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Electrical Machine Drives
Electrical Machine Drives
Fundamental Basics and Practice

Claiton Moro Franchi

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1380-9939-5 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Franchi, Claiton Moro, author.

Title: Electrical machine drives : fundamental basics and practice / Claiton
Moro Franchi.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor &
Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic
division of T&F Informa, plc, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018042358 | ISBN 9781138099395 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric driving. | Electric machines.
Classification: LCC TK4058 .F68 2018 | DDC 621.46--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018042358

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
 I dedicate this book to my sons, Bruna and Renato, who are a source of

inspiration and energy for the beginning of each day of my life and to my

father, Calixtro, who cannot be present to see the finished book. Also, my

wife, Eliane, for the companionship during these years and this work.
Contents

Preface .....................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................. xvii
Author ................................................................................................................... xix

1. Electric Motors ................................................................................................1

1.1 Electric Motors Types .........................................................................1
1.1.1 Direct Current Motors ......................................................... 1
1.1.1.1 Series ......................................................................6
1.1.1.2 Shunt Excited ........................................................6
1.1.1.3 Compound Excited ..............................................7
1.1.2 Alternating Current Induction Motors .............................8
1.1.2.1 Single-Phase Induction Motors ..........................8
1.1.2.2 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors ..........9
1.1.2.3 Three-Phase Electric Motor .............................. 20
1.2 Motor Selection .................................................................................. 36
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 36

2. Three-Phase Motors ..................................................................................... 39

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 39
2.2 Three-Phase Induction Motor Construction ................................. 39
2.3 Faraday’s Law .................................................................................... 41
2.4 Lenz’s Law.......................................................................................... 46
2.5 Operation Principle of a Three-Phase Induction Motor .............. 47
2.6 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors Characteristics ..........................54
2.6.1 Efficiency (η) .......................................................................54
2.6.1.1 Motor Efficiency Based on Rated Power .........54
2.6.1.2 Motor Efficiency in Function on the
Shaft Load ...........................................................54
2.6.2 Rated Speed ........................................................................ 56
2.6.3 Slip ....................................................................................... 57
2.6.4 Torque Speed Design......................................................... 58
2.6.5 Insulation Class .................................................................. 61
2.6.5.1 Temperature Rise ............................................... 62
2.6.6 Motor Cooling .................................................................... 66
2.6.6.1 IC 01—Open Drip Proof (ODP) ........................ 67
2.6.6.2 IC 41—Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) .. 68
2.6.6.3 IC 40—Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated
(TENV) .................................................................68

vii
viii Contents

2.6.6.4 IC 418—Totally Enclosed Air Over (TEAO) ... 70

2.6.6.5 Special Applications Frames ............................ 70
2.6.7 Duty Cycle .......................................................................... 73
2.6.8 Service Factor (SF) ..............................................................80
2.6.9 Multiple Nominal Voltage and Frequency .....................80
2.6.10 Locked Rotor Current kVA Code Letter (CODE) .......... 81
2.6.11 Speed Direction .................................................................. 82
2.6.12 Environmental Conditions ...............................................83
2.6.13 Degree of Protection (IP) ..................................................84
2.6.14 Frames .................................................................................90
2.6.15 Mounting ............................................................................ 93
2.6.16 Nameplate ........................................................................... 95
Exercises .......................................................................................................... 96

3. Electric Power ................................................................................................ 99

3.1 Real Power .......................................................................................... 99
3.2 Reactive Power................................................................................. 100
3.3 Apparent Power............................................................................... 100
3.4 Power Triangle ................................................................................. 101
3.5 Power Factor..................................................................................... 103
3.6 Electric Power Calculations Examples ......................................... 104
3.7 Power Factor in Industry ............................................................... 105
3.8 Causes of Low Power Factor.......................................................... 106
3.9 Advantages of Power Factor Correction ...................................... 106
3.10 Methods to Correct the Power Factor .......................................... 107
3.11 Capacitors Parameters .................................................................... 108
3.12 Power Factor Correction Using Capacitors ................................. 111
3.12.1 Examples of Power Factor Correction ........................... 112
3.13 Location of Capacitors .................................................................... 114
3.14 Real Power in Three-Phase Motors .............................................. 117
3.15 Power Factor in Induction Motors ................................................ 118
3.16 Power Characteristics of a Three-Phase Motor........................... 119
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 120

4. Motor Starter Components ....................................................................... 121

4.1 Push Buttons .................................................................................... 121
4.2 Selector Switch................................................................................. 124
4.3 Limit Switches ................................................................................. 125
4.4 Fuses.................................................................................................. 126
4.4.1 Short Circuit Definitions ................................................. 128
4.4.2 Operation Classes ............................................................ 129
Contents ix

4.4.3 Types of Fuses (European).................................................. 130

4.4.3.1 D Type .................................................................... 130
4.4.3.2 Type NH Fuse ....................................................... 133
4.4.4 Sizing of Fuses ...................................................................... 135
4.4.4.1 Sizing Example ..................................................... 136
4.4.5 Types of Fuses (US) .............................................................. 137
4.4.6 High Speed Fuses ................................................................ 140
4.4.7 Final Considerations about Fuses...................................... 141
4.5 Overload Relays................................................................................. 142
4.5.1 Characteristic Tripping Curve ........................................... 146
4.5.1.1 Trip Class ............................................................... 147
4.5.2 Ambient Temperature Compensation .............................. 148
4.5.3 Forms of Operation.............................................................. 148
4.5.4 Sizing ..................................................................................... 151
4.5.5 Solid-State Overload Relays ............................................... 151
4.6 Motor Protective Circuit Breakers .................................................. 154
4.6.1 Advantages of Using Motor Protective Circuit
Breakers ................................................................................. 154
4.7 Contactors .......................................................................................... 156
4.7.1 Contactor Ratings ................................................................ 157
4.7.1.1 NEMA .................................................................... 158
4.7.1.2 IEC .......................................................................... 158
4.7.2 Lifespan of Contactor .......................................................... 162
4.7.3 Suppression Modules .......................................................... 164
4.7.4 Main Features of Contactors .............................................. 164
4.8 Auxiliary Relays ................................................................................ 165
4.8.1 Time Relays ........................................................................... 165
4.8.1.1 ON-Delay ............................................................... 165
4.8.1.2 OFF-Delay.............................................................. 166
4.8.1.3 Star-Triangle .......................................................... 166
4.8.2 Monitoring Relays................................................................ 167
4.8.2.1 Phase Sequence..................................................... 167
4.8.2.2 PTC Thermistor .................................................... 167
4.8.2.3 Phase Loss ............................................................. 170
4.8.2.4 Undervoltage and Overvoltage .......................... 170
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 171

5. Starting Methods of Induction Motors .................................................. 173

5.1 Starting Current of Induction Motor .............................................. 173
5.2 Basic Electrical Symbols ................................................................... 174
x Contents

5.3 Typical Diagrams for Starting Induction Motors ....................... 177

5.3.1 Direct On Line Starter ..................................................... 177
5.3.1.1 Direct On Line Starter Diagram .................... 178
5.3.1.2 Sizing Example ................................................. 180
5.3.2 Jogging............................................................................... 182
5.3.3 Forward/Reverse Starter ................................................ 183
5.3.4 Reduced Voltage Starters ................................................ 186
5.3.4.1 Primary-Resistance Starting ........................... 186
5.3.4.2 Star-Triangle Starter ......................................... 187
5.3.4.3 Autotransformer Starter .................................. 195
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 207

6. Solid-State Starters: Soft Starter ............................................................. 209

6.1 Soft Starters ...................................................................................... 209
6.1.1 Operation Principle ......................................................... 211
6.1.1.1 Power Circuit .................................................... 211
6.1.1.2 Control Circuit .................................................. 214
6.2 Main Functions of Soft Starter ...................................................... 215
6.3 Parameters Description .................................................................. 216
6.3.1 Voltage Ramp in Acceleration ........................................ 216
6.3.2 Voltage Ramp in Deceleration........................................ 219
6.3.3 Start Voltage Pulse (Kick Start) ...................................... 220
6.3.4 Current Limitation ........................................................... 221
6.4 Protections........................................................................................ 221
6.5 Save Energy ......................................................................................223
6.6 Output Functions ............................................................................ 224
6.7 Input Functions ...............................................................................225
6.8 Methods of Starting a Motor with Soft Starter ........................... 226
6.8.1 Human Machine Interface.............................................. 226
6.8.2 Inputs ................................................................................. 226
6.8.3 Industrial Networks ........................................................ 227
6.9 Typical Soft Starter Circuits ........................................................... 228
6.9.1 Direct Connection ............................................................ 228
6.9.2 Using Digital Inputs ........................................................ 228
6.9.3 Inside Motor Delta Connection...................................... 229
6.9.4 Bypass Contactor ............................................................. 230
6.9.5 Multiples Motors Simultaneously ................................. 230
6.9.6 Sequential (Cascaded) Start of Different Motors......... 232
6.10 Number of Phase Control .............................................................. 233
6.10.1 Unbalance of Motor Currents in the Start .................... 233
6.10.2 Impossibility to Make Inside Delta Connection..........234
6.11 Torque Control ................................................................................. 235
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 236
Contents xi

7. Variable Frequency Drives ....................................................................... 237

7.1 Fundamental Concepts .................................................................... 237
7.1.1 Force (F) ................................................................................. 237
7.1.2 Speed (n) ................................................................................ 237
7.1.3 Angular Speed (ω) ............................................................... 237
7.1.4 Torque .................................................................................... 238
7.1.5 Linear Acceleration (la) ....................................................... 238
7.1.6 Rotational Acceleration (ra) ................................................ 239
7.1.7 Power ..................................................................................... 239
7.1.8 Energy.................................................................................... 239
7.1.9 Moment of Inertia (J) ........................................................... 239
7.2 Torque Relations in a Variable Frequency Driver ........................ 240
7.3 Variable Frequency Driver Components Blocks ........................... 241
7.3.1 Central Processing Unit ...................................................... 241
7.3.2 Human Machine Interface .................................................. 242
7.3.3 Input and Output Interfaces ............................................... 242
7.3.4 Power Stage ........................................................................... 243
7.3.4.1 Control System...................................................... 247
7.3.4.2 Inverter................................................................... 247
7.3.5 Switching Control ................................................................ 248
7.4 Pulse Width Modulation .................................................................. 253
7.5 Variable Frequency Drives Types ................................................... 256
7.5.1 Scalar Control ....................................................................... 256
7.5.1.1 Scalar Control Characteristics ............................ 259
7.5.1.2 Final Considerations on Scalar VFDs ................ 261
7.5.2 Vector Control....................................................................... 262
7.5.2.1 Principles of Direct Current Motor .................... 262
7.5.2.2 Vector Control Principles .................................... 264
7.5.2.3 Open-Loop Vector Control (Sensorless) ............ 271
7.5.2.4 Feedback Control.................................................. 272
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 277

8. Parameters Description of VFD .............................................................. 279

8.1 Data Input and Output Systems ..................................................... 279
8.2 Speed Control Forms in a VFD ....................................................... 280
8.2.1 HMI ........................................................................................ 280
8.2.2 Digital Inputs ........................................................................ 280
8.2.2.1 Multispeed Function............................................ 280
8.2.2.2 Speed Control with Two Digital Inputs ............ 282
8.2.3 Analogue Inputs .................................................................. 282
8.3 Relay Output Functions ................................................................... 282
8.4 VFD Input and Output Connections..............................................284
xii Contents

