MATTER

It is anything that has mass and takes up space. Matter is

composed of individual tiny particles known as atoms.

STATES OF MATTER
SOLIDS (Example: Rocks, Metal) LIQUIDS (Example: Water)
Definite Shape No Definite Shape
Definite Volume Definite Volume
High Density Mid to High Density
Slightly Compressible Slightly Compressible

GAS (Example: Smoke, Oxygen)

No Definite Shape
No Definite Volume
Low Density
Highly Compressible

PHASE CHANGES
Solid -> Liquid: The solid figure with heat, will melt turning it
liquid. Liquid -> Gas: The liquid will vaporize and turn into gas.

Gas -> Liquid: The gas will turn into liquid because of
condensation. Liquid -> Solid: The liquid will freeze and turn into a
solid figure.
 • Vaporization is a process of changing the physical state of
a substance in vapor phase and is one of a number of
techniques involving phase equilibria. The vaporization
(or evaporation) term typically refers to changing the
state into vapor phase below boiling temperature of a
liquid.

• Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the

air is changed into liquid water; it's the opposite of
evaporation. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle
because it is responsible for the formation of clouds.

MASS
It is the amount of matter in an object. Mass is measured in
kilograms (kg) and grams (g). One kilogram = 1,000 grams. The
mass of an object is always equal to the sum of masses of the
pieces of the object.

WEIGHT
It is how strongly gravity pulls on an object. If an object has more
mass, it will also have more weight. Weight is measured in
newtons. One newton is equal to 0.225 pounds (lbs) in the English
system.

VOLUME
It measures how much space matter takes up. A marble’s volume
raises the water level when you place it on a graduated cylinder.
MIXTURES
A mixture is a combination of two or more physically combined
substances that can be separated.

In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more

different chemical substances which are not chemically bonded. A
mixture is the physical combination of two or more substances in
which the identities are retained and mixed in solutions,
suspensions and colloids.

SUBSTANCE
A substance is a form of matter with specific composition and
specific properties.

ELEMENT
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by a chemical reaction.

COMPOUND
A compound is a substance formed when elements combine
chemically.

In a mixture, the substances are put together without a chemical

reaction. No new substance is formed. Since no new substance is
formed, there is no chemical change. Rather, there is only physical
change. The substances retain their individual properties even
after they are combined and these substances can be separated
from one another.

Heterogenous and Homogeneous

Heterogeneous mixtures have visually distinguishable
components, while homogeneous mixtures appear uniform
throughout. The most common type of homogenous mixture is a
solution, which can be a solid, liquid, or gas.
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

What is the musculoskeletal system? Your musculoskeletal

system includes your bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, and
connective tissues. Your skeleton provides a framework for your
muscles and other soft tissues. Together, they support your body's
weight, maintain your posture, and help you move.

The MUSCULAR SYSTEM is the active part of the musculoskeletal

system. Muscles are between our bones and skin and are joined
through our bones and our tendons. They are elastic organs that
can be lengthened or shortened, this helps us make body
movements.

Humans have approx. 630 muscles. According to the movements

they make, we can differentiate voluntary and involuntary
muscles.

Voluntary muscles move ONLY when we want them to while

Involuntary muscles move without us noticing, an example is our
heart and stomach which are always at movement.
The SKELETAL SYSTEM is made up of ALL bones and cartilage. The
skeleton gives us a shape that differentiates us from other living
things. It allows us to walk, run or jump. Our body has 206 bones
and all of them has their own name. Some of them are:

SKULL – It protects our brain.

SPINE – Maintains us stable and upright.
JAW – Allows us to open our mouth and chew food.
RIBS – Protects our Lungs and hearts
FEMUR – The longest bone in our human body, it is found in the
legs.

Bones are joined with each other by joints, they are divided into
three groups depending on their level of mobility. Immobile or
fixed joints don’t have any mobility, like the ones that join our
skull. Semi-mobile joints do have some mobility but not a lot, like
vertebrae in our backs. Mobile joints have GREAT mobility. Like
our elbow, or knee.
Digestive System
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract
plus the accessory organs of digestion. Digestion involves the
breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components until
they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.

GASTROINTENSINAL TRACT
It is a twisting chanel that transports your food and has an
internal surface area of between 30 and 40 square meters, enough
to cover enough of half a badminton court.

PANCREAS, GALLBLADDER, and LIVER

A trio of organs that break down food using an array of special
juices.

