to
receive an APA-accredited internship and eventually
become board certified. More and better evidence
is required regarding the outcomes of training pro-
grams by training model.
Theoretical Orientation in
Training Programs
Farber (this volume) reminds us that clinical theo-
ries have had a significant influence on professional
psychology education and training. Proficiency in
using one or more theoretical models of psycho-
logical functioning in order to understand clients/
patients, formulate a diagnosis, and select and apply
an appropriate intervention is central to engaging
in theoretically-grounded clinical work (Wampold,
2010). Therefore, fostering the development of theo-
retical knowledge is often a key priority in professional
psychology training. Farber highlights the benefits
and liabilities of strong allegiance to a single theoreti-
cal approach within training programs. Readers will
appreciate the essential tension between theoretical
indoctrination and the broad charge to imbue train-
ees with a broad and general education in professional
psychology (APA Commission on Accreditation,
2009). Training psychologists must provide trainees
with common and essential knowledge in psychol-
ogy (Peterson, Vincent, & Fechter-Leggett, this vol-
ume), while integrating this core curriculum with any
program-specific theoretical model(s).
Competence and Competencies in
Professional Psychology
The past decade has ushered in a somewhat dra-
matic shift to what Roberts, Borden, Christiansen,
Johnson, Kaslow 3
and Lopez (2005) described as a culture of competence.
There is growing consensus about the core compe-
tencies within professional psychology (Kaslow,
2004; Kaslow et al., 2004). Competency-based
training in professional psychology focuses on
ensuring that trainees develop specific competencies
during their education and applied training (Fouad
& Grus, this volume). This approach represents a
shift from earlier models of training that empha-
sized merely counting hours of supervised experi-
ence or completing a specified curriculum (Nelson,
2007). Fouad and Grus describe how the focus of
training has turned to trainee learning outcomes
and further, how training programs can be held
accountable to demonstrate that trainees are com-
petent to practice psychology. They note that the
context for competency-based training stems from
a convergence of three movements: (a) a zeitgeist
of accountability for professionals to benefit the
public and demonstrate consistent quality care out-
comes (APA, 2010; Institute of Medicine, 2003);
(b) a move within health-service provider education
toward outcome-based education and learner-based
outcomes (Nelson, 2007); and (c) concerns about
the cost of professional training in psychology.
Competency-based education and training clari-
fies and measures the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes and their integration across a
range of foundational and functional competency
domains (Donovan & Ponce, 2009; Fouad et al.,
2009; Kaslow et al., 2009). Foundational compe-
tencies refer to fundamental professional knowl-
edge, structures, and skill sets (Fouad & Grus) and
include, but are not limited to, professionalism,
reflective practice, ethical and legal standards, and
relationships (Rodolfa et al., 2005). Functional
competencies in professional psychology include
assessment, intervention, consultation, research and
evaluation, supervision, administration, and advo-
cacy (Rodolfa et al., 2005). Benchmarks that char-
acterize competence in knowledge, attitude, and
skill are now in place for the prepracticum, practi-
cum, and internship levels of psychology training
(Fouad et al., 2009), as well as specialty credential-
ing and maintenance of competence (Baker & Cox,
this volume).
McCutcheon and Keilin (this volume) discuss
the internship in professional psychology, from
inception to the current questions, quandaries, and
conflicts linked to internship year. A critical element
in the sequence of training professional psycholo-
gists, the internship has been referred to as a cap-
stone, and more recently, the keystone experience for
4 On Developing Professional Psychologists
health-service psychologists (McCutcheon, 2011).
McCutcheon and Keilin note that the intern-
ship year remains broad and general in emphasis
(Zlotlow, Nelson & Peterson, 2011); it is intended
to promote intermediate to advanced knowledge,
skills, and attitudes in a broad spectrum of founda-
tional and functional competencies.
Beyond the internship, there is growing rec-
ognition of the value of supervised postdoctoral
training for the purpose of solidifying professional
competence and professional identity. Wilson, Hill,
Lamis, and Kaslow (this volume) reflect that the
postdoctoral movement in professional psychology
occurred in response to myriad factors, including
the proliferation of practice competencies and the
emergence of specialties within psychology (Kaslow
& Webb, 2011). But there are other salient reasons
for trainers to encourage and trainees to pursue
postdoctoral training. These include: (a) enhanced
career marketability; (b) the fact that most jurisdic-
tions require postdoctoral experience for licensure;
(c) the linkage between postdoctoral training and
specialization; and (d) the reality that many psy-
chology trainees are viewed as not fully prepared for
independent practice until they have completed a
supervised postdoctoral experience (Rodolfa, Ko, &
Petersen, 2004).
Competence in the consumption and applica-
tion of research, as well as the production of original
research, is another essential component of training
in professional psychology. Kahn and Schlosser (this
volume) reflect that training students to be profi-
cient in research is central to the philosophy of most
doctoral training models within professional psy-
chology. Beginning with the Boulder Conference
and continuing today, the integration of science and
practice has been an indispensable facet of applied
psychology training (e.g., Bieschke, Fouad, Collins,
& Halonen, 2004). There are research components
nested within the Competency Benchmarks docu-
ment (Fouad et al., 2009). These elements of scien-
tific mindedness include critical scientific thinking,
valuing and applying scientific methods to profes-
sional practice, and independently applying scien-
tific methods to practice (Fouad et al., 2009).
Kahn and Schlosser show that a graduate pro-
gram’s research training environment (RTE) is not
only key to influencing trainees’ research skills,
but an effective RTE also will lead trainees to be
more interested in research, value research more,
be more motivated to engage in research, and have
a greater sense of self-efficacy concerning research
(Gelso, 1993). Research training is not limited to
doctoral programs. Phillips, Szymanski, Ozegovic,
& Briggs-Phillips (2004) developed the Internship
Research Training Environment Scale (IRTES) to
assess the RTE during the internship year. Salient
predictors of strong internship RTEs included
strong mentoring, research role modeling, and
recognition and encouragement for research. If
research competencies are desired in professional
psychologists, then effective RTEs must be inte-
grated into all phases of psychologists’ training.
The evolving association between training
programs and licensing and credentialing bod-
ies constitutes a final link in the competency con-
tinuum. Licensing boards in psychology define
the nature and scope of practice (APA, 2011) and
credential-qualified health-care psychologists. In
order to solidify and reinforce psychology’s bur-
geoning competency benchmarks, DeMers, Webb,
and Horn (this volume) note that a collaborative
and mutually respectful relationship between the
training and credentialing communities is essen-
tial. Both communities are committed to ensuring
trainee competence for entry into the profession,
Additionally, those psychologists engaged in licens-
ing and other forms of credentialing are equally
concerned that credentialed psychologists maintain
competence beyond initial licensure and through-
out their careers (Johnson et al., 2012).
Trainee Selection, Development,
and Evaluation
Trainee Selection and Evaluation
Owen, Quirk, and Rodolfa (this volume) remind
us that trainee selection—beginning at the level of
graduate school matriculation—carries significant
implications for graduate and training programs,
the profession, and the public. Current training can-
didate assessment strategies (e.g., Graduate Record
Exam, letters of recommendation, interviews) offer
some selection utility but several of these selection
approaches have dubious validity, reliability, and
fidelity. Owen and colleagues provide an impor-
tant service to the profession by proposing sev-
eral promising trainee selection alternatives. These
include the constructs of facilitative interpersonal
skills (FIS: Anderson, Ogles, Patterson, Lambert
& Vermeersch, 2009) and cognitive complexity
(Owen & Lindley, 2010). Facilitative interpersonal
skills refer to an individual’s ability to effectively and
accurately communicate and interpret messages as
well as the ability to persuade others in helpful ways.