8.5 Typical VFD Wiring Diagrams ....................................................... 285

8.6 Transferring Configuration Using Human Machine Interface ..... 287
8.7 Application in Process Control ....................................................... 288
8.7.1 Open-Loop Control ............................................................. 288
8.7.2 Closed-Loop Control ........................................................... 288
8.8 VFD Functions ................................................................................... 290
8.8.1 Types of Acceleration and Deceleration Ramps .............. 291
8.8.2 Motor Overload Current ..................................................... 291
8.8.3 Maximum Output Current Limiting ................................ 292
8.8.4 Switching Frequency ........................................................... 292
8.8.5 Avoided Frequencies ........................................................... 293
8.8.6 Automatic Cycle ................................................................... 293
8.8.7 Manual Boost Torque (Compensation IxR) ...................... 293
8.8.8 V/F Curve Adjust ................................................................. 295
8.8.9 Braking .................................................................................. 295
8.8.9.1 DC Injection Braking ........................................... 297
8.8.9.2 Rheostatic Braking ............................................... 298
8.8.9.3 Regenerative Braking ...........................................300
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 301

9. VFD Protection and Installation ............................................................. 303

9.1 VFD Electric Protection .................................................................... 303
9.2 Built-In VFD Protections ..................................................................304
9.2.1 AC and DC Under-Voltage .................................................304
9.2.1.1 Grid Under-Voltage Fault ....................................305
9.2.1.2 DC Bus Fault .........................................................305
9.2.1.3 AC and DC Overvoltage Protections.................306
9.2.2 Overcurrent Protection ....................................................... 307
9.2.3 Earth Leakage Protection ...................................................308
9.2.4 Heat Sink Over-Temperature Protection .......................... 310
9.2.5 Motor Thermal Overload Protection................................. 311
9.2.6 VFD Protections Overview ................................................ 311
9.3 Fault and Diagnostic Information .................................................. 312
9.4 VFD Installation ................................................................................ 314
9.4.1 Power Supply ........................................................................ 314
9.4.2 Variable Frequency Driver Cabling................................... 315
9.4.3 Variable Frequency Drive Output Devices ...................... 316
9.4.3.1 Overload Relays .................................................... 316
9.4.3.2 Load Reactor ......................................................... 316
9.4.4 Environmental Conditions of the Installation ................. 318
9.4.5 Temperature Current Derating .......................................... 318
9.4.6 Altitude Current Derating .................................................. 319
Contents xiii

9.5 Variable Frequency Drive Types of Connections ....................... 320

9.6 Motors in Parallel ............................................................................ 320
9.7 Inside Delta Connection................................................................. 320
9.8 Good Practices for Installing VFDs .............................................. 321
9.9 Harmonics Generated by Variable Frequency Drives ............... 322
9.9.1 Harmonic Definition ....................................................... 322
9.9.2 Harmonic Distortion Analysis....................................... 323
9.9.3 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) ................................. 326
9.9.4 Effects of Harmonic Frequencies on Equipment......... 327
9.9.5 Selecting the Switching Frequency ............................... 327
9.9.6 High dv/dt Rates in Variable Frequency Drives ........... 327
9.9.7 Protection of Motors against High Switching
Frequency.......................................................................... 329
9.9.8 Conclusions about High Switching Frequencies
in Variable Frequency Drives ......................................... 331
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 332

10. Variable Frequency Drive Sizing and Applications ............................ 333

10.1 Variable Frequency Drive Sizing .................................................. 333
10.2 Basic Procedure for VFD Selection ...............................................334
10.2.1 Motor Selection ................................................................ 335
10.3 Variable Frequency Drive Selection according to the Type
of Load .............................................................................................. 337
10.4 Load Types .......................................................................................340
10.4.1 Load Torque Characteristics........................................... 341
10.5 Speed Range Selection....................................................................345
10.6 VFD Applications ............................................................................ 347
10.6.1 Ventilation ......................................................................... 347
10.6.2 Load Division (Master-Slave) ......................................... 349
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 350

Appendix: Motors Wiring Diagrams............................................................. 353

Glossary ............................................................................................................... 363
Bibliography........................................................................................................ 371
Index ..................................................................................................................... 373
Preface