ENZYMES, HORMONES, NERVES, and BLOOD

All work together to break down food, modulate the digestive
process, and deliver its final products.

MESENTERY
A large stretch of tissue that supports and positions all
digestive organs in the abdomen, enabling them to do their
jobs.
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS
The digestive process begins before food even hits your tongue.
Anticipating a tasty morsel, glands in your mouth start to pump
out saliva. We produce about 1.5 liters of this liquid each day.

Once inside your mouth, chewing combines with the sloshing

saliva to turn food into a moist lump called; “the bolus”. Enzymes
present in the saliva break down any starch.

Then, your food finds itself at the rim of a 25-centimeter-long tube

called; the esophagus, down which it must plunge to reach the
stomach.

Nerves in the surrounding esophageal tissue since the bolus’s

presence and trigger peristalsis, a series of defined muscular
contraptions. That propels the food into the stomach, where its
left at the mercy of the muscular stomach walls, which pound the
bolus, breaking it into chunks.

Hormones, secreted by cells in the lining trigger the release of

acids and enzyme-rich juices from the stomach wall that start to
dissolve the food and break down its proteins.

These hormones also alert the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder to

produce digestive juices and transfer bile, a yellowish-green liquid
that digests fat, in preparation for the next stage.

After three hours in the stomach, the one shapely bolus is now a
frothy liquid called chyme, and it’s ready to move into the small
intestine.

The liver sends bile into the gallbladder, which secretes it into the
first portion of the small intestine called the duodenum.

Here, it dissolves the fats floating in the slurry of chyme so they

can be easily digested by the pancreatic and intestinal juices.
The enzyme-rich juices break the fat molecules down into fatty
acids and glycerol for easier absorption into the body. The
enzymes also carry out the final deconstruction of proteins into
amino acids, and carbohydrates into glucose. This happens in the
small intestine’s lower regions, the jejunum and ileum, which are
coated in millions of tiny projections called villi.

These create a huge surface area to maximize molecule

absorption and transference into the bloodstream. The blood
takes them on the final leg of their journey to feed the body’s
organs and tissues.

Leftover water, fiber, and dead cells sloughed off during digestion
make it into the large intestine, also known as the colon. The body
drains out most of the remaining fluid through the intestinal wall.

Whats left is a soft mass called stool. The colon squeezes this
byproduct into a pouch called the rectum, where nerves sense it
expanding and tell the body when its time to expel the waste.

Then, the byproducts of digestion exit through the anus.

BASICALLY THEIR FUNCTIONS:

-Salivary glands: Produce saliva.
-Esophagus: Tube / connecting the mouth to the stomach.
-Stomach: Breaks the bolus into chunks.
-Pancreas: Produces liquid to digest the fat
-Liver: Sends bile into the gallbladder.
-Gallbladder: dissolves fats.
-Large Intestine: Turns leftovers into a soft mass (“stool”)
-Small Intestine: holds the waste as mostly everything happens.
-Anus: exit way for the waste / soft mass (“stool”)
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system takes up oxygen from the air we breathe

and expels the unwanted carbon dioxide. The main organ of the
respiratory system is the lungs. Other respiratory organs include
the nose, the trachea and the breathing muscles (the diaphragm
and the intercostal muscles).

NOSTRIL: External Passageway for oxygen with hair covered with

mucus to slightly clean oxygen going into our body.

NASAL CAVITY: Releaser of the mucus and a space connected to

air-filled spaces that help make the oxygen warm and moist going
to the pharynx.

PHARYNX: Connected to nasal cavity by nasopharynx and

connected to oral cavity by oropharynx and connected to
esophagus.

LARYNX: Where our voice come from, connecting to trachea.

TRACHEA: Split into 2, a passageway into the lungs.

LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS: passage into left lung which have only an
upper lobe and a lower lobe,

RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS: passage into right lung which has an

upper lobe, middle lobe, and lower lobe.

ALVEOLI: Tiny outpouchings that bud off of their walls.

LUNGS: Gas exchange – Stretching the lungs inhale and then

relaxing them is exhaling.

PARIETAL PLEURA: protects and cushions the lungs

DIAPHRAGM: It is under the lungs and it contracts upon inhalation

and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges.

This procedure is for inhaling, the same procedure but in reverse

is for exhaling.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and
takes away wastes. The heart pumps oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood on different sides. The types of blood vessels
include arteries, capillaries and veins.