Cognitive complexity facilitates mastery of many of
the core competencies in professional psychology.
Once admitted to a doctoral program, a trainee
must embark on a journey of consistent evalua-
tion that will typically extend through postdoctoral
training, licensure, and often, terminating only at
the moment of board certification. Trainee evalu-
ation processes have been dramatically impacted
by the competency movement, with competency
benchmarks—incorporating cognitive, relational,
affective, moral, behavioral, and integrative dimen-
sions—now applied to all phases of training (e.g.,
Kaslow et al., 2009; Kaslow, Falendar & Grus,
2012; Kerns, Berry, Frantsve, & Linton, 2009)
from doctoral program screening (Kenkel, 2009) to
postlicensure determinations of fitness to practice
(Kerns et al., 2009). In this volume, Shen-Miller
notes that in matters of trainee evaluation, the best
training programs begin with clear definitions and
transparent communication regarding what will
be evaluated, followed by specific feedback from
multiple raters (including one’s self ) that identifies
(a) areas for growth and self-improvement, (b) a
timeline for change and improvement, and (c) spe-
cific ways to improve performance (Kenkel, 2009).
Like Kennedy and Lingard (2007), Shen-Miller
argues that trainee assessment and feedback should
be dynamic, ongoing, and ever-evolving in the
life of any training program. A persistent focus on
trainee evaluation is essential to ensuring quality of
care and client/patient safety.
Trainee Mentoring and Supervision
Perhaps no facet of training in psychology has
more to do with the development from novice
trainee to professional psychologist than clinical
supervision. According to Falender and Shafranske
(this volume), supervision, a core competency in pro-
fessional psychology, involves learning how to apply
science-informed knowledge to solve clinical prob-
lems, ongoing socialization to the profession, trans-
mitting and strengthening values and ethics, and
enhancing respect and appreciation for all persons.
Excellent supervision promotes attitudes and skills in
self-assessment and spurs commitment to life-long
learning. Of course, the paramount function of
supervision in the course of psychology training is
protection of the public. Perhaps not surprisingly,
Falendar and Shafranske identify discernible chal-
lenges to the implementation of competency-based
clinical supervision within training programs and the
need for transformational leadership to ensure such
implementation (Kaslow et al., 2012). For instance,
the shift from a development-through-osmosis
model of supervision to one rooted in planful
Johnson, Kaslow 5
development competencies has been quite slow at
times. A competency-based approach to supervision
places far greater focus on the process of supervisor
assessment of supervisee preparedness to execute clin-
ical tasks with clients/patients.
In addition to astute supervisors, training psy-
chologists increasingly are called to become inten-
tional and deliberate mentors for graduate students,
interns, and postdoctoral residents (Johnson, 2007;
Kaslow & Mascaro, 2007). The most effective men-
torships in psychology training environments have
been distinguished by focal characteristics includ-
ing positive emotional valence, increasing mutu-
ality, deliberate focus on the trainee’s career and
professional identity development, and a host of
career and psychosocial functions (Johnson, 2007).
Johnson (this volume) proposes the Mentoring
Relationship Continuum Model as a strategy for
integrating various trainer-trainee developmental
relationships under a single mentoring relationship
umbrella. According to Johnson, as any develop-
mental training relationship evolves along the men-
toring continuum, it may be characterized by more
and more of the qualities of mentoring. Recognizing
that no single training relationship is likely to meet
the full spectrum of trainee developmental needs,
Johnson further proposes a mentoring constellation
or developmental network approach to conceptual-
izing mentoring. In this model, a mentoring constel-
lation is the set of relationships an individual has
with the people who take an active interest in and
action to advance the individual’s career by assisting
with both personal and professional development
(Higgins & Thomas, 2001).
Ethics and Professionalism
In their various roles as teachers and supervisors,
training psychologists will inevitably serve as salient
role models, demonstrating in their day-to-day
interactions with trainees what it means to be a pro-
fessional psychologist. Barnett and Goncher (this
volume) and Grus and Kaslow (this volume) explore
the weighty responsibility for personally model-
ing ethical behavior and professionalism as trainers
intentionally acculturate trainees into the profession.
Knapp and VanderCreek (2006) refer to the myriad
teaching moments outside the classroom and super-
vision session as implicit or underground curricula that
“refer to the institutional atmosphere within the pro-
gram” (p. 216). When it comes to ethics accultura-
tion, Handlesman, Gottlieb, and Knapp (2005) note
that psychology is a culture with its own traditions,
values, and ethical expectations; training faculty will
6 On Developing Professional Psychologists
communicate much of this culture through their
daily interactions with others. Barnett and Goncher
note that the important work of ethics acculturation
in professional psychology requires creating a culture
of ethics, modeling self-care and wellness, appropri-
ately managing boundaries with trainees, promoting
integrity in research and publication, maintaining
and developing one’s own clinical competence, and
working through ethical challenges and dilemmas in
a transparent way, always with an eye toward mod-
eling the ethical consultation and decision-making
process for trainees.
Often entwined with ethics, professionalism is
a core element of personal identity and character
that develops over the course of one’s professional
life (Passi, Doug, Peile, Thistlethwaite, & Johnson,
2010). Grus and Kaslow (this volume) offer one of
the first systematic efforts to review and integrate
the literature on professionalism from the profes-
sional psychology literature. They describe profes-
sionalism as behavior and comportment that reflect
the values and attitudes of psychology (Fouad
et al., 2009). Salient elements of professionalism
include: (a) integrity—honesty, personal responsibil-
ity, and adherence to professional values; (b) deport-
ment; (c) accountability; (4) concern for the welfare
of others; and (5) professional identity. A necessary,
though not sufficient, competency for the effective
practice of psychology (Cruess, Cruess, & Steinert,
2009; Lesser et al., 2010; Pellegrino, 2002), profes-
sionalism can be taught. In fact, it is imperative that
trainers help trainees to make a life-long commit-
ment to refining professionalism over the course of
their professional development (Lesser et al., 2010).
When Training Goes Awry
Although the large majority of trainer-trainee
relationships are productive and positive and most
training environments are conducive to effective
education and professional development, this is
not always the case. Kaslow, Johnson, and Schwartz
(this volume) note that difficulties at the level of the
trainee, the trainer, the training relationship, peers
in the training milieu, or the training context itself
can easily undermine the efficacy of training. When
training goes awry, evidence sometimes points to
trainer behavior that is inadequate or even harm-
ful (Ellis, 2010). Survey findings indicate that when
training relationships become dysfunctional, fac-
ulty and supervisors sometimes contribute directly
to the difficulty (Clark, Harden, & Johnson, 2000;
Nelson et al., 2008). For instance, if trainers exhibit
shortcomings with multicultural competence, this
may diminish both the process and outcome of
supervisory relationships (Inman, 2006).
At times, training relationships suffer when
trainees evidence problems of professional compe-
tence. Forrest and Elman (this volume) find that
professional psychology has made great strides in
understanding problems of professional compe-
tence within the evolving culture of competency
and further in conceptualizing the individual
trainee with problems of professional competence
as located within a larger training ecology or sys-
tem. According to Forrest and Campbell (2012),
the competency movement has made a critical con-
tribution to addressing the complexities present in
evaluating clinical competence —particularly when
problems develop. In many cases, trainers and peers
report that the most common and troubling prob-
lems of professional competence in training set-
tings include defensiveness, lack of self-reflection,
and deficits in empathy. Recently, the inclusion of
interpersonal relationships and professionalism as
core competencies in the professional psychology
benchmarks has provided a way to clearly address
these problems of professional competence (Forrest,
Elman, & Shen Miller, 2008). Moving forward,
Forrest and Elman advocate that the profession cease
using the term “impairment” in relation to prob-
lems of professional competence, that work contin-
ues on developing a typology of common categories
of competence problems in trainees, and that the
individual competency framework be expanded and
applied to the broader training ecology.
