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ELECTRICAL BRAIN STIMULATION
FOR THE TREATMENT OF
NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
ELECTRICAL BRAIN STIMULATION
FOR THE TREATMENT OF
NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS

Bahman Zohuri, PhD

Patrick J. McDaniel, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-851-6 (Hardcover)
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Electrical brain stimulation for the treatment of neurological disorders / Bahman Zohuri,
Patrick J. McDaniel.
Names: Zohuri, Bahman, author. | McDaniel, Patrick J., author.
Description: Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20190125098 | Canadiana (ebook) 20190125128 | ISBN 9781771888516
(hardcover) | ISBN 9780429325632 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Brain stimulation. | LCSH: Electric stimulation. | LCSH: Nervous system—Diseases—
Treatment.
Classification: LCC QP388 .Z64 2019 | DDC 152—dc23

CIP data on file with US Library of Congress

Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Apple Academic Press products, visit
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 This book is dedicated to my son, Sasha
—Bahman Zohuri

————

This book is dedicated to my sons, Peter and Philip

—Patrick J. McDaniel
About the Authors

Bahman Zohuri, PhD, is currently working as an Associate Research

Professor at the University of New Mexico and as a Consultant at Sandia
National Lab as well as at Galaxy Advanced Engineering, Inc.—a
consulting company that he started himself in 1991 when he left both the
semiconductor and defense industries.
After graduating from the University of Illinois in the field of physics
and applied mathematics, Dr. Zohuri went to the University of New Mexico,
where he studied nuclear engineering and mechanical engineering. He
joined Westinghouse Electric Corporation, where he performed thermal
hydraulic analysis and studied natural circulation in an inherent shutdown
heat removal system (ISHRS) in the core of a liquid metal fast breeder
reactor (LMFBR) as a secondary fully inherent shutdown system acting
as a secondary loop heat exchange. All these designs were used in nuclear
safety and reliability engineering for a self-actuated shutdown system. He
designed a mercury heat pipe and electromagnetic pumps for large pool
concepts of a LMFBR for heat rejection purposes for this reactor around
1978, when he received a patent for it. He was subsequently transferred to
the defense division of Westinghouse, where he oversaw dynamic analysis
and methods of launching and controlling MX missiles from canisters.
The results were applied to MX launch seal performance and muzzle
blast phenomena analysis (i.e., missile vibration and hydrodynamic shock
formation).
Dr. Zohuri was also involved in analytical calculations and computa-
tions in the study of nonlinear ion waves in rarefying plasma. The results
were applied to the propagation of so-called soliton waves and the resulting
charge collector traces in the rarefaction characterization of the corona
of laser-irradiated target pellets. As part of his graduate research work at
Argonne National Laboratory, he performed computations and program-
ming of multi-exchange integrals in surface physics and solid-state
physics. He earned various patents in areas such as diffusion processes
and diffusion furnace design while working as a senior process engineer
at various semiconductor companies, such as Intel Corp., Varian Medical
Systems, and National Semiconductor Corporation. He later joined Lock-
heed Martin Missile and Aerospace Corporation as Senior Chief Scientist
viii About the Authors

and oversaw research and development (R&D) and the study of the vulner-
ability, survivability, and both radiation and laser hardening of different
components of the Strategic Defense Initiative, known as Star Wars. Dr.
Zohuri holds a PhD in Nuclear Engineering.

Patrick J. McDaniel, PhD, is currently working as an Adjunct and

Research Professor at the Department of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering,
University of New Mexico. Dr. McDaniel began his career as a pilot and
maintenance officer in the U.S. Air Force. After leaving the Air Force and
obtaining his doctorate at Purdue University, he worked at Sandia National
Laboratories in fast reactor safety, integral cross-section measurements,
nuclear weapons vulnerability, space nuclear power, and nuclear propul-
sion. He left Sandia to become the technical leader for Phillips Laboratory’s
(which became part of the Air Force Research Laboratory) Satellite Assess-
ment Center. After 10 years at PL/AFRL, he returned to Sandia to lead and
manage DARPA’s Stimulated Isomer Energy Release project, a $10M per
year effort. While at Sandia, he worked on the Yucca Mountain Project and
DARPA’s classified UER-X program.
Having taught at the University of New Mexico in the Graduate Nuclear
engineering program for 25 years, when he retired from Sandia in early
2009, he joined the faculty at the University of New Mexico full time. He
has worked on multiple classified and unclassified projects in the application
of nuclear engineering to high energy systems. Dr. McDaniel holds a PhD in
Nuclear Engineering from Purdue University.
Contents

About the Authors....................................................................................................vii

Abbreviations ...........................................................................................................xi

Preface .................................................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xix

1. Foundation of Electromagnetic Theory ........................................................1

2. All About Wave Equations ...........................................................................85

3. Computational Neuroscience and Compartmental Modeling ................285

4. The Impact of Technology on Mental Health ...........................................353

5. Sleep Promoting Improvement of Declarative Memory .........................403

6. Electrical Brain Stimulation to Treat Neurological Disorders................429

7. Brain Stimulation Therapies ......................................................................491

Appendix ...............................................................................................................517