PULMONARY CIRCUIT – deoxygenated blood is pumped from the

heart to the lungs to become oxygenated.

SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT – the oxygenated blood that is returned to the

heart, is pumped to the rest of the body.

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HEMOGLOBIN – The protein present in red blood cells serves as

the main transporter with oxygen and carbon dioxide being able
to hop on or off at any given time.

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Blood is pumped away through the AORTA and then through the
ARTERIES:

Arteries have very THICK muscular walls so to withstand the

pressure of the fast-flowing blood. These arteries branch into
smaller arterioles which then branch into smaller capillaries that
surround all cells.

The movement of blood slows down significantly at the capillaries

because the capillaries are MUCH smaller, and slower movement
allows for gas exchange. Here, oxygen is offloaded onto cells so
blood becomes deoxygenated and carbon dioxide and other waste
products are picked up.

Deoxygenated blood then travels away from the capillaries, into

the venules, and then into the veins.

Unlike arteries, veins have much thinner walls and valves that
prevent deoxygenated blood from flowing backward.

This deoxygenated blood doesn’t travel straight to the lungs to

become oxygenated, it must first go to the heart so that it can be
pumped into the lungs, ready for another round.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous
system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the
spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body.

OUR BRAIN CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE MAIN PARTS

CEREBRUM- it is the largest part of the brain, which can be further

divided into right and left halves called hemisphere. Each cerebral
hemisphere has four lobes namely frontal lobe, parietal lobe,
occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

CEREBELLUM- it is responsible for movement and coordination. It

gives you sense of balance and thus prevents you from falling
down.

BRAIN STEM- this includes mid brain, pons, and medulla

oblongata. It controls your body’s involuntary actions like;
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
Brain comes under a system called nervous system:
Structurally; nervous system is classified into two parts.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS).

The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM comprises of the Brain and

Spinal Cord.
-The spinal cord is the bridge that connects the brain to the
peripheral nervous system.

The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM consists of the nerves

sending out signals that branch out from the brain and
spinal cord.

NEURON
It is the basic units of nervous system. It is the nerve cell which
transmits electrical signals to the brain. A neuron has three parts:

-Dendrites: they serve as input devices for neuron, because it

receives input from other nerve cells.

-Soma: contains nucleus.

-Axon: serves as an output device from where it transmit electrical

response to other neurons.
VERTEBRATES & INVERTEBRATES
VERTEBRATES –
MAMMALS, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISH, AMPHIBIANS
They have bones / a skeleton,

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-MAMMALS: Mammals are vertebrates with hair, mammary
glands used to suckle young with milk, a diaphragm, three bones
in the middle ear, and a lower jaw made up of a single pair of
bones that articulates in a unique way with the skull.

-BIRDS: Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates

constituting the class Aves, characterized by feathers, toothless
beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic
rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight
skeleton.

-REPTILES: Reptiles, as most commonly defined, are the animals in

the class Reptilia, a paraphyletic grouping comprising all
sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles,
crocodilians, squamates and rhynchocephalians. As of March
2022, the Reptile Database includes about 11,700 species.

-FISH: A limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and

fins and living wholly in water.

-AMPHIBIANS: Amphibians are four-limbed and ectothermic

vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to
the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats,
with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or
freshwater aquatic ecosystems.
INVERTEBRATES –
ARTHROPODS, MOLLUSKS, ANNELIDS, ECHINODERMS, SPONGES,
CNIDARIANS
They have no bones, they don’t have an internal skeleton

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-ARTHROPODS: Arthropods are invertebrate animals in the
phylum Arthropoda. They possess an exoskeleton with a cuticle
made of chitin, often mineralized with calcium carbonate, a
segmented body, and paired jointed appendages.

-MOLLUSKS: Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of

invertebrate animals, after the Arthropoda; members are known
as mollusks or mollusks. Around 85,000 extant species of mollusks
are recognized. The number of fossil species is estimated between
60,000 and 100,000 additional species.

-ANNELIDS: The annelids, also known as the segmented worms,

are a large phylum, with over 22,000 extant species including
ragworms, earthworms, and leeches.

-ECHINODERMS: An echinoderm is any member of the phylum

Echinodermata. The adults are recognisable by their radial
symmetry, and include starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand
dollars, and sea cucumbers, as well as the sea lilies or "stone
lilies"

-SPONGES: Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera, are a

basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are
multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and
channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of
jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells.

-CNIDARINAS: Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes,

specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey.