ENGR. JOHN DENNICE C.

GANOTISI, MSME
Pure Substance (Water)

• A pure substance is a substance that is homogeneous in composition and homogenous

and invariable in chemical aggregation (Faires,1978)

• A substance is said to be pure substance if its chemical composition does not change even in solid,
liquid, or gaseous phase. An example is water that has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen as it is in solid, liquid or gaseous state.

• State of pure substance or system refers to its condition as quantified or identified

through the thermodynamic properties of the substance.

• Phase is a quantity of substance that is homogenous throughout in

both chemical composition and physical structures.
Three Phases of Matter or Pure Substance
1. Solid phase
2. Liquid phase
3. Gas or vapor phase

Specific Terms To Characterized Phase Transition

• Solidifying or Freezing - Liquid to Solid
• Melting or Fusion - Solid to Liquid
• Vaporization - Liquid to Vapor
• Condensation - Vapor to Liquid
• Sublimation - a change from solid directly to vapor phase
without passing the liquid phase.
Change of Phase at Constant Pressure
• Change of phase at constant pressure means that a pure substance changes its phase from
solid to gaseous phase without changing the applied or existing pressure.
• A typical example of change of phase at constant pressure is water that changes its phases
from solid to vapor at an existing pressure. For example at standard atmospheric pressure
101.325 kPa. As illustrated in figure 2, consider 1 kg of water.

Figure 2; Change of Phase of 1 kg of water at 101.325 kPa

Explanation for the Change of Phase in figure 2:
• At state a, water is called subcooled liquid and the temperature is called subcooled
liquid temperature. Water is heated but still evaporation is not taking place. As the heat
is continually added, process a to b is performed with the increase in temperature from
30 °C to 100 °C. This process is heating process.
• At state b, water is called saturated liquid and at this point evaporation or boiling
process is about to start at 100 °C. As the heat is continually added, process b to c is
performed without changing the temperature.
• At state c, water is a mixture of liquid and vapor and is called as wet vapor or wet
stream. At this point the temperature remains the same 100 °C. The proportion of the
liquid and vapor components depends on time being considered from b to c. The
amount of vapor content maybe determined if the quality of vapor steam is given. With
the continual addition of heat, evaporation process is performed from state c to d with
the same temperature at 100 °C.
• At state d, boiling or evaporation process ends with the temperature still at 100 °C. At this point, all
liquid are converted into vapor or steam and is called saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated
vapor/steam. As the heat is continually added, process d to e is performed with an increase of
temperature from 100 °C to let say 150 °C.
➢ Temperature for process b to c is called boiling temperature or boiling point and
technically termed in thermodynamics as saturation temperature and the existing
pressure is also called saturation pressure.
• A state e, the condition of water is called superheated vapor/steam and the temperature is
superheated vapor temperature at, 150 °C. The temperature at this point is higher than the
saturation temperature. Any point above point d at a given temperature higher than the saturation
temperature and following the same existing pressure is called superheated vapor or steam.
➢ The difference of superheated temperature and the saturation temperature or boiling
temperature is called degrees of superheat ( °SH ).
➢ The difference of saturation temperature and the subcooled liquid temperature is called
degrees subcooled ( °SC ).
❖ NOTE:
• If the existing pressure is increased, melting and boiling temperature are also increased. With
further increase of an existing pressure, a critical point is attained, a point in which saturated liquid and
saturated vapor conditions coexist in equilibrium.
• If the existing pressure is decreased, melting and boiling temperatures are also decreased. With
the further decrease of an existing pressure, a triple point will be attained, a point in which melting and
boiling temperatures are the same. At an existing pressure lower than the triple point, sublimation will
take place.

