Organelles and compartmentalisation

Organelles are the discrete subunits of a cell that are adapted to perform specific
functions

● The plasma membrane and ribosomes are universal organelles that are present in
every living cell
● Complex cells (eukaryotes) possess additional membrane-bound organelles that
provide further functionality

Types of Organelles
​ Nucleus
○ Double membrane structure that stores genetic material / DNA
○ A nucleolus is a dark region in a nucleus that makes ribosomes
​ Mitochondria
○ Responsible for ATP production (via aerobic cell respiration)
○ The inner membrane is highly folded to increase SA:Vol ratio
​ Endoplasmic Reticulum
○ A membranous network that transports materials via vesicles
○ Smooth ER synthesises lipids ; rough ER synthesises proteins
​ Golgi Complex
○ An assembly of folded membranes used for material secretion
○ Material is sorted, stored, modified and exported from the cell
​ Vesicles
○ Membrane sacs involved in transport and storage of material
○ Peroxisomes are involved in the digestion of toxic metabolites
○ Lysosomes are responsible for breaking down cellular wastes
○ Vacuoles are comparatively larger sacs that store excess fluid
​ Chloroplast (plants)
○ Structure responsible for photosynthesis (in plant cells only)
○ Uses the pigment chlorophyll to absorb and utilise sunlight
​ Centrosome (animals)
○ Microtubule-organising centre composed of paired centrioles
○ Contributes towards mitotic cell division (in animal cells only)

Exceptions
Certain cellular components are not considered to be organelles:

● Cell walls are not considered organelles as they are extracellular components
● Cytoskeletons and cytosol are categorised as structural elements as opposed to
distinctive organelles

One of the key distinguishing features of a eukaryotic cell is the presence of a nucleus
(prokaryotic cells do not have nuclei)
● The nucleus is a double membrane structure with pores that stores the genetic
material of the cell
The presence of a nucleus allows eukaryotes to separate the processes of transcription
(nucleus) and translation (cytoplasm)
● Transcription is the process by which specific DNA instructions (genes) are
converted into RNA transcripts (mRNA)
● Translation involves the synthesis of polypeptide chains (proteins) from the RNA
transcripts by ribosomes

Separating the processes of transcription and translation allows for the

post-transcriptional modification of mRNA before it is translated by ribosomes
● These modifications help to stabilise the mRNA transcript (via capping and
polyadenylation) and remove non-coding sequences (introns) via splicing
● This greatly improves the efficiency of protein synthesis and allows for tighter
control of gene expression than is possible in prokaryotic cells

Another defining feature of eukaryotic cells is the presence of membrane-bound

organelles in the cytoplasm (prokaryotic organelles are not membrane-bound)
● This enables the organelles to maintain an internal chemistry that is different to
the cytoplasm (and suitable to its specific function)
● It also allows for the concentration of key enzymes and metabolites needed to
optimise the function of the organelle

Lysosomes and phagocytic vacuoles provide evidence for the advantage of

compartmentalising the cytoplasm into discrete sections
● These organelles contain hydrolytic enzymes that are responsible for digesting
cellular debris or engulfed pathogenic materials
● If these enzymes were not contained within a specific compartment, they would
freely digest the contents of the cell (autophagy)

Adaptations :

1. Nucleus
The nucleus stores the genetic material of the cell as chromatin (DNA + histone proteins)
● The chromatin is contained within a gel-like solution called the nucleoplasm (as
opposed to the external cytoplasm)
● By housing the cell’s genetic material, the nucleus acts as a control centre
(regulates the expression of genetic instructions)

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which is
embedded with pores
● The nuclear envelope is a double membrane structure because it is part of the
endomembrane system (it is connected to the ER network)
● This means that proteins synthesised by the ER can access the nucleus without
requiring vesicular transportation
● The nuclear envelope also functions as a barrier to separate the processes of
transcription and translation (prokaryotes lack this separation)
 ● The presence of pores allows the cell to control the rate at which these
interlinked processes can occur (coordinates gene expression)

A double membrane is also beneficial to the process of mitosis and meiosis (nuclear
division in eukaryotic cells)
● During these processes, the nuclear envelope must be disassembled to allow the
chromosomes to be sorted and separated
● Because it is a double membrane structure, the envelope can break down into
vesicles – these can be reconstituted to reform the nuclear envelope at the end
of the division process

2. Ribosomes

The ribosome is the site of polypeptide synthesis (protein assembly) within the cell
● It is composed of protein (provides stability) and ribosomal RNA (responsible for
catalytic activity)
● Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger in size (80S) compared to prokaryotic ribosomes
(70S)

Ribosomes are comprised of two distinct subunits:

● The small subunit is responsible for binding to mRNA, while the large subunit
binds to tRNA
● When the two subunits form a complex, translation of an mRNA sequence can
occur

In eukaryotes, ribosomes can either be located freely within the cytosol or embedded
within the rough endoplasmic reticulum
● Free ribosomes synthesise proteins for use within the cytosol (i.e. intracellular
proteins)
● Ribosomes embedded within the rough ER synthesise proteins that will be
packaged into vesicles and transported to other organelles
● If the vesicles are transported to the Golgi apparatus, then the proteins will be
secreted from the cell for extracellular use
3. Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the ‘powerplants’ of the cell – synthesising large amounts of ATP via
aerobic respiration
● All eukaryotic cells possess mitochondria – certain prokaryotes use the cell
membrane to respire aerobically

Mitochondria are thought to have once been independent prokaryotes that were
internalised via endosymbiosis
● They have a double membrane structure (due to vesicular coating as part of the
endocytotic process)
 ● They have their own DNA (circular and naked) and ribosomes (70S)
● Their metabolic processes are susceptible to certain antibiotics

The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs:

● Outer membrane – the outer membrane contains transport proteins that enable
the shuttling of key materials from the cytosol
● Inner membrane – contains the electron transport chain and ATP synthase (used
for oxidative phosphorylation)
● Cristae – the inner membrane is arranged into folds (cristae) that increase the
SA:Vol ratio (more available surface area)
● Intermembrane space – small space between membranes maximises hydrogen
gradient upon proton accumulation
● Matrix – central cavity that contains appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for
the Krebs cycle to occur

4. Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the ’solar energy plants’ of a cell – they convert light energy into
chemical energy
● This chemical energy may be either ATP (light dependent) or organic compounds
(light independent)
● Only photosynthetic tissue possess chloroplasts (it is present in the leaves of
plants but not the roots)

Chloroplast are thought to have once been independent prokaryotes that were
internalised via endosymbiosis
● They have a double membrane structure (due to vesicular coating as part of the
endocytotic process)
● They have their own DNA (circular and naked) and ribosomes (70S)
● Their metabolic processes are susceptible to certain antibiotics

The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to the function it performs:

● Thylakoids – flattened discs that have a small internal volume to maximise
hydrogen gradient upon proton accumulation
● Grana – thylakoids are arranged into stacks to increase SA:Vol ratio of the
thylakoid membrane
● Photosystems – pigments organised into photosystems in thylakoid membrane to
maximise light absorption
● Stroma – central cavity that contains appropriate enzymes and a suitable pH for
the Calvin cycle to occur
● Lamellae – connects and separates thylakoid stacks (grana), maximising
photosynthetic efficiency
 5. Golgi apparatus

he Golgi apparatus (also known as Golgi complex or Golgi body) is responsible for
sorting, storing, modifying and exporting cellular material
● It is composed of a series of flattened sacs (called cisternae) that are located
between the ER (cis facing) and the plasma membrane (trans facing)
● Proteins (from rough ER) and lipids (from smooth ER) arrive in vesicles at the Golgi
body and are modified into functional molecules
● The different sacs are responsible for specific chemical modifications based on
the enzymes involved (e.g. phosphorylation, glycosylation, etc.)
● Secretory proteins, glycoproteins, cell membrane proteins, lysosomal proteins,
and some glycolipids all pass through the Golgi apparatus
● In plant cells, much of the cell wall material passes through the Golgi apparatus
as well

Materials destined for secretion are packaged into vesicles at the Golgi body for
extracellular release (exocytosis)
● These materials can be either released immediately (constitutive secretion) or
stored in secretory vesicles for a sustained release (regulatory secretion)
● Regulatory secretion is triggered by an external chemical signal (ligand) binding
to a specific receptor
6. Vesicle

Vesicles are membrane-wrapped containers involved in shuttling materials between

cellular compartments
● Most molecules are too large to pass directly through membranes and so are
packaged into vesicles that can fuse with a membrane to deliver the material

Clathrin
Some vesicles form with the help of a coat protein called clathrin
● Clathrin is a triskelion-shaped molecule that is recruited to a membrane by
adaptor proteins (adaptin)
● The clathrin proteins then link together to form a rounded lattice that pulls the
membrane into a bud
● This bud is then cleaved by another protein (dynamin) to form a vesicle, at which
point the clathrin architecture disassociates

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
While clathrin helps to shape the vesicle, not all vesicles will be formed via the clathrin
coating mechanism
● As clathrin requires recruitment to the membrane, it is commonly used for
receptor-mediated endocytosis
● In this process, a specific ligand binds to a receptor, which then recruits clathrin
(via an adaptor protein)
 ● The advantage of receptor-mediated endocytosis is that only the specific ligand
will be internalised, allowing greater regulatory control over what materials enter
a cell

Regular adaptations

- Cells specialized for material exchange have adaptations to increase surface area.

- Squamous cells have a higher surface area to volume ratio compared to larger or
cuboidal cells.

- Tissues lining absorption surfaces have ruffled projections (villi) and membranous
extensions (microvilli).

- Examples of specialized cells for material transport include red blood cells, tubule
cells, and pneumocytes.

- Type I pneumocytes facilitate gas exchange and have a squamous shape with
occluding junctions.

- Type II pneumocytes secrete surfactant and are cuboidal with lamellar bodies.

- Skeletal muscles have long, cylindrical fibers formed from cell fusion.

- Cardiac muscle cells are short, narrow, and mononucleated with gap junctions.

- Sperm are small, motile, and contribute the male's haploid nucleus to the zygote.

- The egg is large, non-motile, and contributes organelles and cytoplasm to the zygote.

- Sperm contain a head with a nucleus, acrosome, and centrioles, a mid-piece with
mitochondria, and a tail.

- The egg has a zona pellucida, corona radiata, and cortical granules.

- The egg is arrested in metaphase II until fertilization occurs.