When problems of professional competence rise
to the level of requiring remedial or disciplinary inter-
ventions, a complex array of ethical concerns and legal
requirements often come to bear such that trainers
may feel bewildered regarding an appropriate course
of action. Behnke (this volume) addresses 25 essential
questions for training psychologists to consider when
trainees require either (a) interventions designed to
assist the trainee to enhance competence and move
toward graduation (remedial), or (b) interventions
designed to terminate a trainee (disciplinary). In
these cases, trainers must be conversant with the ethi-
cal and legal issues bearing on liability, remediation
plans, privacy, confidentiality, and disclosures.
Culture and Context in Education
and Training
Several excellent chapters in this volume provide
a contextual perspective on professional training
including modern trends in diversity education and
current strategies for promoting cultural competence
(c.f., Metzger, Cornish, & Ndkarni, this volume).
Cultural competence in the context of training may
be defined as the deliberate incorporation of cultural
data in the training relationship. The purpose of the
incorporation is to determine, facilitate, evaluate,
and sustain positive professional outcomes for the
trainee (Ridley, Mollen, & Kelly, 2011). Ladany and
Friedlander (this volume) provide a framework for
understanding how psychology educators and train-
ers can enhance gender competencies in trainees.
Essential elements of self-awareness related to gen-
der competence include: (a) self-reflective practice,
(b) gender identity, and (c) gender-based counter-
transference (Boswell & Castonguay, 2007). Miles
and Fassinger (this volume) urge psychology train-
ers to play intentional roles in producing knowl-
edge and inculcating trainee competence bearing
on sexual orientation, gender identity, and mental
health. Training psychologists are situated to ensure
that new psychologists provide mental health ser-
vices and develop policies that promote the welfare
of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)
individuals and families. These authors craft their
chapter around APA’s (2012) revised Guidelines for
Psychological Practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual
clients, and specifically guideline 19, “Psychologists
strive to include lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues in
professional education and training” (p. 25).
Ridley and Jeffrey (this volume) take on the link-
age between diversity and power in the trainer-trainee
relationship as they address the current state of race
and ethnicity in professional psychology training.
Although White trainers and trainees continue to
outnumber minority trainers and trainees, the gap
is gradually shrinking (APA, 2008). In addition to
describing essential competencies bearing on race
and diversity, Ridley and Jeffrey (this volume) offer
a typology of problems in training programs related
to race. These include: (a) avoiding discussion of
racial differences, (b) stereotypes and attributions,
(c) cultural incompetence (Foo-Kune & Rodolfa,
2013), (d) uncritical acceptance of privilege (King,
1991), and (e) downright denial of racial differ-
ences. Becoming a culturally competent trainer
requires careful self-reflection and often deliberate
personal work in each of these domains.
Finally, Campbell (this volume) addresses the
unique role of religious-distinctive training pro-
grams. Because few programs currently include
religious or spiritual issues in the training curricu-
lum (Hage, Hopson, Siegel, Payton, & DeFanti,
2006) and because training directors of many
APA-accredited programs report little interest in
Johnson, Kaslow 7
offering focused training in this area (Russell &
Yarhouse, 2006), religious-distinctive programs
seek to prepare psychologists with focused compe-
tency in service to religious communities, including
the delivery of mental health services that integrate
or accommodate client/patient religious or spiri-
tual beliefs and practices. In addition, with the data
emerging on the salience of religion and spirituality
as related to the psychological well-being of many
individuals, the value of attending to this form of
diversity in all training programs as a component of
cultural competence is underscored.
The Road Ahead: The Future of Training
in Professional Psychology
Rozensky (this volume) highlights a variety of
trends likely to influence the success of the pro-
fessional psychology workforce moving forward.
Although social, political, and economic factors will
continue to shape the evolution of health-care pro-
fessions broadly, Rozensky cautions that psycholo-
gists must be particularly attentive to the following
trends (among many others): (a) ever-increasing
diversity in the population we serve; (b) rapid
changes in the health-care system; (c) increasing
emphasis on accountability, evidence-based treat-
ments, and demonstration of medical-cost offset;
(d) interprofessionalism; and (e) matters of sup-
ply and demand for professional psychologists.
According to Rozensky, it is of paramount impor-
tance that training programs are transparent with
applicants about how each of these trends may
shape career options and expectations.
We conclude this introduction to the Oxford
Handbook of Education and Training in Professional
Psychology by distilling some of the most farsighted
and evidence-supported predictions offered by
authors of the following 30 chapters. Although there
is always some risk inherent in forecasting the future
of a profession, we are particularly confident that
contributors to this volume are in the best position to
offer valuable projections about the road ahead. We
now offer 10 salient trends in professional psychol-
ogy training. Each trend is part observation, part pre-
diction, and part recommendation. We hope these
trends help to both set the stage for the important
contributions contained in the handbook and offer
training psychologists a glimpse of the road ahead.
Models of Doctoral Training Will Be
Integrated and Streamlined
Although the PhD was established as the degree
associated with the scientist-practitioner model over
8 On Developing Professional Psychologists
60 years ago (Raimy, 1950), and the PsyD stipu-
lated as the degree of choice for Vail-model prac-
titioner programs (Korman, 1973), professional
psychology currently struggles with some confusion
regarding degree and training model distinctions
(Bell & Housman, this volume). For instance, some
practitioner-scholar programs grant the PhD degree
and certain scientist-practitioner model programs
offer the PsyD. On the upside, distinct training
models in professional psychology provide coher-
ent frameworks for program emphasis and trainee
competencies. On the downside, the often muddled
contours between degrees and training models pose
an obstacle to the promotion of professional psy-
chology as a coherent health-care profession. Bell
and Housman reflect that the evolution of training
models within psychology has been neither neces-
sary nor sufficient. In fact, training psychologists
are at risk for spending more time debating the
merits of nuanced distinctions among models (see
Bieschke et al., 2011) and far too little time focus-
ing on the shared values, principles, and foci across
models.
The fact remains that consumers and allied
health-care professionals are often unaware of and
utterly unconcerned about the training model
employed by a psychologist’s training programs.
Rather, our clients/patients and colleagues hope that
we will be competent, ethical, and professional. Just
as the field of psychotherapy has begun a growing
movement toward evidence-based integration and
consolidation (Collins, Leffingwell, & Belar, 2007;
Norcross, 2005), so too should professional psy-
chology education and training begin a process of
integration and parsimonious consolidation, always
with an eye toward core competencies required for
the effective practice of professional psychology.
The Practical Training Sequence
Will Be Revisioned and Refined
Several of the authors in this volume address
the controversies and complexities centering on
supervised practical training in professional psy-
chology. At present, doctoral students experience
considerable pressure to accrue substantial numbers
of supervised practicum hours at the predoctoral
level. Of course, number of hours accrued may
say little about established competence for more
advanced training (Kaslow & Keilin, 2006). To the
extent that practicum hours serve as one indicator
of preparation and competence, it will be increas-
ingly important that accrediting bodies and train-
ing programs attend to the quality of practicum
experiences (Fouad & Grus, this volume; Schaffer
& Rodolfa, 2011). A related concern has to do
with the internship imbalance and the question
of whether the internship in professional psychol-
ogy should be shifted to a postdoctoral experience
(McCutcheon & Keilin, this volume). If practicum
experiences are extensive, well-supervised, scruti-
nized during program accreditation, and linked to
a clear process of competency assessment, then per-
haps trainees will be better served financially and
professionally if the doctoral degree is awarded prior
to the formal internship. However, such a shift in
timing has many significant downsides, related to
continued concerns about readiness for indepen-
dent practice without such experience as well the
credibility of the profession if less education and
training is required. Whatever the approach to
sequencing training experiences, the current scar-
city of both internship and postdoctoral residency
opportunities in professional psychology requires
concerted attention (Hogg & Olvey, 2007). As
McCutcheon and Keilin reflect, discussions of the
imbalance between trainees and available training
positions inevitably touch upon issues of equity,
quality, opportunity, identity, social justice, and the
very health and future of professional psychology.