Other Definitions:
• Existing pressure or applied pressure refers to the pressure of the system in which change of
phase at constant pressure is considered.
• Solid water is a condition of water in which the temperature is below to the freezing temperature
corresponding to an existing pressure.
• Saturation temperature is the temperature at which liquids start to boil or the temperature at
which vapors begin to condense. The saturation temperature of a given substance depends upon its
existing pressure. It is directly proportional to the pressure.
• Saturation Pressure is a pressure at which a given liquid and its vapor can coexist in equilibrium
at a given temperature.
 • Subcooled liquid is a liquid condition in which the given temperature is higher than the melting
temperature and lower than the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing
pressure.
• Compressed liquid is a liquid condition in which the pressure is higher than the saturation
pressure corresponding to the given temperature.
• Saturated liquid is a liquid condition in which boiling or evaporation is about to begin and the
temperature is equal to the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
• Wet vapor or wet steam is the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor with the
temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
• Saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated vapor/steam is vapor condition in which
evaporation ends and condensation is about to begin with the temperature equal to the saturation
temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
• Superheated vapor or steam is a vapor in which the temperature is higher than the saturation
temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
 • Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change the phase from solid to liquid or vice
versa.
• Latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation is the amount of heat required to convert saturated liquid
to saturated vapor, it is the amount of heat required to change saturated liquid to saturated vapor at
constant temperature without changing the pressure.
• Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature without changing the
pressure.
• Critical point is a point in which liquid and vapor coexist in equilibrium.
• Critical pressure is the existing pressure at the critical point. Critical temperature is the
temperature at the critical point corresponding to an existing critical pressure.
• For water, critical pressure, pc = 22.09 MPaa and critical temperature,
tc = 374.14 °C.
• Triple point is a point in which the melting and boiling or saturation temperature are the same
corresponding to the existing pressure.
• For water, at triple point; p = 0.6113 kPaa and t = 0.01 °C
 • Sublimation is the process in which solid will directly change from solid to vapor at a
temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
• For water, sublimation process will occur at p = 0.260 kPaa and t = - 10 °C
• Super critical condition is a condition above the critical point (p > 22.09 kPaa for water). This
is a condition where there is no liquid or vapor phase of pure substance existing in equilibrium.
• The thermodynamic properties considered in the study of pure substance are
• Pressure, MPaa, psia
• Temperature, °C, °F
• Specific Volume, m 3/kg, ft3/lb
• Internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
• Enthalpy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb
• Entropy, kJ/kg-K, Btu/lb-R
Diagrams
• Diagrams hereto are graphical representation of the relation of thermodynamic
properties for the change of phase at constant pressure such as pV, Tv, Ts, pT, and ph diagrams
 Figure 2.2; Tv Diagram
From Figure 2.1 and 2.2;
Point sc is subcooled liquid condition
Point f is saturated liquid condition
Point x is wet vapor condition
Point g is saturated vapor condition
Point sh is superheated vapor condition
Point cp is critical point condition
°SH = tsh – tsat
°SC = tsat – ts
From Figure 2.3;
• tmp = melting point temperature
• ttp = triple point temperature
• tsb = sublimation temperature
• ptp = triple point pressure
• psb = sublimation pressure
• pc = critical point pressure
• tc = triple point temperature
• p = existing pressure
Figure 2.4; hs Diagram
From Figure 2.4 and 2.5:
• f stands for saturated liquid
• g stands for saturated vapor
• fg stands for evaporation or process from f to g
• Evaporation (fg) is the process of boiling liquid to vapor phase
• Condensation (gf) is the process of opposite direction, from vapor to
liquid
• Saturated liquid curve is the locus of all states of saturated liquid
• Saturated vapor curve is the locus of all states of saturated vapor
• Triple point is the state in which three phases may all be present in
equilibrium
• Enthalpy of sublimation, hig, is the heat of sublimation or the amount
of heat required to sublimate.
Quality of Vapor/Steam
Quality of vapor/steam or dryness factor is the ratio of the mass of vapor content in the mixture to that
of the mass of the mixture of vapor and liquid.
x = (mg /mf + mg) x 100%

where: mf = mass of saturated liquid content, kg, lb

mg = mass of saturated vapor content, kg, lb
x = quality of vapor or steam, or dryness factor, %
y = moisture content, %

Figure 2.6; Quality of Vapor

Moisture Content
Moisture content is the amount of saturated liquid in the mixture of saturated vapor and saturated
liquid; it is the ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to that of the mass of the mixture of saturated
liquid and saturated vapor.
y = (mf / mf + mg ) x 100%
x + y = 100%
• Metamorphosis of Steam
Where:
SC – subcooled liquid
CL – compressed liquid
f – saturated liquid
fg – wet vapor mixture
g – saturated vapor
SV – superheated vapor
➢Saturated Liquid – 100% pure liquid
➢Saturated Vapor or Stream – 100% pure vapor or
stream
➢Wet-Vapor Mixture – the combination of liquid and
vapor or stream.
x – is the quality or dryness or steam
content.
– the ratio of the mass of the stream to the
total mass of the mixture.
y – is the mixture content or wetness of the
mixture.
– the ratio of the mass of the liquid to the
mass of the mixture.

❖ Note:
x + y = 1; or ; x = mV/mm
x + y = 100% ; y = mL/mm
 ❖ Note:
x + y = 1; or ; x = mV/mm
x + y = 100% ; y = mL/mm
Where:
x = 1 = 100% saturated stream ; y = 0
y = 1= 100% saturated liquid ; x = 0
C – Critical point
– it is the point where the amount of liquid is the
indistinguishable from the amount of vapor.
Psat – the saturation pressure
Psat – it is the pressure where water starts to boil at a
given temperature.
tsat – the saturation temperature
tsat – it is the temperature where water starts to boil
at a given pressure.
❑ The Properties of Steam or Vapor or H20:

Table 1: Saturation Temperature (pp. 2-7)

Table 2: Saturation Pressure (pp. 8-13)
Table 3: Superheated Vapor (pp. 14-103)
Table 4: Subcooled or Compressed Liquid (pp. 104-107)
• Checking Conditions of Water
Given: t = 80°C = tact ; P = 100 KPa = Pact

