UNIT – III / FERROUS AND NON- FERROUS METALS.

3.1 PURPOSE OF ALLOYING:

 To increase hardenability.
 To increase strength at temperature.
 To improve high temperature properties.
 To increase resistance to corrosion.
 To increase wear resistance.
 To improve toughness at any minimum hardness.
 To improve electrical and magnetic properties.
3.2 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS:
It enhances,
 Solid solution formation.
 Carbide formation.
 Shifting of critical temperature.
 Lowering of critical cooling rate.
 Effect on grain growth.
 Corrosion resistance.
3.3 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON STEELS:
(State the effects of the following alloying elements in steel)
Silicon (Si):
 It is a ferrite solid solution.
 It reduces losses.
 It increases toughness.
 It increases strength and hardness.
Manganese (Mn):
 It improves Machinability.
 It improves strength and toughness.
 It dissolves in Ferrite.
Nickel (Ni):
 It is a ferrite solid solution.
 It increases tensile strength and hardness.
 It increases corrosion resistance.
 It reduces co- efficient of thermal expansion.
Chromium (Cr):
 It increases hardenability.
 It increases wear resistance.
 It increases corrosion resistance.
Titanium (Ti)
 It is strong carbide former.
 It increases hardenability.

Molybdenum (Mo):
It increases hardenability.
It makes grain finer.
It forms carbides.
It increases wear resistance.
Grain growth.
Tungsten (W):
It increases hardenability.
It forms carbides.
It increases wear resistance.
 Improves hot hardness.
Vanadium (V):
It has fine grain structure.
It increases hardenability.
Forms stable carbides.
3.4  AND STABILIZERS:
(What are alpha stabilizers and Beta stabilizers?)
Some alloying elements, called alpha stabilizers, raise the alpha-to-beta transition
temperature. Aluminium, gallium, germanium, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are alpha
stabilizers. Beta stabilizers lower the transition temperature. Fe, V, Cr, Si, Mo, Nb, Re, Ta
are beta stabilizers.
alpha-stabilizing alloying elements extend the hexagonal alpha phase field to elevated
temperatures, while beta-stabilizing elements shift the beta phase field to lower
temperatures.

3.5 STEEL:
Steels are alloy of iron and carbon however steel contains other element like, Ni, Silicon,
Manganese, sulphur, phosphorous, Nickel.
Classification of Steel:
1. Plain Carbon Steel (Fe + C)
2. Alloy Steel (Fe + other alloying elements)
Classification of Plain Carbon Steel:
i. Low Carbon steel - less than 0.2% Carbon
ii. Medium carbon Steel - 0.25% to 0.6% Carbon
iii. High Carbon Steel – more than 0.6 % Carbon

Classification of Alloy Steel:

i. Low Alloy Steel - contain up to 3 to 4% of alloying element
Types of low alloy steel:
1. AISI Steel (American iron and steel institute).
2. HSLA Steel (High strength low alloy).

ii. High Alloy Steel - contain more than 5% of alloying element.

Types of high alloy steel:
1. Stainless steel.
2. Tool of high alloy steel.
(Explain the classification of stainless steel.)
3.6 STAINLESS STEELS (SS):
1. Stainless steels are most notable for their corrosion resistance, which increases
with increasing chromium content.
2. Additions of molybdenum increase corrosion resistance in reducing acids and
against pitting attack in chloride solutions.
3. There are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and
molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure.
4. Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and
familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications where both the
strength of steel and corrosion resistance are required.
 5. It is the composition of iron, carbon, and chromium and it contain minimum
12% Chromium.
6. Mo, Ni are added as alloying elements.
Types of stainless steel:
1. Austenitic stainless steel.
2. Ferritic stainless steel.
3. Martensitic stainless steel.

1) Austenitic Stainless steel:

 Austenitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy.
 These stainless steels possess austenite as their primary crystalline structure (face
centered cubic).
 This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite
stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen.
 Due to their crystalline structure austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment
and are essentially non-magnetic.
Composition:
 C  0.03 to 0.15 %,
 Mn to 10%,
 Si  1 to 2 %,
 Cr  16to 26%,
 Ni  3.5 to 22%
Properties:
 High corrosion resistance.
 Non Magnetic.
 Good ductility.
 High strength.
Applications:
 Air craft industry.
 Chemical processing.
 Food processing unit.
 Dairy industry.
 Transportation industry.
ii) Ferritic Stainless steel:

 Ferritic steels are high chromium, magnetic stainless & have low carbon content.
Composition:
 C 0.08 to 0.1%,
 Si  1%
 Mn  1 to 1.5%,
 Cr  12 to 25%
Properties:
 They are magnetic.
 Good ductility.
 High strength.
 Soft
 Corrosion resistant.
 High toughness.
 This steels can be welded, forged, rolled and machined.
Applications:
 Petroleum industry.
 Heating element for furnace.
 Chemical industry.
 Combustion chamber.
iii) Martensitic stainless steel:
 Martensitic stainless steel is a type of steel having a magnetic, corrosion resistant and
hardenable crystalline structure after heat treating.
 It is composed of chromium deposits with no nickel fractions.
Composition:

 C 0.1 to 1.5%,
 Si 1%,
 Mn 1%,
 Cr12 to 25%
Properties:
 High hardness.
 High strength.
 Good ductility and thermal conductivity.
 Good toughness.
 Corrosion resistance.
 High magnetic.
Applications:
Valves, pumps, surgical instruments, turbine blades.

3.7 TOOL STEEL:
(Write an explanatory note on tool steels.)
 This used as material for mechanical working tools.
 Tool steels are metals used to make tools and dies for cutting, forming and bending
operations.
Properties:
 Hardness.
 Toughness.
 Wear resistance.
 Red hardness.
 Depth of hardening.
 Machinability.
 Non – deforming.

Types of tool steel:
1. Cold work tool steel
2. Hot work tool steel
3. High speed tool steel
4. Special purpose tool steel

1. Cold work tool steel

 Cold work tool steels are high carbon steels containing smaller
amounts of manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, and chromium.
 They have good dimensional stability and hardenability.
 Types of cold work tool steel
a) Water hardening steels:
C 0.6 to 1.10 %, balance is iron.
b) Oil hardening steels:
C 0.9 to 1.45 %, (W + Mn+ Cr + Mo + V)
c) Air Hardening steels:
C 0.6 to 1.4%,
5 -10% - alloying elements like W + Mn +Cr +Mo + V)
d) High carbon High Chromium steels:
C1.5%,
Cr 12%, balance is iron.

2. Hot work Tool steels:

 capable of withstanding high abrasion, heat and pressure conditions for
performing processes such as forming, shearing and punching of metals at
high temperatures of 480 to 760°C.
 These steels have wear resistance up to 540°C.
 They are utilized in processes such as pressure die casting, extrusion and
drop forging as well as in tube and glass manufacturing.
Types of Hot Work Tool steel:
a) Chromium type (Cr):
C 0.35 to 0.55%,
Cr 3 to 7%,
(W + Mo +V) < 5%.
b) Tungsten type: (W)
C  0.3 to 0.5%,
Cr  2 to 12% ,
W  9 to 18%.
c) Molybdenum type (Mo):
C 0.55 to 0.065%,
(Mo + Cr + V + W)  14 to 20%.

3. High speed tool steels:

 High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is commonly used as cutting tool material.
 It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits.

 High speed tool steels are capable of maintaining hardness at elevated

temperatures better than high carbon and low alloy steels.
Types of HSS
a. Tungsten type – T-grade
b. Molybdenum type – M-grade
 4. Special purpose tool steels:

a. Shock resisting type:

 Shock resisting tool steels designed to resist breakage by shock.

 The high shock resistance and good hardenability are provided
by chromium-tungsten, silicon-molybdenum, silicon-manganese
alloying.
 C < 0.5%, (Mn, Cr, W, Mo, V, Si).

b. Low alloy type:

 The low alloy steels include alloys with small additions of chrome and
nickel up to the 11/13Cr steels with 4% nickel.
 The addition of these elements improves the high temperature
performance and imparts some corrosion resistance.

c. Mould steel - The mould is the main processing tool for the industry of
machinery manufacturing, motor, radiometers and etc

 The main alloying elements in the mould steels are chromium and
nickel.
 Mould steel is a material that is used to manufacture the molds,
including cold-punching mould, hot forging die, die-casting mold etc.