But this problem also must be contextualized in a
large context, namely challenges associated with
multiple transitions in the education, training, cre-
dentialing, and career employment guideline.
An Increasing Focus on Competence
and Professionalism
The culture of competence—including accurate
and multi-method assessment of competence—will
continue to define professional psychology moving
forward (Fouad et al., 2009; Kaslow et al., 2009).
In light of the steadily evolving and increasing
knowledge base in psychology (Neimeyer, Taylor, &
Rozensky, 2012), psychology competency bench-
marks must be frequently updated and used reliably
in both formative and summative assessments of
trainees. Fouad and Grus (this volume) challenge
training psychologists to move beyond merely iden-
tifying and assessing competencies to clearly estab-
lishing the link between this process and improved
client or patient well-being. We further challenge
psychologists to move beyond individualistic con-
ceptions of trainee competence and begin to incor-
porate larger contextual influences when evaluating
competence (e.g., agency setting, case complexity,
trainee caseload) (Schulte & Daly, 2009). Finally,
we predict that professionalism will become more
clearly conceptualized, more precisely operation-
alized, and more thoughtfully assessed at all lev-
els of professional psychology training (see Grus
& Kaslow, this volume). Inevitably intertwined
with competence, professionalism manifests in
both specific competencies and in more macro or
big-picture notions of what it means to be a profes-
sional psychologist.
Specialization Will Loom Large in the
Future of the Profession
Roberts (2006) described the “essential tension”
between broad and general training in psychology
on one hand and specialization on the other. It is
increasingly evident that doctoral training pro-
grams cannot provide both the foundational train-
ing required by the Commission on Accreditation
(CoA) and high-quality specialty training in focused
areas of professional practice (Baker & Cox, this
volume). Professional psychology must acknowl-
edge the need for specialty training, while making
difficult decisions about where precisely to locate
specialty training in the professional psychology
training sequence (Altmaier, this volume). Should
specialty training be confined to internship and
postdoctoral programs? How will specialized pro-
grams be regarded by accreditation bodies? Should
psychology fully adopt the model of board certifi-
cation so long effective in medicine? Whatever the
answers to these questions, it is clear that psychol-
ogy must find a coherent solution to the increasing
complexity and requirement for specialized compe-
tence in professional practice.
Trainee Selection Must Become
More Rigorous and Effective
Several authors in this volume raise concerns
and recommend alternatives to current strategies
for vetting training program applicants. Although
the competency benchmarks (Busseri, Tyler, &
King, 2005; Fouad et al., 2009) have refined the
profession’s approach to assessing trainee compe-
tence following matriculation, current approaches
to determining which applicants merit entrée into
the profession are less well developed. For instance,
Owen, Quirk, and Rodolfa (this volume) surmise
that reliance on GRE scores and letters of recom-
mendation leaves much to be desired. In the future,
program leaders must do more to reliably and val-
idly ascertain whether an applicant possesses the
requisite ethical-mindedness, psychological fitness,
and interpersonal facility required for the acquisi-
tion of competence in psychology.
Johnson, Kaslow 9
Another random document with
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the Turks perpetrated on their wretched subjects wrongs that would
blast the memory of Attila.
We do not wish to be misunderstood. We have no feeling against
England. On the contrary, we regard her as being well in advance of
the great powers of Continental Europe, and we have more
sympathy with her. In general, her success tells for the success of
civilization, and we wish her well. But where her interests enlist her
against the progress of civilization and in favor of the oppression of
other nationalities who are struggling upward, our sympathies are
immediately forfeited.
It is a matter of serious concern to every college man, and, indeed,
to every man who believes in the good effects of a liberal education,
to see the false views which seem to obtain among so many of the
leaders of educated thought, not only upon the Monroe Doctrine, but
upon every question which involves the existence of a feeling of
robust Americanism. Every educated man who puts himself out of
touch with the current of American thought, and who on conspicuous
occasions assumes an attitude hostile to the interest of America, is
doing what he can to weaken the influence of educated men in
American life. The crude, ill-conditioned jealousy of education, which
is so often and so lamentably shown by large bodies of our people,
is immensely stimulated by the action of those prominent educated
men in whom education seems to have destroyed the strong, virile
virtues and especially the spirit of Americanism.
No nation can achieve real greatness if its people are not both
essentially moral and essentially manly; both sets of qualities are
necessary. It is an admirable thing to possess refinement and
cultivation, but the price is too dear if they must be paid for at the
cost of the rugged fighting qualities which make a man able to do a
man’s work in the world, and which make his heart beat with that
kind of love of country which is shown not only in readiness to try to
make her civic life better, but also to stand up manfully for her when
her honor and influence are at stake in a dispute with a foreign
power. A heavy responsibility rests on the educated man. It is a
double discredit to him to go wrong, whether his shortcomings take
the form of shirking his every-day civic duties, or of abandonment of
the nation’s rights in a foreign quarrel. He must no more be misled
by the sneers of those who always write “patriotism” between
inverted commas than by the coarser, but equally dangerous, ridicule
of the politicians who jeer at “reform.” It is as unmanly to be taunted
by one set of critics into cowardice as it is to be taunted by the other
set into dishonesty.
There are many upright and honorable men who take the wrong
side, that is, the anti-American side, of the Monroe Doctrine because
they are too short-sighted or too unimaginative to realize the hurt to
the nation that would be caused by the adoption of their views. There
are other men who take the wrong view simply because they have
not thought much of the matter, or are in unfortunate surroundings,
by which they have been influenced to their own moral hurt. There
are yet other men in whom the mainspring of the opposition to that
branch of American policy known as the Monroe Doctrine is sheer
timidity. This is sometimes the ordinary timidity of wealth.
Sometimes, however, it is peculiarly developed among educated
men whose education has tended to make them over-cultivated and
over-sensitive to foreign opinion. They are generally men who
undervalue the great fighting qualities, without which no nation can
ever rise to the first rank.
The timidity of wealth is proverbial, and it was well illustrated by
the attitude taken by too many people of means at the time of the
Venezuela trouble. Many of them, including bankers, merchants, and
railway magnates, criticised the action of the President and the
Senate, on the ground that it had caused business disturbance.
Such a position is essentially ignoble. When a question of national
honor or of national right or wrong, is at stake, no question of
financial interest should be considered for a moment. Those wealthy
men who wish the abandonment of the Monroe Doctrine because its
assertion may damage their business, bring discredit to themselves,
and, so far as they are able, discredit to the nation of which they are
a part.
