BIOLOGY NOTES

BALANCED DIET
DIFFERENT FOOD REQUIRED
1-Carbohydrates
main source of energy of food
2 types
a- Sugar- provide a quick source of energy
b-Starch-release energy slowly.

2-Fats and lipids

helps in storing energy keeping the body warm and also protects organ from damage.
lipids include
a-fats – solid at room temperature
b-oils - liquid at room temperature
2 types of lipids
a- Glycerol- molecules that along with fatty acids is a component of liquid
b- Fatty acids- type of molecule that with glycerol is one of the building blocks of lipids

3-Protiens
it helps to repair body tissues and to make new cells for growth. doctors recommend a
maximum daily intake of about 70g. people often eat far more protiens than they need where
as in poorer countries a protein deficiency disease called kwashiorkor is common.

4-Minerals
help your body grow develop and stay healthy. The body uses minerals to perform any function
from building strong bones to transmiting nerve pulses. If the person does not get enough of
minerals from their diet that will show symptoms of a mineral deficiency disease

5-Vitamins
 DIGESTION
8 organs help in the process of digestion.it includes rectum small intestine large intestine
pancreas stomach liver esophagus salivary gland. Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble
food molecules to small soluble food molecules to get absorbed. It starts with the mouth where
the food is chewed by the teeth combing with the saliva (saliva contains a digestive enzyme
called amylase that already begins to digest carbohydrates in the mouth it splits carbohydrates
into smaller units) to turn the food into bolus. (bolus food that has been chewed and mixed in
the mouth with saliva). Enzymes present in the saliva break down any starch. Then the food
goes to a tube called esophagus. peristalises happen in the esophagus.( Peristalsis is a series of
wave-like muscle contractions that moves food to different processing stations in the digestive
tract.) Then send it to the stomach. The stomach walls contains gastric glands which produce
mucus for the protection of the stomach wall from the gastric acid.(gastric acid is produces by
seeing or smelling food spices and stretching of the stomach causes the secreation) that is the
release of gastric acid. About 1 2 liters of gastric juice per day is made . Stomach and esophagus
are separated by a sphincter. It helps the food not go back up and acids as well. Gastric juice
consists among other things of hydrochloric acid pepsin and the enzyme. The hydrochloric acid
in the gastric juice breaks down the food and the digestive enzymes split up the proteins. The
acidic gastric juice also kills bacteria. Pepsin is the chief digestive enzyme in the stomach which
breaks down proteins into smaller peptisides and also lipase for the digestion of fats. The
duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. It is located between the stomach and the
middle part of the small intestine, or jejunum. After foods mix with stomach acid, they move
into the duodenum, where they mix with bile from the gallbladder and digestive juices from the
pancreas. Small Intestine Most nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, where food is
broken down even more by enzymes released from the pancreas and bile from the liver.
Anything left in the small intestine moves into the large intestine, which is also known as the
colon. Liver: produces bile salts, which emulsify lipids, aiding their digestion and absorption
Gallbladder: stores, concentrates, and releases bile Pancreas: produces digestive enzymes and
bicarbonate. Large intestine Further breaks down food residues Absorbs most residual water,
electrolytes, and vitamins produced by enteric bacteria Propels feces toward rectum Eliminates
feces.
carbohydrates are broken into sugar
proteins into amino acids
fats into fatty acids and glycerol
small intestine is made up of small finger like projections called villi which increases the surface
area of the small intestine. The larger the surface area the more absorption can take place.
Each vilie had tiny blood vessels called capillaries and anathor one called lacteal. Each villie is 1-
2 mm long.total area of it is about 300m(sq) this provides massive area in contact with the
digestive food as well as high powered miscroscopy has revealed that the surface cell of each
villie have hundered of minute projections called microvillie. the food molecules pass from the
small intestine to the blood capliary or lacteal once absorbed into the blood vessel the digestive
food molecules can then be transported to the body where they are needed. These molecules
move by diffusion from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS NOTES

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of HIGH concentration to an area of LOW
concentration (down a concentration gradient) until there is an EQUAL spread of particles. A difference
in concentration between 2 areas is called a CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.

factors that effect diffusion are

a- the concentration gradient diffusion happens more quickly when there is a steep concentration
gradient

b- the surface area- a larger surface area in propotion to the volume will increase the rate

c- the distance- the rate is decreased if the distance over which diffusion has to take place is grearter.

d- the temperature- the rate is greater at higher tempertaures

Faster Diffusion When there is Large concentration gradient Higher Temperature Short distance Larger
surface area.

osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water resulting in a movement of water molecules from a region of high
water concentration (dilute sugar solution) to a region of low water concentration (concentrated sugar
solution) through a partially permeable membrane until in equilibrium. It does not require
energy .Osmosis is important for moving water from cell to cell. osmosis is partially permeable.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport is the movement of dissolved molecules into or out of a cell through the cell
membrane, from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. The particles
move against the concentration gradient , using energy released during respiration .Rate of active
transport depends on the rate of respiration

ATP

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy-carrying molecule used in cells because it can release energy
very quickly. Energy is released from ATP when the end phosphate is removed. Once ATP has released
energy, it becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate), which is a low energy molecule. ATP is often called
the universal energy currency in living organisms as it provides a common source of energy for many
different chemical reactions. Living organisms use the gradual release of energy in small steps to
produce ATP .ADP is converted to ATP by the addition of a phosphate molecule ATP IS USED FOR
Metabolic Processes – Building large complex molecules from smaller, simpler molecules. For example
ATP is required in DNA and Protein synthesis .Active Transport – ATP can change the shape of carrier
proteins in plasma membranes to allow molecules/ions to be moved against the concentration gradient.
Movement – For muscle contraction .Nerve Transmission – Na+/K+ Active Transport Pumps require ATP.
Synthesis of materials with in the Cells. Secretion – The packaging and transport of secretory products
into vesicles in cells

AEROBIC AND ANERBIC REPIRATION

AEROBIC

Aerobic respiration is the process by which organisms use oxygen to turn fuel, such as fats and sugars
into chemical energy.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 yields 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (as ATP).

glusoce + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water +(energy)

Aerobic respiration makes two waste products:carbon dioxide and water. Animals remove carbon
dioxide from their bodies when they breathe out. In daytime, plants use some of this carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. At night, they release the carbon dioxide to their surroundings.

ANEROBIC

Anaerobic respiration transfers energy from glucose to cells. It occurs when oxygen is not present. It
transfers large amounts of energy quickly. In anaerobic respiration, glucose breaks down without
oxygen. The chemical reaction transfers energy from glucose to the cell. Anaerobic respiration produces
lactic acid, rather than carbon dioxide and water. Unfortunately this can lead to painful muscle cramps.
The advantage of anerobic respiration is that in can occur in any situation where oxygen is in short
supply. If the muscles are over worked the blood cannot reach them fast enough to deliver which then
the glucose is broken down into a substance called lactate. oxygen debt a temporary oxygen shortage in
the body tissues arising from exercise which happenes when the lactate is respired arobically in the
mitrochondria

glucose = lactate + (some energy)

.Yeast is an example for anerobic repiration.

chemical formula for ethonal

glusoce = ethonal + carbon dioxide + (some energy)

CELL DIVISION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. Life begins with a simple single fertilized cell
called zygote. The zygote then devides into 2-4-6-8……. This is known as mitosis and is
performed under the control of genes

CELL DIFFERENTATAION

Cellular differentiation is the process in which a cell changes from one cell type to another.
Usually, the cell changes to a more specialized type. Differentiation occurs numerous times
during the development of a multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a
complex system of tissues and cell types. The chromosones in the nucleous are copied the
nucleus then splits into 2(equally) between the 2 daughter cells. The cytoplasm then devides
forming 2 daughter cells. The cells take in food and supplys energy and grows. The procces
repeats emroye grows cells become more specialized to carry out particular roles this is called
cell differentataion and is done under the control of genes

CELL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

BOTH IN ANIMAL AND PLANTS

cytoplasm-where most of the chemical reactions happen.

nucleous- contains genetic material which controls the cells activities

cell membrane- controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell

mitrochondira-where most of the energy is released as respiration.

ribosome- where most of the protein synthesis happen

Fungi Protoctists bacteria virus

fungi

Mushrooms, toadstools and moulds which are multicellular. Yeasts are unicellular in live on the
surface of fruits, soil, water or even in dust present in air. The yeast powder used for baking
consists of millions of yeast cells. The cells of fungi never contain chloroplast so they cannot
photosynthesize. They have cell walls but are not composed of cellulose. A mushroom is the
reproductive structure of a fruiting body .Under the soil mushroom has fine threads called
hyphae A mould is like mushroom without fruiting body. It only consists of network of hyphae.
The whole network is called mycelium. Mould feeds by absorbing nutrients from dead material
so they are present in soil, rotting leaves or decaying fruit. Pin mould is called mucor. Hyphae of
mucor has cell walls surrounding their cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains many nuclei. When a
spore from mucor lands on any food, hyphae grows out from it. The hyphae grows again and
again until mycelium covers the surface of the food. The hyphae secretes digestive enzymes on
to the food breaking them into soluble substances such as sugar and then it is absorbed by the
mould. When an organism feeds on dead organic matter and digestion takes place outside the
organism this is called saprophytic nutrition.