There are many good electrical machine books that present a rigorous and
detailed analysis of its principle of operation meeting the needs of academia
and research. However, there are many technologists, engineers, experi-
menters and others who are not interested in these aspects, but rather in
practical aspects.
This book targets the large amount of people that know about electric con-
cepts, but need practical knowledge related to electric inductions motors.
The motivation to elaborate the book is due to the difficulty of obtaining a
didactic material that deals with electrical induction motor starters, with an
objective and pleasant language and without losing the technical and formal
essence.
This work content was developed based on the author experience of more
than 10 years of working in research and industry in the areas of electrical
drives and industrial automation, with the objective of treating the concepts
in a practical way, seeking the connection between theory and its application.
It presents a detailed conceptual description with lots of figures and illus-
trative examples that harmonize the theoretical approach with the practice,
which allows the full understanding of the content.
It is composed of 10 chapters and one appendix that describe in a dynamic
and didactic way the fundamental concepts related to electric induction
motor starters. At the end of each chapter is a set of exercises to ease the fixa-
tion of the presented content.
It also provides comprehensive coverage of electric motors and main rel-
evant applications. Direct current (DC), synchronous, reluctance and perma-
nent magnet motors are presented. The induction motor is treated in more
depth as it is currently the most widely used motor in the industry.
It addresses the concepts related to single-phase electric motors from the
description of their operating principle, electrical and constructive charac-
teristics and wiring.
It presents the definitions of electrical power, power factor, its causes,
methods of measurement and correction.
The electrical devices employed in induction motors starting methods are
treated intensely with the description of their characteristics, through tech-
nical concepts and with the helping of figures, making it possible to under-
stand and size the wiring diagrams most used in electric drives.

xv
xvi Preface

It deals with electronic starters: soft-starter and variable frequency drives,

introducing its principle of operation, characteristics, forms of connection in
addition to concepts of installation and parameterization.
It provides the main electrical diagrams used in practice and the descrip-
tion of the symbology adopted by international standards National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) (USA) and International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) (Europe).
It is recommended to technicians and engineers and people who work in
the areas of automation, mechatronics and electrical, as well as professionals
who wish to keep updated.
8 Electrical Machine Drives

FIGURE 1.9
Compound excited motor configuration.

When the load is applied on the shaft, the current in the series field increases
and, consequently, the magnetic field increases, but the magnetic field in the
shunt winding remains constant. This causes the speed (which depends on
the flow ø) to fall from no-load to full-load conditions between 10% and 30%.
There are two connection types for this cumulative compound motor
where the magnetic field of the shunt fields and series are summed and the
differential compound where the series field is connected in order to oppose
the magnetic field is generated by the shunt winding.
NO T E : The constant development of power electronics should lead to a
progressive reduction in the use of DC motors. This is because variable fre-
quency drives developed for induction motors, especially the squirrel cage,
are already becoming more attractive options in terms of speed control due
to association with the low cost and maintenance of this type of motor.

1.1.2 Alternating Current Induction Motors

Most applications have their most economical configuration with the use of
squirrel cage induction motors; it is estimated that this type of motor has
around 90% (in units) of the motors manufactured in the world.
The induction motor has become the most used type in the industry
because most systems of electric power distribution are AC. Compared with
the DC motor, the induction motor has the advantage of simplicity, which
translates into low cost and maximum efficiency with minimal maintenance.
The efficiency is high for medium and maximum loads, with an acceptable
power factor when a correct selection is made.
We will start our study by presenting, in the following, the main single-
phase induction motors.

1.1.2.1 Single-Phase Induction Motors

Single-phase motors are so called because their field windings are connected
directly to a single-phase supply. Among the various types of single-phase
Another random document with
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 LILIES

I THINK most of you know by sight at least one of the three

following flowers.

Fig. 162

I have asked for pictures of three different kinds of lilies, so that

the city and country children alike may recognize an old friend; for
every spring the white Easter lily (Fig. 162) stands outside the flower
shops, and decorates the churches, and travels through the streets
in the peddler’s cart; while in summer time the country is bright with
the wood and meadow lilies (Figs. 163, 164).

Fig. 163

And I hope that even now one of the living blossoms is before you,
for I want you to see for yourselves what plan these lilies use in
flower building.
The building plan of the cherry, you remember, began with a green
cup or calyx.
Do you find in the lily any green cup?
No, there is nothing of the sort in the lilies. You see only a circle of
flower leaves. In the last chapter you learned to call such a circle the
corolla. But the wise men say that without a calyx there cannot be a
real corolla. So in the lily we will speak of the “flower leaves” instead
of the corolla.