It is an evil thing for any man of education to forget that education
should intensify patriotism, and that patriotism must not only be
shown by striving to do good to the country from within, but by
readiness to uphold its interests and honor, at any cost, when
menaced from without. Educated men owe to the community the
serious performance of this duty. We need not concern ourselves
with the emigré educated man, the American who deliberately takes
up his permanent abode abroad, whether in London or Paris; he is
usually a man of weak character, unfitted to do good work either
abroad or at home, who does what he can for his country by
relieving it of his presence. But the case is otherwise with the
American who stays at home, and tries to teach the youth of his
country to disbelieve in the country’s rights, as against other
countries, and to regard it as the sign of an enlightened spirit to
decry the assertion of those rights by force of arms. This man may
be inefficient for good; but he is capable at times of doing harm,
because he tends to make other people inefficient likewise. In our
municipal politics there has long been evident a tendency to gather
in one group the people who have no scruples, but who are very
efficient, and in another group the amiable people who are not
efficient at all. This is but one manifestation of the general and very
unwholesome tendency among certain educated people to lose the
power of doing efficient work as they acquire refinement. Of course
in the long run a really good education will give not only refinement,
but also an increase of power, and of capacity for efficient work. But
the man who forgets that a real education must include the
cultivation of the fighting virtues is sure to manifest this tendency to
inefficiency. It is exhibited on a national scale by the educated men
who take the anti-American side of international questions. There are
exceptions to the rule; but as a rule the healthy man, resolute to do
the rough work of the world, and capable of feeling his veins tingle
with pride over the great deeds of the men of his own nation, will
naturally take the American side of such a question as the Monroe
Doctrine. Similarly, the anæmic man of refinement and cultivation,
whose intellect has been educated at the expense of his character,
and who shrinks from all these struggles through which alone the
world moves on to greatness, is inclined to consider any expression
of the Monroe Doctrine as truculent and ill advised.
Of course, many strong men who are good citizens on ordinary
occasions take the latter view simply because they have been
misled. The colonial habit of thought dies hard. It is to be wished that
those who are cursed with it would, in endeavoring to emulate the
ways of the old world, endeavor to emulate one characteristic which
has been shared by every old-world nation, and which is possessed
to a marked degree by England. Every decent Englishman is
devoted to his country, first, last, and all the time. An Englishman
may or may not dislike America, but he is invariably for England and
against America when any question arises between them; and I
heartily respect him for so being. Let our own people of the partially
colonial type copy this peculiarity and it will be much to their credit.
The finest speech that for many years has been delivered by a
college man to other college men was that made last spring by
Judge Holmes, himself a gallant soldier of the Civil War, in that hall
which Harvard has erected to commemorate those of her sons who
perished when the North strove with the South. It should be graven
on the heart of every college man, for it has in it that lift of the soul
toward things heroic that makes the eyes burn and the veins thrill. It
must be read in its entirety, for no quotation could do justice to its
fine scorn of the mere money-maker, its lofty fealty to a noble ideal,
and, above all, its splendid love of country and splendid praise of the
valor of those who strive on stricken fields that the honor of their
nation may be upheld.
It is strange, indeed, that in a country where words like those of
Judge Holmes can be spoken, there should exist men who actually
oppose the building of a navy by the United States, nay, even more,
actually oppose so much as the strengthening of the coast defences,
on the ground that they prefer to have this country too feeble to
resent any insult, in order that it may owe its safety to the
contemptuous forbearance which it is hoped this feebleness will
inspire in foreign powers. No Tammany alderman, no venal
legislator, no demagogue or corrupt politician, ever strove more
effectively than these men are striving to degrade the nation and to
make one ashamed of the name of America. When we remember
that among them there are college graduates, it is a relief to
remember that the leaders on the side of manliness and of love of
country are also college graduates. Every believer in scholarship and
in a liberal education, every believer in the robust qualities of heart,
mind, and body without which cultivation and refinement are of no
avail, must rejoice to think that, in the present crisis, college men
have been prominent among the leaders whose far-sighted
statesmanship and resolute love of country have made those of us
who are really Americans proud of the nation. Secretary Olney is a
graduate of Brown; Senator Lodge, who took the lead in the Senate
on this matter, is a graduate of Harvard; and no less than three
members of the Boundary Commission are graduates of Yale.

FOOTNOTES:
[19] The Bachelor of Arts, March, 1896.
 XII
WASHINGTON’S FORGOTTEN MAXIM[20]

A century has passed since Washington wrote “To be prepared for

war is the most effectual means to promote peace.” We pay to this
maxim the lip loyalty we so often pay to Washington’s words; but it
has never sunk deep into our hearts. Indeed of late years many
persons have refused it even the poor tribute of lip loyalty, and prate
about the iniquity of war as if somehow that was a justification for
refusing to take the steps which can alone in the long run prevent
war or avert the dreadful disasters it brings in its train. The truth of
the maxim is so obvious to every man of really far-sighted patriotism
that its mere statement seems trite and useless; and it is not over-
creditable to either our intelligence or our love of country that there
should be, as there is, need to dwell upon and amplify such a truism.
In this country there is not the slightest danger of an over-
development of warlike spirit, and there never has been any such
danger. In all our history there has never been a time when
preparedness for war was any menace to peace. On the contrary,
again and again we have owed peace to the fact that we were
prepared for war; and in the only contest which we have had with a
European power since the Revolution, the war of 1812, the struggle
and all its attendant disasters, were due solely to the fact that we
were not prepared to face, and were not ready instantly to resent, an
attack upon our honor and interest; while the glorious triumphs at
sea which redeemed that war were due to the few preparations
which we had actually made. We are a great peaceful nation; a
nation of merchants and manufacturers, of farmers and mechanics;
a nation of workingmen, who labor incessantly with head or hand. It
is idle to talk of such a nation ever being led into a course of wanton
aggression or conflict with military powers by the possession of a
sufficient navy.
The danger is of precisely the opposite character. If we forget that
in the last resort we can only secure peace by being ready and
willing to fight for it, we may some day have bitter cause to realize
that a rich nation which is slothful, timid, or unwieldy is an easy prey
for any people which still retains those most valuable of all qualities,
the soldierly virtues. We but keep to the traditions of Washington, to
the traditions of all the great Americans who struggled for the real
greatness of America, when we strive to build up those fighting
qualities for the lack of which in a nation, as in an individual, no
refinement, no culture, no wealth, no material prosperity, can atone.
Preparation for war is the surest guaranty for peace. Arbitration is
an excellent thing, but ultimately those who wish to see this country
at peace with foreign nations will be wise if they place reliance upon
a first-class fleet of first-class battle-ships rather than on any
arbitration treaty which the wit of man can devise. Nelson said that
the British fleet was the best negotiator in Europe, and there was
much truth in the saying. Moreover, while we are sincere and earnest
in our advocacy of peace, we must not forget that an ignoble peace
is worse than any war. We should engrave in our legislative halls
those splendid lines of Lowell:

“Come, Peace! not like a mourner bowed

For honor lost and dear ones wasted,
But proud, to meet a people proud,
With eyes that tell of triumph tasted!”

Peace is a goddess only when she comes with sword girt on thigh.
The ship of state can be steered safely only when it is always
possible to bring her against any foe with “her leashed thunders
gathering for the leap.” A really great people, proud and high-
spirited, would face all the disasters of war rather than purchase that
base prosperity which is bought at the price of national honor. All the
great masterful races have been fighting races, and the minute that a
race loses the hard fighting virtues, then, no matter what else it may
retain, no matter how skilled in commerce and finance, in science or
art, it has lost its proud right to stand as the equal of the best.
Cowardice in a race, as in an individual, is the unpardonable sin, and
a wilful failure to prepare for danger may in its effects be as bad as
cowardice. The timid man who cannot fight, and the selfish, short-
sighted, or foolish man who will not take the steps that will enable
him to fight, stand on almost the same plane.