PROTICISTS

They are sometimes categorized as ‘ dustbin kingdom ’. They are mixed group of organisms that
do not fit into any group. They are microscopic single-celled organisms. Some look like animal
cells, such as amoeba, lives in pond water . They are known as protozoa. Some have chloroplast
and they carry photosynthesis . they are called algae. Most algae are unicellular , but some
species seaweeds they are multicellular and are larger in size. Protoctists are the agents of
disease, such as plasmodium , they causes malaria.

protozoa- looks like an animal cell amorba lives in pound water

algae-have chloroplast and carry photosyntheses

PROKARYOTE
simplest most ancient cell
only one form of life for billions of years
smaller and simpler structure (allows to reproduce quickly and effectively)
lack in nucelous
no memebrane bound necleous
small ribosomes
unicellular

EUKARYOTES
big cells
harder structure
unicellular or multicellular
has ribosomes.

BACTERIA

They are small single-celled organisms.

They are smaller than eukaryotic organisms.
Animal cell size : 10 to 50 micrometer in diameter.Typical bacterium : 1 to 5 micrometer in
length and its volume is thousands of times smaller than that of animal cell.
Bacteria possess cell wall which help to keep shape of the cell.
Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan.
Some species have a extra protective layer outside the wall is known as capsule or slime layer.
Under the cell wall there is cell membrane presence of cytoplasm is in the middle.
Being prokaryotes they don’t have nucleus genetic material is in single chromosomes , loose in
the cytoplasm , circular loop.
flagella present in bacteria. The bacterial flagellum is a helical filamentous organelle responsible
for motility.
In bacterial species possessing flagella at the cell exterior, the long helical flagellar filament acts
as a molecular screw to generate thrust.
Plasmids : small circular rings of DNA , carry some of the bacterium genes used in genetic
engineering. Some bacteria contain chlorophyll in their cytoplasm, and can carry out
photosynthesis.They can act as Decomposers.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus , a rod-shaped species used in the production of yoghurt from milk is
certainly useful bacteria but there are many pathogenic harmful bacteria which may cause
diseases too.
peptidoglycan-a substance forming the cell walls of many bacteria

VIRUSEs
All viruses are parasite , and can only reproduce inside living cells.
The cells in which the virus lives is called the host.
Some viruses live in the cells of plants and animals infect the bacteria.
They are smaller than bacterial cell- 0.01 to 0.1 micrometer in diameter.They are not made up
of cells.
A particle which is very simple containing no nucleus or cytoplasm
They are composed of core genetic material surrounded by protein coat DNA ,or similar
chemical called RNA.
The membrane called envelope may surround a virus particle. This envelope is stolen from the
surface membrane of the host cell.
Viruses do not feed, respire, excrete, move, grow or respond to their surrounding. Only
reproduction is the characteristic of living that virus performs.
A viruses reproduces by entering the host cell and taking over the host’s genetic machinery to
make more virus particle.
Viruses causes diseases in humans for example : AIDS , influenza, measles , mumps, polio
Viruses infects plant cell : tobacco mosaic virus which interferes the ability of the tobacco plants
to make chloroplasts , causing mottled patches to develop on the leaves.

ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a community of animals, plants, micro-organisms, non-living things and their
shared environment.
2 types
Abiotic-non living organisms
Biotic-living organisms

ABIOTIC FACTORS BIOTIC FACTORS

Non-living factor that effect another organism. Any living factor that effects another
organism.
Light intensity Predation
temperature Competition for resources
Water level Amount of diseases
PH Availability of food
Iron level
wind
Carbondioxide level
Oxygen levels

An ecosystem can be divided into several levels. An individual is a single organism from a single
species. A population is made up of individuals from the same species. A community is made up
of the populations of every species in an ecosystem. The ecosystem is made up of the
community of organisms within it and the physical environment in which they live (called the
habitat).
BIODIVERSITY
the variety of all different species of organisms on earth.
combination of two measurements
the no. of different species present.
the relative abundance of each species.
Some have very high biodiversity like rainforests while others don’t. ecosystem with a high
biodiversity are more stable than ones with a low biodiversity this is because an ecosystem that
is dominated by one species is more likely to be affected by any sort of ecological disaster

INERACTIONS IN ECOSYSTEM
Feeding among the organisms- the plants animals and decomposers are recycling the same
nutrients.
Competition among the organisms
Interaction between organisms and the environment- plants absorb mineral ions carbon
dioxide and water from the environment. Animal use shelters the temperature effects them.