Applications:
 Taps, drills, reamer, die working, tool, milling cutter, tools, gauges, punches,
bearings, dies, blades, Hammers.
(Write short notes on HSLA)
3.8 HSLA STEEL: (HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEEL)
 HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific
chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties.
 High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better
mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
 HSLA steels are not hardened by heat treatments.
 0.2 % of Cu is added to improve corrosion resistance.
Composition:
C 0.2 %, Mn 1.25%, Si  0.3 %, Cr  0.01%, V  0.01 %

Properties:
 Good yield strength.
 Good corrosion resistance.
 High machinability.
 High formability and ductility.
Applications:
 Bridges, towers support, columns in high – rise, buildings and pressure vessels.

3.8 MARAGING STEEL:

 Maraging steel is a steel alloy, containing up to 25 % nickel and other metals, and
are strengthened by a process of slow cooling and age hardening.
Composition:
Ni  18%, Co 7%, Ti 0.2%, C0.05%, Al  0.1 %.
Properties:
 High tensile strength.
 High toughness.
 High impact hardness.
 Very suitable for surface hardening by nitriding.
Applications:
 Flexible dry shaft for helicopters.
 Barrels for rapid firing guns.
 Die casting dies.
 Extrusion rams.
 Pressure Vessels.
3.9. CAST IRON: ( Full notes in given in Unit 1)

3.10 Copper and its alloys:

(i) Copper:
 It is one of the most widely used non – ferrous metals in industries.
 Copper alloys cannot be hardened by heat treatment procedures.
 It may be cast, forged, rolled and drawn into wires.
Properties:
 High electrical conductivity.
 High thermal conductivity.
 Good corrosion resistance.
 It is very soft, ductile and malleable.
 It can be worked both in hot and cold conditions.
 It is light in weight.
 Very good machinability.
 Non – magnetic properties.
Applications:
 It is used to make electrical parts like wire, switches etc.
 Heat Exchanger tubes.
 It is used to make various copper alloys like brass and bronze.
 It is used to make screw machine products.
(Write notes on copper alloys.)
3.11 COPPER ALLOYS:
They are classified as:
1. Brasses (Copper – Zinc alloy)
2. Bronzes (Copper – tin alloy)
3. Copper – nickel Alloys (Cupronickel)
4. Gun metal (Copper – tin – Zinc alloy)

1. BRASSES (COPPER – ZINC ALLOY) (Pithalai)

 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc sometimes small amount of other metals such as
tin, lead, Aluminium and nickel are added.
 Brass having less than 36% zinc exists as single phase solid solution called as α brass.
 Brass having 55-65 % zinc exists in two phases α and β.
Properties:

 It is stronger than copper.

 Low thermal conductivity.
 High tensile strength.
 Good surface finish.
 Non – magnetic.
 Poor conductor of electricity.
 Soft and ductile.
Application:
 Decorative work, making coins, medals, screws, Bullets, plumbing fittings. 

Brasses are classified based on the structure as
1. α - Brasses.
 Less than 35% zinc,
 malleable, can be worked cold, used in pressing, forging, or similar applications.
 Alpha brasses have only one phase, with face-centered cubic crystal structure.
3. α – β Brasses.
 35-45% zinc, suited for hot working.
 It contains both α and β' phase; the β'-phase is body-centered cubic and is harder
and stronger than α.
 Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.

2. BRONZES (COPPER – TIN ALLOY) :(Vengalam)

 Bronze is an alloy of copper and Tin. Bronze contains silicon, aluminium and nickel.
Composition:
Copper  90%, Tin  9 to 10%, Phosphorus  0.1 to 0.3%.
Properties:
 High strength alloy.
 Good corrosion resistance.
 High elasticity.
 Hard and brittle.
 Good cold working properties.
 Low coefficient of friction.
 High toughness.
Applications:
 Making bells, Boiler parts, Marine components, Die cast parts, pump
components, propeller, air pump, gears etc.

Types of Bronze:
1. Phosphor bronze.
2. Silicon bronze.
3. Beryllium bronze.
4. Manganese bronze.

1. Phosphor bronze

 Copper - 87% to 90%, Tin - 9% to 10%, Phosphorus - 0.1% to 0.3%.

 addition of phosphorus increases the bronze’s wear resistance and stiffness.
 It is tough and durable, with a low coefficient of friction, and a fine grain.
 used to make anti-corrosive equipment, electrical components, washers, springs,
bellows, and musical instruments.
2. Silicon bronze:
 Copper - 96%, Silicon - 3%, Manganese (or) zinc - 1%
 high-strength alloy, with an easy pouring ability, high corrosion resistance,
and appealing surface finish.
 It is most commonly used for pump and valve parts.
3. Beryllium bronze:
 Copper - 97.75%, Beryllium - 2.25%
 also known as Beryllium copper, copper beryllium, beryllium bronze and
spring copper
 It has high strength with non-magnetic and non-sparking qualities.
 It has excellent metalworking, forming and machining properties.
4. Manganese Bronze:

 Copper - 60%, Zinc - 35%, Manganese - 5%.

 It is shock-resistant and deforms instead of breaking.
 It is highly resistant to saltwater corrosion and is therefore used in boat
propellers.
 Manganese bronze is also used for valve and pump parts, gears, nuts, and
bolts.

3. COPPER – NICKEL ALLOYS (OR) CUPRO NICKEL:

 It is an alloy of copper and Nickel.
 They have better corrosion resistant than any other copper alloys.
 They can be worked hot or cold work.
Properties:
 Good Mechanical properties.

 High corrosion resistant.
Application:
 Salt water pipe, condenser tubing, for making propeller, Motor boat propeller shaft,
chemical and food handling parts.
 5. GUN METAL:
(What is Gun metal? Give its composition and applications.)
 Gun metal is a grey corrosion-resistant form of bronze containing zinc.
 It is an alloy of copper, tin and Zinc.
Composition:
 Cu – 88%, Zn – 2%, Tin – 10%
Properties:
 High corrosion resistant.
 Good casting properties.
 High strength.
 Good machinability.
Applications:
 Bearing bushes, Boiler fitting, Steam pipe fitting, Marine castings, Hydraulic
valves, gears etc.
3.12 Aluminium and its alloys
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and is obtained mainly from
bauxite. Its resistance to corrosion, lightness, and strength have led to widespread use in
domestic utensils, engineering parts, and aircraft construction It is a silver white metal.
Aluminium alloy elements are Si, Mg, cu, Ni, Zn, Mn, Fe and Ti.

Properties:
 Light weight.

 High thermal conductivity.

 Good corrosion resistance.

 Soft and ductile.

 Low specific gravity.

 Good tensile strength.

 Non – magnetic.

 Good formability.

 It is brittle.

Application:
 Making Aero plane parts, house hold items, electric wires, furniture, surgical
instruments.

 Chemical plants, food processing equipment.

AL – CU ALLOYS (ALUMINIUM – COPPER ALLOYS):

1.Wrought alloy (Duralumin).
2. Y- alloy (cast alloy).

1. Wrought alloy (Duralumin):

 Duralumin is a hard, light alloy of aluminium with copper and other elements.
Composition:
  Copper (Cu)  3.5 to 4.5 %, Manganese (Mg)  0.4 to 0.7%, Magnesium (Mn) 
0.4 to 0.7%, Remaining  Aluminium 94.5%.
Properties:
 Good strength after age hardening.
 Good mechanical properties.
 Good corrosion resistance.
 High shock resisting.
Applications:
 Aircraft industry, automobile industry, surgical instruments.

2. Y– alloy (Cast alloy):
 Y alloy is a nickel-containing aluminium alloy.

Composition:
 Al  92.5%, Cu  4%, Ni  2%, Mg  1.5%.

Properties:
 High strength.

 Low thermal expansion.

 High corrosion resistance.

 It can be easily cast and rolled.

Application:

 Pistons, cylinder heads of I.C engines, gearbox, blade etc.

3.13. AGE HARDENING (OR)PRECIPITATION HARDENING:

(With part of phase diagram and relevant sketches, explain the precipitation
hardening treatment of Al-Cu alloys. [M/J’16])
The strength and hardness of non-ferrous alloys may be increased by the formation of
precipitates within the original solid solution. They are refined and distributed uniformly
throughout the matrix by heat treatment. This process is called as Age hardening.
Examples of alloys that are age hardened are Aluminium – Copper, Copper – Beryllium,
Copper – tin and Magnesium – Aluminium.
There are three stages:

1. Solution heat treatment

2. Quenching
3. Aging
 Precipitation hardening

(1.) Solution heat treatment:

The alloy is heated above the solvus line at around 500 oC. It is soaked at this
temperature to sufficient time such that the α phase dissolves to form homogenous α solid
solution.
(2.) Quenching:

The heated alloy is rapidly cooled in water around room temperature. The micro
structure obtained is super–saturated (αss). αss contains excess Cu in the Al – base matrix
and hence is not a stable phase.
(3.) Aging:

The unstable super – saturated solid solution (αss) is heated below the solvus
temperature. After sufficient time period at aging temperature, following structural change
occurs:

Unstable Super saturated (αss)  stable saturated(α) + CuAl2 Age hardenings(θ)

3.14 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS (Mg – Alloys):

 Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals.

 Magnesium alloys are well-known for being the lightest structural alloys.
 They are made of magnesium, the lightest structural metal, mixed with other metal
elements to improve the physical properties.
 These elements include manganese, aluminium, Zinc, Silicon, Copper, Zirconium,
and rare-earth metals.
Properties:
 High corrosion resistance.
 Good Machinability.
 Poor castability.
 Better finish.
Applications
 automotive, aerospace, industrial, electronic, biomedical, and commercial
applications.
Types of magnesium alloys
1. Cast alloys of magnesium
 Alloy elements –not exceeding 10% of aluminium, manganese and zinc,
zirconium (creep resistance) and rare-earth metals.
 Can be heat treated.
2. Wrought alloys
• Used for mechanical working, such as forging, extrusion, and rolling
operations, to reach the desired shape.
• alloying elements - Aluminium, manganese and zinc.
• Wrought alloys of magnesium are classified into heat treatable and non-heat
treatable alloys.

3.15 SUPER ALLOYS:

A super alloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy that exhibits several key
characteristics like excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation,
good surface stability, and resistance to corrosion or oxidation.
Properties:
 High hardness and strength.

 High wear resistance.

 High creep resistance.

 High oxidation resistance.

Nickel based Super alloys:

 Nickel-base super alloys are corrosion resistant high-temperature alloys typically used
at service temperatures above 500°C.
 They usually contain significant amounts of up to 10 alloying elements including light
elements like boron or carbon and heavy refractory elements like tantalum, tungsten,
or rhenium.
Properties
 High strength
 High thermal resistance
 High corrosion resistance
 Machinability
 Shape memory
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
3.16 TITANIUM ALLOYS:
(What are the types of titanium alloy, their composition properties and
applications? [N/D’15])
Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical
elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness. They are light in weight,
have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. It is a
highest carbide of all the alloying elements. It improves hardenability. It is added to stainless
steels.

Properties:
 Light weight and strong.

 High corrosion resistant.

 High strength to weight ratio.

 High Melting point.

 Low thermal conductivity.

 Low thermal coefficient of expansion.

 Good weld ability and formability.
Applications:
Valves, tanks, pipe, aircraft parts, steam turbine, sheet metal parts, forgings.

Types of Titanium alloys:

1. Alpha alloys.
2. Beta alloys.
3. Alpha and beta alloys.
1. Titanium Alpha Alloy

Ti  92%, Al  5%, Sn  2.5%.