It is not only true that a peace may be so ignoble and degrading as
to be worse than any war; it is also true that it may be fraught with
more bloodshed than most wars. Of this there has been melancholy
proof during the last two years. Thanks largely to the very unhealthy
influence of the men whose business it is to speculate in the money
market, and who approach every subject from the financial
standpoint, purely; and thanks quite as much to the cold-blooded
brutality and calculating timidity of many European rulers and
statesmen, the peace of Europe has been preserved, while the Turk
has been allowed to butcher the Armenians with hideous and
unmentionable barbarity, and has actually been helped to keep Crete
in slavery. War has been averted at the cost of more bloodshed and
infinitely more suffering and degradation to wretched women and
children than have occurred in any European struggle since the days
of Waterloo. No war of recent years, no matter how wanton, has
been so productive of horrible misery as the peace which the powers
have maintained during the continuance of the Armenian butcheries.
The men who would preach this peace, and indeed the men who
have preached universal peace in terms that have prepared the way
for such a peace as this, have inflicted a wrong on humanity greater
than could be inflicted by the most reckless and war-loving despot.
Better a thousand times err on the side of over-readiness to fight,
than to err on the side of tame submission to injury, or cold-blooded
indifference to the misery of the oppressed.
 Popular sentiment is just when it selects as popular heroes the
men who have led in the struggle against malice domestic or foreign
levy. No triumph of peace is quite so great as the supreme triumphs
of war. The courage of the soldier, the courage of the statesman who
has to meet storms which can be quelled only by soldierly qualities—
this stands higher than any quality called out merely in time of
peace. It is by no means necessary that we should have war to
develop soldierly attributes and soldierly qualities; but if the peace
we enjoy is of such a kind that it causes their loss, then it is far too
dearly purchased, no matter what may be its attendant benefits. It
may be that some time in the dim future of the race the need for war
will vanish; but that time is yet ages distant. As yet no nation can
hold its place in the world, or can do any work really worth doing,
unless it stands ready to guard its rights with an armed hand. That
orderly liberty which is both the foundation and the capstone of our
civilization can be gained and kept only by men who are willing to
fight for an ideal; who hold high the love of honor, love of faith, love
of flag, and love of country. It is true that no nation can be really
great unless it is great in peace; in industry, integrity, honesty. Skilled
intelligence in civic affairs and industrial enterprises alike; the special
ability of the artist, the man of letters, the man of science, and the
man of business; the rigid determination to wrong no man, and to
stand for righteousness—all these are necessary in a great nation.
But it is also necessary that the nation should have physical no less
than moral courage; the capacity to do and dare and die at need,
and that grim and steadfast resolution which alone will carry a great
people through a great peril. The occasion may come at any instant
when

“’Tis man’s perdition to be safe

When for the truth he ought to die.”

All great nations have shown these qualities. The Dutch held but a
little corner of Europe. Their industry, thrift, and enterprise in the
pursuits of peace and their cultivation of the arts helped to render
them great; but these qualities would have been barren had they not
been backed by those sterner qualities which rendered them able to
wrest their freedom from the cruel strength of Spain, and to guard it
against the banded might of England and of France. The merchants
and the artists of Holland did much for her; but even more was done
by the famished burghers who fought to the death on the walls of
Harlem and Leyden, and the great admirals who led their fleets to
victory on the broad and narrow seas.
England’s history is rich in splendid names and splendid deeds.
Her literature is even greater than that of Greece. In commerce she
has stood in the modern world as more than ever Carthage was
when civilization clustered in a fringe around the Mediterranean. But
she has risen far higher than ever Greece or Carthage rose,
because she possesses also the great, masterful qualities which
were possessed by the Romans who overthrew them both. England
has been fertile in soldiers and administrators; in men who triumphed
by sea and by land; in adventurers and explorers who won for her
the world’s waste spaces; and it is because of this that the English-
speaking race now shares with the Slav the fate of the coming years.
We of the United States have passed most of our few years of
national life in peace. We honor the architects of our wonderful
material prosperity; we appreciate the necessity of thrift, energy, and
business enterprise, and we know that even these are of no avail
without the civic and social virtues. But we feel, after all, that the men
who have dared greatly in war, or the work which is akin to war, are
those who deserve best of the country. The men of Bunker Hill and
Trenton, Saratoga and Yorktown, the men of New Orleans and
Mobile Bay, Gettysburg and Appomattox are those to whom we owe
most. None of our heroes of peace, save a few great constructive
statesmen, can rank with our heroes of war. The Americans who
stand highest on the list of the world’s worthies are Washington, who
fought to found the country which he afterward governed, and
Lincoln, who saved it through the blood of the best and bravest in the
land; Washington, the soldier and statesman, the man of cool head,
dauntless heart, and iron will, the greatest of good men and the best
of great men; and Lincoln, sad, patient, kindly Lincoln, who for four
years toiled and suffered for the people, and when his work was
done laid down his life that the flag which had been rent in sunder
might once more be made whole and without a seam.
It is on men such as these, and not on the advocates of peace at
any price, or upon those so short-sighted that they refuse to take into
account the possibility of war, that we must rely in every crisis which
deeply touches the true greatness and true honor of the Republic.
The United States has never once in the course of its history
suffered harm because of preparation for war, or because of entering
into war. But we have suffered incalculable harm, again and again,
from a foolish failure to prepare for war or from reluctance to fight
when to fight was proper. The men who to-day protest against a
navy, and protest also against every movement to carry out the
traditional policy of the country in foreign affairs, and to uphold the
honor of the flag, are themselves but following in the course of those
who protested against the acquisition of the great West, and who
failed to make proper preparations for the war of 1812, or refused to
support it after it had been made. They are own brothers to the men
whose short-sightedness and supine indifference prevented any
reorganization of the personnel of the Navy during the middle of the
century, so that we entered upon the Civil War with captains seventy
years old. They are close kin to the men who, when the Southern
States seceded, wished to let the Union be disrupted in peace rather
than restored through the grim agony of armed conflict.
I do not believe that any considerable number of our citizens are
stamped with this timid lack of patriotism. There are some
doctrinaires whose eyes are so firmly fixed on the golden vision of
universal peace that they cannot see the grim facts of real life until
they stumble over them, to their own hurt, and, what is much worse,
to the possible undoing of their fellows. There are some educated
men in whom education merely serves to soften the fibre and to
eliminate the higher, sterner qualities which tell for national
greatness; and these men prate about love for mankind, or for
another country, as being in some hidden way a substitute for love of
their own country. What is of more weight, there are not a few men of
means who have made the till their fatherland, and who are always
ready to balance a temporary interruption of money-making, or a
temporary financial and commercial disaster, against the self-
sacrifice necessary in upholding the honor of the nation and the glory
of the flag.
But after all these people, though often noisy, form but a small
minority of the whole. They would be swept like chaff before the gust
of popular fury which would surely come if ever the nation really saw
and felt a danger or an insult. The real trouble is that in such a case
this gust of popular fury would come too late. Unreadiness for war is
merely rendered more disastrous by readiness to bluster; to talk
defiance and advocate a vigorous policy in words, while refusing to
back up these words by deeds, is cause for humiliation. It has
always been true, and in this age it is more than ever true, that it is
too late to prepare for war when the time for peace has passed. The
short-sightedness of many people, the good-humored indifference to
facts of others, the sheer ignorance of a vast number, and the selfish
reluctance to insure against future danger by present sacrifice
among yet others—these are the chief obstacles to building up a
proper navy and carrying out a proper foreign policy.
The men who opposed the war of 1812, and preferred to have the
nation humiliated by unresented insult from a foreign power rather
than see her suffer the losses of an honorable conflict, occupied a
position little short of contemptible; but it was not much worse than
that of the men who brought on the war and yet deliberately refused
to make the preparations necessary to carry it to a successful
conclusion. The visionary schemes for defending the country by
gunboats, instead of by a fleet of seagoing battle-ships; the refusal to
increase the Navy to a proper size; the determination to place
reliance upon militia instead of upon regularly trained troops; and the
disasters which followed upon each and every one of these
determinations should be studied in every school-book in the land so
as to enforce in the minds of all our citizens the truth of Washington’s
adage, that in time of peace it is necessary to prepare for war.