Fig. 164

Next we find six of the pins with dust boxes, or the stamens.
And then we come to the pin with a seedbox below, or the pistil.
So the building plan of the lily has only three divisions:—
1. Flower leaves.
2. Stamens.
3. Pistil.
If you look at the lower side of the outer row of flower leaves, you
will see that they are streaked with green; and that when the flower
is still in bud, only the green, thick parts of these leaves are exposed
to the wind and cold, while the more delicate parts of the blossom
are hidden almost as snugly as though they were covered by the
leaves of a green cup or calyx.
 Fig. 165

These lilies are pleasant flowers to study. Their different parts are
so large and simple that you have no doubt as to what they are
meant for. The bees could hardly overlook their great, showy
handkerchiefs; and the heaping dust boxes must powder the visiting
bees so freely with golden or brownish dust, that plenty of this is sure
to be carried to the pistil of a neighboring blossom; and the flat tip of
this pistil is so large and so sticky, that, once the dust is brushed
upon it, it is sure to stay there until its wonderful work is
accomplished.
The gay tulip (Fig. 165) is a cousin to the lily. It is built on almost
the same plan. There is no green cup in the tulip; but every tulip has
1. Flower leaves.
2. Stamens.
3. Pistil.
The tip of the tulip’s pistil is divided into three parts.
 ABOUT STAMENS

L ET us take a good look at the stamens of the Easter lily. There

are six of these. Each dust box is fastened to the tip of a tall
stalk. Fig. 166 shows you a single stamen from the Easter lily. It is
drawn somewhat larger than life. Its box has opened, and is letting
out some grains of dust.

Fig.
166

There are many different kinds of stamens. I will show you some
pictures that will give you an idea of their great variety. Here is one
taken from the flower of the shin leaf (Fig. 167). The dust makes its
escape through two little openings at the very top of the box.
 Fig.
167

That shown in Fig. 168 is from the barberry. The sides of the box
open like a door which is hinged on top. This arrangement lets out a
quantity of dust.
Here is a collection of stamens of different sorts. Fig. 169 has two
boxes at the top of its stalk, and so has Fig. 171. Fig. 172 has a
crosspiece, with a good-sized box at one end, and only the little
beginnings of a box at the other. Fig. 170 has a similar crosspiece,
with a box at one end only.

Fig. 168
 Fig. 169

You see that flower faces show quite as much variety as do the
faces of the people you know. You must not expect to find stamens
all alike, any more than you would expect all the boys and girls you
know to have noses of the same shape, or hair of the same color.

Fig. 170
 Fig. 171

Fig. 172

This picture (Fig. 173) shows you all the stamens of the pea
blossom. Do you notice that quite a number of these (nine, in fact)
grow together close about the pistil, while the tenth one stands
alone? That is a strange custom always observed by the stamens of
the pea.
 Fig. 173

Fig. 174

Next we see all the stamens from one of the tiny flowers of the
golden-rod (Fig. 174). These are very much larger than life. There
are five of them, fastened together in a sort of tube. Split open this
tube and flatten it out. Now they look like five little sisters, arm in arm
(Fig. 175).
And here, again joined in a tube, we see the stamens of the
mallow (Fig. 176). From the hollow of this tube stand out the tops of
the mallow’s pistils.
Some flowers have so many stamens that you would find it almost
impossible to count them. This little blossom (Fig. 177), the
enchanter’s nightshade (drawn much larger than life), has only two.