 Titanium alpha alloys contain aluminum and tin, though they can also contain
molybdenum, zirconium, nitrogen, vanadium, columbium, tantalum, and silicon.
 Alpha alloys do not generally respond to heat treatment, but they are weldable and are
commonly used for cryogenic applications, airplane parts, and chemical processing
equipment.
2. Titanium Beta Alloy
Ti  73%, Al 3%, V  13%, Cr  11%.

 Beta alloys have good hardenability, good cold formability when they are solution-
treated, and high strength when they are aged.
 Beta alloys are slightly denser than other titanium alloys.
 They are the least creep resistant alloys; they are weldable.
  They are used for heavier duty purposes on aircraft.
3. Titanium Alpha-Beta Alloy

Ti  90%, Al  6%, V  4%.

• Alpha-beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment and aging.

• The alloys are used in aircraft and aircraft turbine parts, chemical processing equipment,
marine hardware, and prosthetic devices
3.17 Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)
Material which shows the ability to return to their original shape by heating or
cooling is known as SMA. It may also be called memory metal, memory alloy, smart
metal, smart alloy.
Examples:
1. Ni-Mn-Ga. alloy - A magnetic shape memory alloy, which is affected by magnetic fields
rather than temperature.
2. Ni-Ti alloys have the best shape-recovery performance, durability, and corrosion-
resistance.
3. CuZnAl, and CuAlNi alloys are the most effective and widely used shape memory alloys.

Phases of SMA:
SMAs have two stable phases,

 The high temperature phase, called Austenite. It does not undergo deformation.
 The low temperature phase, called Martensite. It undergoes deformation.
The martensite can be in one of two forms,

 Twinned
 Detwinned
Types of SMA:
1. One way SMA:
A material that exhibits shape memory effect only by heating is known as one way
SMA.
2. Two way SMA:
A material that exhibits shape memory effect by heating and cooling is known as two
way SMA.
Characteristics of SMA:
1. Shape memory effect – The change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading
and regaining its original shape by heating is called shape memory effect.

Explanation:

 At high temperature SMA exits in austenite structure.

 As the temperature is decreased austenite transforms into twinned martensite. During
this the shape and size of material remains the same.
  Now when load is applied twinned martensite transforms into deformed martensite.
During this size of material changes.
 Again on heating it returns to its original shape and this cycle continues.
2. Pseudo-elasticity – If the shape of the material changes by loading and regains its
original shape on deloading it is called pseudo-elasticity.
3. SMA exhibits changes in electrical resistance with temperature.
4. Hysteresis – The difference between transition temperature upon heating and cooling is
known as hysteresis.

Applications
1. Biological Applications
 Bone plates
 surgical anchor
 clot filter
 catheters
 stent in arteries
 eye glasses

2. Other applications
 Make toys and ornamental goods.
 Make antennas, springs
 Used as couplings for metal pipes
 Used as thermostat to open and close valves.
 Making aircraft machines and robots.
Advantages of SMAs
 Bio-Compatibility
 Diverse field of applications
 Good mechanical properties like strength and corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages of SMAs
 Expensive
 Poor fatigue properties
 Over stress
3.18 Overview of Material Standards
Material selection criteria
Materials are selected based on the basis of four general criteria:
1. Performance characteristics (properties)
2. Processing (manufacturing)properties
3. Environmental profile
4. Business considerations.
What are material standards?
Standard is a generally agreed –upon set of procedures, criteria, dimensions, materials, or
parts.
What are codes?
Code is a collection of laws and rules that assists a government in meeting its obligation
to protect the general welfare by preventing damage to property or injury or loss of life to
persons.
Why standards and codes?
 It makes the best practice available to everyone, thereby ensuring safety and
efficiency.
 It promotes interchangeability and compatibility.

How are they used?

 They provide a “legal,” means to evaluate the accessibility and sale –ability of
products.
 They can be taught and applied globally.
 They are designed to protect the public from questionable designs, products and
practices.
 They help the engineers how to meet the environmental, health, safety and societal
responsibilities.
Steel Standards
Steel standards are systems for classifying, evaluating, and specifying the chemical,
mechanical, and metallurgical properties of different types of steels and ferrous alloys that are
used in the production of components, machinery, and constructions.
Steel standards are helpful in guiding metallurgical laboratories, manufacturers, and end-users in
producing, processing and the application of steel.
Steels can be classified by a large variety of criteria, such as:
 Composition, for example carbon, low-alloy, or stainless steel.
 Method of manufacturing, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric furnace
methods.
 Finishing method, such as hot rolling, cold rolling, and various surface finishing and
platting techniques.
 Product form, for example bar, wire, plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural shape.
 Deoxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped or rimmed steel
 Microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic.
 Heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering.
Some of the more frequently used steel standard and classification systems include:
 AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) steel standards, - traditionally used in the US
and abroad but - replaced by SAE, ASTM and other U.S. standards.
 EN (Euronorm),- steel standards of European countries. national systems, such as
German DIN, British BS, French AFNOR and Italian UNI are commonly used.
 Japanese JIS steel standards, which are widely used in Asia and Pacific regions.

UNIT – 3: FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS

PART: A
1. What are HSLA steels? [A/M’15]
HSLA steels are High- Strength Low – Alloy steels. HSLA steels are low carbon steels
containing small amounts of alloying elements.
2. What are the required properties of tool steel? [N/D’16]
Good toughness, Good wear resistance, Very good machinability
3. What are the applications of plain carbon steels?
a. Plain carbon steels are used for mass – production products such as automobiles and
appliances.
b. They also find applications in the production of ball bearings, base plates, housings,
chutes, structural members, etc.
4. What are the applications of high carbon steels?
Typical applications of plain high-carbon steels include cutting tools and dies, knives,
razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wires, etc. these are the application of
high carbon steels.
5. List two factors that affect hardenability of steels.
a. composition of steel
b. austenite grain size
c. structure of steel before quenching
d. the quenching medium and the method of quenching.
6. What are bronzes? List some use of bronzes. [N/D’16]
Bronzes are alloys of copper and Tin with any other alloying element but not zinc.
(eg – Al, Be, Sn, etc.)
Uses of bronzes: jewellery, condenser tubes, marine applications, cigarette cases, pump
casting parts, etc.
7. What is the difference between white cast iron and grey cast iron?
- In white cast iron all the carbon is present as cementite and there is no free carbon
(graphite) because of which the fractured surface appears white, hence called white
cast iron.
- grey cast iron consists of graphite in the form of flakes and appear gray hence called grey
cast iron.
8. What are the effect chromium and molybdenum in low alloy steel?
 Chromium
It forms chromium carbides with increases the hardenability. It increases wear
resistance. It also increases corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Molybdenum
It increases hardenability. It forms carbide and increases wear resistance, reduces
decarburization. It increases high temperature creep resistance.
9. What is bearing alloy? [N/D’15]
Materials which are used for making bearings are known as bearing
materials. White metals, copper base alloys, aluminium base alloys are
examples.
10. What is Gun metal? Give its composition and applications.
It is an alloy of copper, tin and Zinc.
Composition:
 Cu – 88%, Zn – 2%, Tin – 10%
Properties:
 High corrosion resistant.
 Good casting properties.
 High strength.
 Good machinability.
Applications:
 Bearing bushes, Boiler fitting, Steam pipe fitting, Marine castings, Hydraulic
valves, gears etc.
PART: B
1. Enumerate the composition and applications of following alloys.
a. (i)Cupronickel (ii) Bronze [N/D’16]
2. State the effects of various alloying elements in steel.
3. Write short notes on: [A/M’15]
a. High speed steel
b. HSLA steel
c. Maraging steel
d. Tool steel
4. Discuss the different types of copper alloys and their properties and applications.
5. With part of phase diagram and relevant sketches, explain the precipitation hardening
treatment of Al-Cu alloys. [M/J’16]
6. Write short notes on:
i. Austenitic stainless steel (5)
ii. Ferritic stainless steel (5)
iii. Martensitic stainless steel (6)
7. What are the types of titanium alloy? Write their composition, properties and
applications.