Index .....................................................................................................................531
Abbreviations

AC alternating current
Ach acetylcholine
ADHD attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
AGI artificial general intelligence
AI artificial intelligence
AIM artificial ionospheric mirror
AMI any mental illness
ASI artificial super-intelligence
BAEAT BAE advanced technologies
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BL Boolean logic
BRS business resilience system
CAD coronary artery disease
CBS cortical brain stimulation
CBT cognitive behavioral therapy
CCD charge coupled device
CCTM classical computational theory of mind
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CES cranial electrotherapy stimulation
CFVP curl-free vector potential
CNS central nervous system
CS cognitive science
CT computed tomography
CTM computational theory of mind
CW continuous wave
DALYs disability-adjusted life years
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DBS deep brain stimulation
DBS brain stimulation
DBS deep brain stimulation
DC direct current
DDD dirty, dangerous, dull
DE directed energy
DEWs directed energy weapons
xii Abbreviations

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

DPU die progress unit
ECoG electrocorticography
ECT electroconvulsive therapy
EEG electroencephalogram
EEG electroencephalography
EF electric field
ELF extremely low frequency
ELF extreme low frequency
EM electromagnetic
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMP electromagnetic pulse
EMU epilepsy monitoring unit
EMW electromagnetic waves
EP evoked potentials
ERPs event-related potentials
ESP electrostatic scalar potential
FAA finite aperture approximations
FD feedback device
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FL fuzzy logic
fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
FSMB US Federation of State Medical Boards
FW frozen wave
GENESIS general neural simulation system
GPS general problem solver
HAARP High-Frequency Active Auroral Research Program
HF high frequency
HIPAA Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
HLMI human-level machine intelligence
IL-2 interleukin-2
IR infrared thermal radiation
IRI ionospheric research instrument
ISHRS inherent shutdown heat removal system
LMFBR liquid metal fast breeder reactor
LSW longitudinal scalar waves
LW long wave
LW localized wave
MDD major depressive disorder
MEG magnetoencephalography
Abbreviations xiii

MEP motor-evoked potential

Mg2+ magnesium
MNT’s Medical News Today
MOSE MOdulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MST magnetic seizure therapy
MT motor threshold
MW medium wave
MW microwave
N nodes
NCS-A National Comorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement
NDW non-diffracting wave
NIBS non-invasive brain stimulation
NIH National Institutes of Health
NIMH National Institute of Mental Health
NLP natural language processing
NLX non-linear X-wave
NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate
NNs neural networks
NREM non-rapid eye movement
NSAIDs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
NSDUH National Survey on Drug Use and Health
OCD obsessive-compulsive disorder
OTC over-the-counter
PAL paired associate learning
PCs personal computers
PDA personal device assistant
PDMS practice data management system
PET positron emission tomography
PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder
QE quantum electromagnetic
QED quantum electrodynamic
QEEG quantitative electroencephalography
QM quantum mechanics
R resultant amplitude
R&D research and development
REM rapid eye movement
RHR right-hand-rule
RMT resting motor threshold
rTES repetitive transcranial electrical stimulation
xiv Abbreviations

SAD seasonal affective disorder

SAI supper artificial intelligence
SCIO scientific consciousness interface operation
SDI strategic defense initiative
SM social media
SMI serious mental illness
SU special unitary
SW short wave
SW scalar wave
SWS slow-wave sleep
tACS transcranial alternating current stimulation
tDCS transcranial direct current stimulation
TE transverse electric
TEM transverse electric and magnetic
TES transcranial electrical stimulation
TES transcranial electrotherapy stimulation
Tis targeted individuals
TM transverse magnetic
TMS transcranial magnetic stimulation
TT turing test
TTT total turing test
TW transverse wave
UHF ultra high frequency
UPWs undistorted progressive waves
UTM universal turing machine
VHF very high frequency
VLA very large array
VLF very low frequency
VNS vagus nerve stimulation
WHO World Health Organization
Zn2+ zinc
Preface