Fig. 175

Fig. 176

Fig. 177
 I hope that you children, from now on, will be unwilling to pass by
a flower without looking to see whether its stamens are few or many;
and I hope you will try to carry away in your minds a clear idea of the
size and shape of their dust boxes.
 FLOWER DUST, OR POLLEN

W HEN a child smells a flower, he is apt to put his nose right into
the middle of the blossom, and to take it out with a dab of
yellow dust upon its tip.
When he brushes off this dust, of course he does not stop to think
that each tiny grain holds a speck of the wonderful material we read
about some time ago, the material without which there can be no life.
And probably he does not know that the dust grains from the lily
are quite unlike those which he rubs upon his nose when he smells a
daisy; that different kinds of flowers yield different kinds of flower
dust.
If you should look through a microscope at a grain of flower dust
from the lily, you would see an object resembling Fig. 178.
 Fig. 178 Fig. 179 Fig. 180 Fig. 181 Fig. 182

Fig. 179 shows a grain from the pretty blue flower of the chicory.
Fig. 180 is a dust grain from the flower of the pine tree. Fig. 181 is
from the laurel, and the odd-looking Fig. 182 is from a dust box of
the evening primrose.

Fig. 183

The next picture (Fig. 183) shows you a group of dust grains from
flowers of different kinds, one looking like a porcupine, another like a
sea shell, another like some strange water animal, and all, I fancy,
quite unlike any idea you may have had as to the appearance of a
grain of flower dust.
When you are older, I hope it may be your good luck to see
through a microscope some of the odd shapes and curious markings
of different kinds of flower dust, or “pollen,” as this flower dust is
called in the books.
And now that you know something of the appearance of flower
dust, perhaps you wish to learn a little more of the way in which it
helps the flower to turn into the fruit.
 ABOUT PISTILS

Fig.
184

B UT first you must know a little something about the pistil, if I am

really to make clear to you how the flower dust helps the flower
to change into fruit.
This picture (Fig. 184) shows you the pistil of the lily. At the foot of
this pistil, you remember, is the box which holds the lily’s seeds.
The top of the lily’s pistil is quite large and somewhat flat. It is
almost as sticky as if it had received a dab of glue.
This flat top dwindles below into a stalk, which grows larger again
at its lower end.
Now take a sharp knife and cut open lengthwise this pistil.
The lower, thicker part, seen through a magnifying glass, looks like
Fig. 185. You see a great many baby seeds fastened to a central
wall. Each one of these seeds holds a speck of the wonderful
material without which there is no life. But this speck of life has not
the power to make the seed grow into a plant. To do this, the seed
must have some outside help; and this help can come only from a
grain of flower dust.

Fig.
185

Perhaps you wonder how a dust grain brushed on the pistil’s flat
top can ever reach the baby seeds hidden away in the seedbox.
I could not tell you to-day how this is done were it not for those
wise and patient men and women who have spent days and weeks
and months, and even years, in watching and studying the ways of
plants.
But first let me ask you a question.
What happens when a healthy seed falls on moist ground?
Why, it seems to take in the moisture, and to thrive upon it. It
swells up, and at last it bursts open, and it sends a root down into
the earth.
Now, something not altogether unlike this happens when a lily dust
grain falls upon the moist tip of a lily pistil. The dust grain sucks in
the moisture. It grows bigger and bigger. The outer skin becomes too
small for the swelling contents. At last it bursts open, letting out a
little tube.
This little tube works its way down through the stalk of the pistil,
almost as a root pushes down into the earth, and at last it reaches
one of the seeds in the seedbox below.
And into this tiny seed the little tube pushes its way.

Fig.
186

The tube has carried with it that speck of wonderful living material
which every dust grain holds. And when this living speck has been
added to that which the seed already holds, a great change begins
to come about.
This new touch of life, added to that already present, gives the lily
seed the power to grow into a lily plant.
The other dust grains that were brushed upon the flat top of the
lily’s pistil act in just the same way. Apparently without difficulty the
different tubes find their way to the different seeds, till at last each
one has received the fresh touch of life without which it cannot grow
into a lily plant.
 Fig.
187

I cannot show a lily dust grain in the act of sending out its life-
bearing tube; but above is a dust grain (Fig. 186) from the thorn
apple. You see that it has burst open, and that a tube is pushing its
way out.
This picture (Fig. 187) is that of a pistil seedbox cut open, showing
you a tube that is working its way from the dust grain above to a tiny
seed in the seedbox below.
As I told you in the last chapter, the name “pollen” has been given
to this wonder-working flower dust. A grain of flower dust is a grain of
pollen.
In many flowers you will find a pistil much like the one that you see
in the lily.
But there are as many different kinds of pistils as there are
different kinds of stamens.
This pistil (Fig. 188) is from the grass of Parnassus, that pretty
white flower which you find in the wet meadows in August and
September. It has no real stalk, you see, like that of the lily; but it is
quite thick all the way from top to bottom. In Fig. 189 it is cut across,
showing the seeds inside.
 Fig. 188 Fig. 189 Fig. 190 Fig. 191 Fig. 192