°SC = degree SubCooled

°SC = tact – tsat

❖ If Pact > Psat at a given temperature,

then it is Compressed Liquid
Given: t = 120°C = tact ; P = 100 KPa = Pact

°SH = degree SuperHeated

°SH = tact – tsat
°SH = °C - °C = °C ; K

❖ If tact < tsat at a given pressure,

then it is Subcooled Liquid.
Given: P = 100 Kpa = Pact ; t = 80°C = tact

❖ If Psat > Pact at a given temperature,

then it is SuperHeated Vapor.
Given: P = 100 Kpa = Pact ; t = 120°C = tact
• Properties of Wet-Vapor Mixture
Where:
❑ In terms of internal energy (U):

❑ In terms of enthalpy (h):

❑ In terms of specific volume ( ):

❖ Note: Properties of Wet-Vapor Mixture in terms of S,

h, U and can be seen at Steam Table.
 LINEAR INTERPOLATION
Property tables such as steam tables are tabulated at discrete values of the specific
properties. When referring to the tables to find the specific properties, very often the
property which we are interested in lies between the tabulated values. In such cases,
interpolation is required to obtain the correct value. The easiest method is to use
Linear Interpolation (Note: Interpolation is approximation)

Problem1 : Find values of P, h and v at

(a) T = 210
(b) T = 225
SOLUTION: (Part a)
For this, we are required to find the values at T = 210 which lies in between 200 (Smaller Value (T1)) and
220 (Higher Value, (T2))
Before we begin, lets use the following convention while finding the interpolated value:

Smaller value - The First value in the table (200 for part (a) for T)
Higher value - The second value in the table (220 for part (a) for T)
Given Value - The value at which properties are to be found (210 for part (a) for T))
Given Property - Property that is known (T for this problem)
Required Property - Properties to be found (P, h and v for this problem)

Adopt the following procedure:

1. Find the difference (T2 - T1) for the Given Property (Temperature) i.e. (Higher - Smaller)

2. Find the difference (T3 - T1) for Given property (Temperature) i.e. (Given Value - Smaller)

3. Find the difference (P2 - P1) for the Required Property (Pressure) i.e. (Higher - Smaller)
Then put the above values in the following equation

In other words,

For part (b) for P,

T1 = 220, T2 = 240, T3 = 225
P1 = 140, P2 = 190
▪ Example 02:
Recommend the diameter of spherical container for 20 lbm of wet-vapor mixture of moisture
content which is 80% of the quality at 8.675 kPa. Also, compute the temperature of the mixture.
Solution:
For the diameter: at: P = Patm + Pg
P = 101.325 kPa + 8.675 kPa
P = 110 kPa

Where: =V .
or Thus:
m ‘
V=m = 0.0010453 +
Where: y = 80% x For m: m = mm = 20 lbm 0.56[1.549-0.0010453]
y = 0.8 x = 0.868179 m /Kgm

And: x+y=1 Or: = 0.0010453 + 0.56(1.548547)

x + 0.8 x = 1 = 0.868179 m /Kgm
x = 0.56 = 56%
y = 0.44 = 44% ❖ Note: For wet-vapor mixture, moisture content is liquid(y) and quality is vapor(x).
 For the temperature of the mixture:
For V:
m3 1 Kgm
V = (20 lbm) 0.868179
Kgm 2.205 lbm

Finally: 3
D=
3 (6)(7.87 m )

D = 2.47 m

From Steam Table (T 2; p. 9)

tsat @ P = 110 kPa
tsat = tact = t = 102.31°C
▪ Example 04:
Find h, , S and U at 2.0 MPa and 250°C

Solution: Since: tact > tsat

P = Pact = 2.0 MPa 250°C > 212.42°C
t = tact = 250°C ∴ Superheated vapor

From table 3:
At P = 2.0 MPa and t = 250°C (p. 46)

Using Steam Table:

h = 2902.5 KJ/Kg
= 0.11144 m3/Kg
U = 2679.6 KJ/Kgm
S = 6. 5453 KJ/Kg · k
▪ Example 05:
Find h, , S and U at 5 MPa and 200°C.
Solution: Since: tact > tsat
t = tact = 200°C 200°C > 263.99°C
P = Pact = 5 MPa ∴ Subcooled Liquid
Checking Condition:
From table 4:
At P = 5 MPa and t = 200°C

Using Steam Table:

h = 853.9 KJ/Kg
= 0.0011530 m3/Kg
S = 2.3255 KJ/Kgm · k
U = 848.1 KJ/Kg

❖ Note: In determining values of h, , S and U at a given P and

t, both Psat and tsat can be used as reference.
• Mollier Chart
▪ Assignment:
Find , h, Psat, U, h, S at 80°C AND 98% quality
of wet-vapor mixture using:
A. Mollier chart h-s diagram and t-s chart/diagram.
B. Using formula or steam tables.