All this applied in 1812; but it applies with tenfold greater force
now. Then, as now, it was the Navy upon which the country had to
depend in the event of war with a foreign power; and then, as now,
one of the chief tasks of a wise and far-seeing statesmanship should
have been the upbuilding of a formidable fighting navy. In 1812
untold evils followed from the failure to provide such a fighting navy;
for the splendid feats of our few cruisers merely showed what could
have been done if we had had a great fleet of battle-ships. But ships,
guns, and men were much more easily provided in time of
emergency at the beginning of this century than at the end. It takes
months to build guns and ships now, where it then took days, or at
the most, weeks; and it takes far longer now to train men to the
management of the vast and complicated engines with which war is
waged. Therefore preparation is much more difficult, and requires a
much longer time; and yet wars are so much quicker, they last so
comparatively short a period, and can be begun so instantaneously
that there is very much less time than formerly in which to make
preparations.
No battle-ship can be built inside of two years under no matter
what stress of circumstances, for we have not in this country the
plant to enable us to work faster. Cruisers would take almost as long.
Even torpedo boats, the smallest of all, could not be put in first-class
form under ninety days. Guns available for use against a hostile
invader would require two or three months; and in the case of the
larger guns, the only ones really available for the actual shock of
battle, could not be made under eight months. Rifles and military
munitions of every kind would require a corresponding length of time
for preparation; in most cases we should have to build, not merely
the weapons we need, but the plant with which to make them in any
large quantity. Even if the enemy did not interfere with our efforts,
which they undoubtedly would, it would, therefore, take from three to
six months after the outbreak of a war, for which we were
unprepared, before we could in the slightest degree remedy our
unreadiness. During this six months it would be impossible to
overestimate the damage that could be done by a resolute and
powerful antagonist. Even at the end of that time we would only be
beginning to prepare to parry his attack, for it would be two years
before we could attempt to return it. Since the change in military
conditions in modern times there has never been an instance in
which a war between any two nations has lasted more than about
two years. In most recent wars the operations of the first ninety days
have decided the result of the conflict. All that followed has been a
mere vain effort to strive against the stars in their courses by doing
at the twelfth hour what it was useless to do after the eleventh.
We must therefore make up our minds once for all to the fact that
it is too late to make ready for war when the fight has once begun.
The preparation must come before that. In the case of the Civil War
none of these conditions applied. In 1861 we had a good fleet, and
the Southern Confederacy had not a ship. We were able to blockade
the Southern ports at once, and we could improvise engines of war
more than sufficient to put against those of an enemy who also had
to improvise them, and who labored under even more serious
disadvantages. The Monitor was got ready in the nick of time to meet
the Merrimac, because the Confederates had to plan and build the
latter while we were planning and building the former; but if ever we
have to go to war with a modern military power we shall find its
Merrimacs already built, and it will then be altogether too late to try to
build Monitors to meet them.
If this point needs any emphasis surely the history of the war of
1812 applies to it. For twelve years before that war broke out even
the blindest could see that we were almost certain to be drawn into
hostilities with one or the other of the pair of combatants whose
battle royal ended at Waterloo. Yet we made not the slightest
preparation for war. The authorities at Washington contented
themselves with trying to build a flotilla of gunboats which could
defend our own harbors without making it necessary to take the
offensive ourselves. We already possessed a dozen first-class
cruisers, but not a battle-ship of any kind. With almost incredible folly
the very Congress that declared war voted down the bill to increase
the Navy by twenty battle-ships; though it was probably too late then,
anyhow, for even under the simpler conditions of that day such a
fleet could not have been built and put into first-class order in less
than a couple of years. Bitterly did the nation pay for its want of
foresight and forethought. Our cruisers won a number of striking
victories, heartening and giving hope to the nation in the face of
disaster; but they were powerless to do material harm to the gigantic
naval strength of Great Britain. Efforts were made to increase our
little Navy, but in the face of a hostile enemy already possessing
command of the seas this was impossible. Two or three small
cruisers were built; but practically almost all the fighting on the ocean
was done by the handful of frigates and sloops which we possessed
when the war broke out. Not a battle-ship was able to put to sea until
after peace was restored. Meanwhile our coast was blockaded from
one end to the other and was harried at will by the hostile squadrons.
Our capital city was burned, and the ceaseless pressure of the
blockade produced such suffering and irritation as nearly to bring
about a civil war among ourselves. If in the first decade of the
present century the American people and their rulers had possessed
the wisdom to provide an efficient fleet of powerful battle-ships there
would probably have been no war of 1812; and even if war had
come, the immense loss to, and destruction of, trade and commerce
by the blockade would have been prevented. Merely from the
monetary standpoint the saving would have been incalculable; and
yet this would have been the smallest part of the gain.
It can therefore be taken for granted that there must be adequate
preparation for conflict, if conflict is not to mean disaster.
Furthermore, this preparation must take the shape of an efficient
fighting navy. We have no foe able to conquer or overrun our
territory. Our small army should always be kept in first-class
condition, and every attention should be paid to the National Guard;
but neither on the North nor the South have we neighbors capable of
menacing us with invasion or long resisting a serious effort on our
part to invade them. The enemies we may have to face will come
from over sea; they may come from Europe, or they may come from
Asia. Events move fast in the West; but this generation has been
forced to see that they move even faster in the oldest East. Our
interests are as great in the Pacific as in the Atlantic, in the Hawaiian
Islands as in the West Indies. Merely for the protection of our own
shores we need a great navy; and what is more, we need it to
protect our interests in the islands from which it is possible to
command our shores and to protect our commerce on the high seas.
In building this navy, we must remember two things: First, that our
ships and guns should be the very best of their kind; and second,
that no matter how good they are, they will be useless unless the
man in the conning tower and the man behind the guns are also the
best of their kind. It is mere folly to send men to perish because they
have arms with which they cannot win. With poor ships, were an
Admiral Nelson and Farragut rolled in one, he might be beaten by
any first-class fleet; and he surely would be beaten if his opponents
were in any degree his equals in skill and courage; but without this
skill and courage no perfection of material can avail, and with them
very grave shortcomings in equipment may be overcome. The men
who command our ships must have as perfect weapons ready to
their hands as can be found in the civilized world, and they must be
trained to the highest point in using them. They must have skill in
handling the ships, skill in tactics, skill in strategy, for ignorant
courage can not avail; but without courage neither will skill avail.
They must have in them the dogged ability to bear punishment, the
power and desire to inflict it, the daring, the resolution, the
willingness to take risks and incur responsibility which have been
possessed by the great captains of all ages, and without which no
man can ever hope to stand in the front rank of fighting men.
Tame submission to foreign aggression of any kind is a mean and
unworthy thing; but it is even meaner and more unworthy to bluster
first, and then either submit or else refuse to make those
preparations which can alone obviate the necessity for submission. I
believe with all my heart in the Monroe Doctrine, and, I believe also
that the great mass of the American people are loyal to it; but it is
worse than idle to announce our adherence to this doctrine and yet
to decline to take measures to show that ours is not mere lip loyalty.
We had far better submit to interference by foreign powers with the
affairs of this continent than to announce that we will not tolerate
such interference, and yet refuse to make ready the means by which
alone we can prevent it. In public as in private life, a bold front tends
to insure peace and not strife. If we possess a formidable navy, small
is the chance indeed that we shall ever be dragged into a war to
uphold the Monroe Doctrine. If we do not possess such a navy, war
may be forced on us at any time.
 It is certain, then, that we need a first-class navy. It is equally
certain that this should not be merely a navy for defense. Our chief
harbors should, of course, be fortified and put in condition to resist
the attack of an enemy’s fleet; and one of our prime needs is an
ample force of torpedo boats to use primarily for coast defense. But
in war the mere defensive never pays, and can never result in
anything but disaster. It is not enough to parry a blow. The surest
way to prevent its repetition is to return it. No master of the prize ring
ever fought his way to supremacy by mere dexterity in avoiding
punishment. He had to win by inflicting punishment. If the enemy is
given the choice of time and place to attack, sooner or later he will
do irreparable damage, and if he is at any point beaten back, why,
after all, it is merely a repulse, and there are no means of following it
up and making it a rout. We cannot rely upon coast protection alone.
Forts and heavy land guns and torpedo boats are indispensable, and
the last, on occasion, may be used for offensive purposes also. But
in the present state of naval and military knowledge we must rely
mainly, as all great nations always have relied, on the battle-ship, the
fighting ship of the line. Gunboats and light cruisers serve an
excellent purpose, and we could not do without them. In time of
peace they are the police of the seas; in time of war they would do
some harrying of commerce, and a great deal of scouting and
skirmishing; but our main reliance must be on the great armored
battle-ships with their heavy guns and shot-proof vitals. In the last
resort we most trust to the ships whose business it is to fight and not
to run, and who can themselves go to sea and strike at the enemy
when they choose, instead of waiting peacefully to receive his blow
when and where he deems it best to deliver it. If in the event of war
our fleet of battle-ships can destroy the hostile fleet, then our coasts
are safe from the menace of serious attack; even a fight that ruined
our fleet would probably so shatter the hostile fleet as to do away
with all chance of invasion; but if we have no fleet wherewith to meet
the enemy on the high seas, or to anticipate his stroke by our own,
then every city within reach of the tides must spend men and money
in preparation for an attack that may not come, but which would
cause crushing and irredeemable disaster if it did come.
 Still more is it necessary to have a fleet of great battle-ships if we
intend to live up to the Monroe Doctrine, and to insist upon its
observance in the two Americas and the islands on either side of
them. If a foreign power, whether in Europe or Asia, should
determine to assert its position in those lands wherein we feel that
our influence should be supreme, there is but one way in which we
can effectively interfere. Diplomacy is utterly useless where there is
no force behind it; the diplomat is the servant, not the master, of the
soldier. The prosperity of peace, commercial and material prosperity,
gives no weight whatever when the clash of arms comes. Even great
naked strength is useless if there is no immediate means through
which that strength can manifest itself. If we mean to protect the
people of the lands who look to us for protection from tyranny and
aggression; if we mean to uphold our interests in the teeth of the
formidable Old World powers, we can only do it by being ready at
any time, if the provocation, is sufficient, to meet them on the seas,
where the battle for supremacy must be fought. Unless we are
prepared so to meet them, let us abandon all talk of devotion to the
Monroe Doctrine or to the honor of the American name.
This nation cannot stand still if it is to retain its self-respect, and to
keep undimmed the honorable traditions inherited from the men who
with the sword founded it and by the sword preserved it. We ask that
the work of upbuilding the Navy, and of putting the United States
where it should be put among maritime powers, go forward without a
break. We ask this not in the interest of war, but in the interest of
peace. No nation should ever wage war wantonly, but no nation
should ever avoid it at the cost of the loss of national honor. A nation
should never fight unless forced to; but it should always be ready to
fight. The mere fact that it is ready will generally spare it the
necessity of fighting. If this country now had a fleet of twenty battle-
ships their existence would make it all the more likely that we should
not have war. It is very important that we should, as a race, keep the
virile fighting qualities and should be ready to use them at need; but
it is not at all important to use them unless there is need. One of the
surest ways to attain these qualities is to keep our Navy in first-class
trim. There never is, and never has been, on our part a desire to use
a weapon because of its being well-tempered. There is not the least
danger that the possession of a good navy will render this country
overbearing toward its neighbors. The direct contrary is the truth.
An unmanly desire to avoid a quarrel is often the surest way to
precipitate one; and utter unreadiness to fight is even surer. If at the
time of our trouble with Chili, six years ago, we had not already
possessed the nucleus of the new navy we should almost certainly
have been forced into fighting, and even as it was trouble was only
averted because of the resolute stand then taken by the President
and by the officers of the Navy who were on the spot. If at that time
the Chilians had been able to get ready the battle-ship which was
building for them, a war would almost certainly have followed, for we
had no battle-ship to put against it.
If in the future we have war, it will almost certainly come because
of some action, or lack of action, on our part in the way of refusing to
accept responsibilities at the proper time, or failing to prepare for war
when war does not threaten. An ignoble peace is even worse than
an unsuccessful war; but an unsuccessful war would leave behind it
a legacy of bitter memories which would hurt our national
development for a generation to come. It is true that no nation could
actually conquer us, owing to our isolated position; but we would be
seriously harmed, even materially, by disasters that stopped far short
of conquest; and in these matters, which are far more important than
things material, we could readily be damaged beyond repair. No
material loss can begin to compensate for the loss of national self-
respect. The damage to our commercial interests by the destruction
of one of our coast cities would be as nothing compared to the
humiliation which would be felt by every American worthy of the
name if we had to submit to such an injury without amply avenging it.
It has been finely said that “a gentleman is one who is willing to lay
down his life for little things”; that is for those things which seem little
to the man who cares only whether shares rise or fall in value, and to
the timid doctrinaire who preaches timid peace from his cloistered
study.
Much of that which is best and highest in national character is
made up of glorious memories and traditions. The fight well fought,
the life honorably lived, the death bravely met—those count for more
in building a high and fine type of temper in a nation than any
possible success in the stock market, than any possible prosperity in
commerce or manufactures. A rich banker may be a valuable and
useful citizen, but not a thousand rich bankers can leave to the
country such a heritage as Farragut left, when, lashed in the rigging
of the Hartford, he forged past the forts and over the unseen death
below, to try his wooden stem against the ironclad hull of the great
Confederate ram. The people of some given section of our country
may be better off because a shrewd and wealthy man has built up
therein a great manufacturing business, or has extended a line of
railroad past its doors; but the whole nation is better, the whole
nation is braver, because Cushing pushed his little torpedo-boat
through the darkness to sink beside the sinking Albemarle.
Every feat of heroism makes us forever indebted to the man who
performed it. All daring and courage, all iron endurance of
misfortune, all devotion to the ideal of honor and the glory of the flag,
make for a finer and nobler type of manhood. It is not only those who
do and dare and endure that are benefited; but also the countless
thousands who are not themselves called upon to face the peril, to
show the strength, or to win the reward. All of us lift our heads higher
because those of our countrymen whose trade it is to meet danger
have met it well and bravely. All of us are poorer for every base or
ignoble deed done by an American, for every instance of selfishness
or weakness or folly on the part of the people as a whole. We are all
worse off when any of us fails at any point in his duty toward the
State in time of peace, or his duty toward the State in time of war. If
ever we had to meet defeat at the hands of a foreign foe, or had to
submit tamely to wrong or insult, every man among us worthy of the
name of American would feel dishonored and debased. On the other
hand, the memory of every triumph won by Americans, by just so
much helps to make each American nobler and better. Every man
among us is more fit to meet the duties and responsibilities of
citizenship because of the perils over which, in the past, the nation
has triumphed; because of the blood and sweat and tears, the labor
and the anguish, through which, in the days that have gone, our
forefathers moved on to triumph. There are higher things in this life
than the soft and easy enjoyment of material comfort. It is through