Many pistils that are joined in one piece below, where the seeds
are held, separate above into two or more parts. Fig. 190 shows the
seed holder of a saxifrage, divided into two pieces above; Fig. 191
gives that of the Saint John’s-wort, separating into three parts; that of
the sundew (Fig. 192) separates into six parts. Fig. 193 is a section
of the pea flower. This is cut lengthwise so as to show you the seeds
which line the inner surface of the pistil. Here you have the baby pea
pod.
All these flowers have only one real pistil,—one pistil which may
persuade you, by the way in which it separates above, into thinking
that there are more than one. So you must be on your guard in this
respect, and remember that flowers have a way of playing tricks with
all but the most wide-awake of boys and girls. Look long and
carefully before you declare that a flower has only one pistil.

Fig. 193
 Here we see half of a buttercup (Fig. 194). The buttercup has a
great many entirely separate pistils. Look sharply at the picture, and
you will see them crowded upon the little thimble-shaped object in
the middle of the blossom. Do not confuse them with the stamens,
for the buttercup has also a great many stamens. When buttercup
time comes round, I want every one of you to look at these many
pistils and stamens.

Fig. 194

Fig. 195

The next picture (Fig. 195) shows you a strawberry. In the

strawberry blossom the pistils are so small, and so crowded, and so
hidden by the many stamens, that it is not easy to see them; and so I
show you the full-grown berry, with little pistils scattered all over its
surface. Each of those tiny objects which stand out on the strawberry
is a separate pistil.
Whenever you look at a flower, I want you to remember that its
bright flower leaves will soon fade and fall, and that its stamens will
lose their pollen and wither away, but that the pistil or pistils will
remain, turning at last into the ripened fruit,—the fruit which is the
end, the aim, the object, of the plant’s life.
 THE FIRST ARRIVAL

I SHOULD like to ask each of you children to tell me what flower

you believe to be first to come in the spring.
Some of you have never stopped to think about this. But there are
sure to be a few among you who will name one special flower as the
earliest of the year.
Perhaps even in March you may have ventured into the woods to
look for the lovely, fragrant, waxlike blossoms of the trailing arbutus.
You know the sheltered hollow where the snow first melts; and there
the delicate pink flowers make you glad with their beauty, and with
the thought of the good time coming. To some of us this first hunt for
the arbutus is one of the great events of the year. It means the
beginning of long, delicious hours in the fresh air, with birds and
trees and butterflies and wild flowers as our chosen companions.
 But not all of you will agree that this trailing arbutus is the first
spring flower. Many think the violet can lay claim to this honor. The
yellow violet especially may be found in the woods before the trees
have put forth their leaves.
And some say that the little blue liverwort (sometimes this is pink
or white) is the earliest of all; and others vote for the spring beauty,
or for the yellow adder’s tongue, or for the Dutchman’s breeches, or
for the anemone.
And still others say that the marsh marigold, the shining flower that
in April gilds the wet meadows, leads the procession.
But you are wrong, every one of you. The earliest blossom of the
year makes its appearance long before any of these flowers you
have mentioned.
The first plant to blossom knows better than to proclaim the
change of season by anything so fragile as a violet, an anemone, a
spring beauty. It sends out its rather coarse little flowers under the
protection of a tough waterproof hood, which shields them from the
rude winds and nipping cold.
This plant bears the ugly name of skunk cabbage (Fig. 196). Its
broken stem and leaves give out an odor which at once persuades
you that its title is deserved.

Fig. 196

In the swamps the skunk cabbages send up by the dozen the

curious purple hoods which curl about the thick clusters of little
flowers. When you come across a colony of these queer-looking
objects, no wonder it never occurs to you that the first flower of