Neurological disorders with symptoms such as chronic pain, depression,

and insomnia are widespread. Very weak electric fields applied through the
skull can enhance or diminish neural activity and modulate brain waves in
order to treat many of these common medical problems. This approach is
to be contrasted with well-established pharmacological methods or more
recent invasive electrical deep brain stimulation (DBS) techniques that
require surgery to insert electrodes deep into the brain. We claim that non-
invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) will provide new treatment methods with
much greater simplicity, lower cost, improved safety, and, in some cases,
possibly greater effectiveness. This emerging use of NIBS is a branch of a
new multidisciplinary field that we coined “neuro-systems engineering.”
This field involves neuroscientists, psychologists, and electrical engineers.
This emerging field relies on existing standards for the safe implementation
of these novel treatment modalities.
Methods of stimulating the brain are based on emerging electro-technol-
ogies such as transcranial direct current/alternating current (DC/AC) electric
fields and pulsed magnetic fields. Application of functional and time-depen-
dent brain imaging methods can be used to locate relevant brain regions and
determine the most appropriate stimulation method. Application of tailored
and individualized control can be combined with other therapy methods to
effectively treat neurological disorders while minimizing or even eliminating
the use of pharmaceuticals.
In this book, we are presenting our embodiment for a closed loop,
feedback-controlled, and non-invasive application of electrical stimulation
of the brain to enhance individual/group performance or to treat neurological
disorders.
In Chapter 1, we are presenting the fundamentals of the electromag-
netic and electrical field to prepare readers with these sets of knowledge
for those who do not have such background or to be a refresher for others
with such knowledge. In order to study any electromagnetic or electrical
field stimulation and its behavior for a source of driving any treatment
for transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or transcranial electrical
stimulation (TES) for a controlled non-invasive reaction for the purpose
xvi Preface

of depression treatment, understanding of the fundamental knowledge of

the electromagnetic and electrical field theory is essential. In this chapter,
we introduce vector analysis, Maxwell equations, and the Biot-Savart law
for better understanding these fields’ behavior for the treatment purpose of
a non-invasive approach. The purpose of this chapter is to give a brief but
self-contained exposition of basic vector analysis to bring to the forefront
the physical ideas involved in equations and to provide knowledge of the
field that is required for the treatment of electromagnetic wave. The chapter
also discusses Maxwell’s equations.
In Chapter 2, we are describing all types of waves both from electromag-
netic and electric fields using quantum electrodynamics and a classical elec-
trodynamic approach as well. The fundamental definition of the terminology
that is known to us as wave consists of a series of examples of different
situations, which we are referring to as waves. However, the one feature that
is the common denominator for the type of waves is that they propagate in
one or other directions, and they create some kind of “disturbance” in their
path of their propagations. For example, in case of water waves, we observe
the elevation of water surface, and in case of the sound wave, we experience
pressure variations in its path of travel, with a velocity characteristic of the
medium the wave goes through. However, for us to be able to describe a
wave, we need a more definitive way of describing the wave with the use
of mathematics, and primarily the concept of partial differential equation
type scenarios, which goes beyond the level of most any basic textbook.
Thus, in this chapter, we try to establish, first of all, what the wave is in
general, and secondly to describe in each form or shape these waves that are
produced both from classical and relativistic mechanics, as well as electro-
dynamics point of views. This approach allows us to identify mechanical
wave, electromagnetic waves, and finally, the quantum mechanical waves as
well. Within each of these categories then, we can establish types of wave
and have classified them such as soliton waves, scalar waves, plasma waves,
shock waves, etc.
Chapter 3 deals with computation of neuroscience and compartmental
modeling, where we look at the history of such subjects. The last several years
have seen a dramatic increase in the number of neurobiologists building or
using computer-based models as a regular part of their efforts to understand
how different neural systems function. As experimental data continue to be
amassed, it is increasingly clear that detailed physiological and anatomical
data alone are not an ensouled model to infer how neural circuits work.
Experimentalists appear to be recognizing the need for the quantitative
approach to exploring the functional consequences of particular neuronal
8 Electrical Brain Stimulation for the Treatment of Neurological Disorders


we have found the general form of the vector X that satisfies Eq. (1.17).

There is no unique solution, and this fact accounts for the vector B . In the
same fashion, we may consider the vector equation as:
  
C = A× X (1.19)

  
In Eq. (1.19), both vector A and C are known vectors and X is an unknown
vector. The general solution of this equation is then given by:
 
 C× A 
X =   + kA (1.20)
A⋅ A

where k is an arbitrary scalar. Thus, X as defined by Eq. (1.20) is very nearly
 
the quotient of C by A ; the scalar k takes account of the non-uniqueness of

the process. If X is required to satisfy both Eqs. (1.17) and (1.19), then the
result is unique, if it exists and is given by:
  
 C × A cA
X =   +   (1.21)
A⋅ A A⋅ A

1.2.2 VECTOR GRADIENT

Now that we have covered basic vector algebra, we pay our attention to
vector calculus, which extends to vector gradient, integration, vector curl and
differentiation of vectors. The simplest of these is the relation of a particular
vector field to the derivative of a scalar field.
For that matter, it is convenient to introduce the idea of directional
derivative of a function of several variables, which we leave it to the reader
to find these analyses in any vector calculus book to find the details such
derivative that is beyond the intended scope of this book and we just jump to
the definition of vector gradient.
The gradient of a scalar function φ is a vector whose magnitude is the
maximum directional derivative at the point is being, considered and whose
direction is the direction of the maximum directional derivative at the point.
Using the geometry of Figure 1.3, we put this definition into some perspec-
tive, and it is evident that the gradient has the direction to the level surface
of φ through the point as we said is being, coinsured.
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