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Donald A. Nield · Adrian Bejan

Convection
in Porous
Media
Fifth Edition
Convection in Porous Media
Donald A. Nield • Adrian Bejan

Convection in Porous Media

Fifth Edition
Donald A. Nield Adrian Bejan
Department of Engineering Science Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Auckland and Materials Science
Auckland, New Zealand Duke University
Durham, NC, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-49561-3 ISBN 978-3-319-49562-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-49562-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017931960

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
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herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To our wives
Rachel Nield and Mary Bejan
Our children
Cherry, Alexandra, and Peter Nield
Cristina, Teresa, and William Bejan
Our grandchildren
Michael and Rachel van der Mark
Charlotte and Susan Nield
Elizabeth and John Hayman
Preface to the Fifth Edition

In our preface to the first edition (1992) of this book, we wrote that we had tried to
provide a user-friendly introduction to the topic of convection in porous media. We
assumed that the reader was conversant with the basic elements of fluid mechanics
and heat transfer but otherwise the book was self-contained, with only routine
classic mathematics employed. We hoped that the book would be useful both as a
review (for reference) and as a tutorial work (suitable as a textbook in a graduate
course or seminar). In subsequent editions we retained the basic structure and most
of the text of the previous editions.
Papers on convection in porous media are now being published at the rate of one
a day. In the latest edition there are about 2800 new references. In previous editions
we did not attempt to provide an exhaustive list, but now we have tried to improve
the archival value of our book by making the list more comprehensive, within the
stated scope of our book. To this end we have now cited a number of earlier papers
that, for one reason or another, were not cited in previous editions. Most of the new
publications have been fitted into existing sections, but new subsections have been
provided for those publications involving nanofluids. Our literature survey covers
papers published prior to the end of 2016.
Once again we decided that, except for a brief mention, convection in unsatu-
rated media had to be beyond the scope of this book, and our coverage is mainly
confined to single phase flow. Also, we are aware that there are some topics in the
area of hydrology and geophysics that could be regarded as coming under the
umbrella of the title of our book but are not treated here. Papers solely concerned
with numerical methodology are generally omitted.
We are grateful to a large number of people for their comments on the material
in previous editions. Other colleagues have continued to improve our understanding
of the subject of this book in ways too numerous to mention here.

vii
viii Preface to the Fifth Edition

We wish to thank our employers, the University of Auckland and Duke

University, for their ongoing support.

Auckland, New Zealand Donald A. Nield

Durham, NC, USA Adrian Bejan
Preface to the Fourth Edition

Papers on convection in porous media continue to be published at a rate that is now

over 250 per year. This indication of the continued importance of the subject,
together with the wide acceptance of the first, second, and third editions of the
book, has encouraged us to prepare an expanded fourth edition. We have retained
the basic structure and most of the text of the third edition. We have not attempted
to be exhaustive in our choice of references, but nevertheless there are approxi-
mately 1750 new citations to the literature! Again, we have made an effort to
highlight new conceptual developments and engineering applications.
We found that it was possible to fit most of the new material under the existing
section headings. However, we now have new sections on nanofluids, carbon
dioxide sequestration, and the reaction scenarios that arise in a geological context.
Once again we decided that, except for a brief mention, convection in unsatu-
rated media was beyond the scope of this book. Also, we are aware that there are
some topics in the area of hydrology that could be regarded as coming under the
umbrella of the title of our book but are not treated here.
We are grateful to a large number of people for their comments on the material in
previous editions. Other colleagues have continued to improve our understanding of
the subject of this book in ways too numerous to mention here.
We wish to thank our employers, the University of Auckland and Duke Univer-
sity, for their ongoing support.
Once again we relied on the expertise and hard work of Deborah Fraze for the
preparation of our manuscript.

Auckland, New Zealand Donald A. Nield

Durham, NC, USA Adrian Bejan

ix
Preface to the Third Edition

Papers on convection in porous media continue to be published at the rate what is

now over 200 per year. The indication of the continued importance of the subject,
together with the wide acceptance of the first and second editions of this volume,
has encouraged us to prepare an expanded third edition. We have retained the basic
structure and most of the text of the second edition. We have been somewhat
selective in our choice of references, but nevertheless there are over 1400 new
references. Again, we have made an effort to highlight new conceptual develop-
ments and engineering applications.
We found that it was possible to fit a lot of the new material under the existing
section headings. However, we now have new sections on bidisperse porous media,
local thermal nonequilibrium, electrodiffusion, transverse heterogeneity in chan-
nels, thermal development of forced convection, effects of temperature-dependent
viscosity, constructal multiscale flow structures, optimal spacings for plates sepa-
rated by porous structures, control of convection using vertical vibration, and
bioconvection.
Once again we decided that, except for a brief mention, convection in unsatu-
rated media had to be beyond the scope of this book. Also, we are aware that there
are some topics in the area of hydrology that could be regarded as coming under the
umbrella of the title of our book but are not treated here.
We are grateful to a large number of people who provided us, prior to publica-
tion, with copies of their chapters of books that survey research on various topics.
Other colleagues have continued to improve our understanding of the subject of this
book in ways too numerous to mention here.
We wish to thank our employers, the University of Auckland and Duke Univer-
sity, for their ongoing support.
Once again we relied on the expertise and hard work of Linda Hayes and
Deborah Fraze for the preparation of the electronic version of our manuscript.

Auckland, New Zealand Donald A. Nield

Durham, NC, USA Adrian Bejan

xi
Preface to the Second Edition

Papers on convection in porous media continue to be published at the rate of over

100 per year. This indication of the continued importance of the subject, together
with the wide acceptance of the first edition, has encouraged us to prepare an
expanded second edition. We have retained the basic structure and most of the
text of the first edition. With space considerations in mind, we have been selective
in our choice of references, but nevertheless there are over 600 new references.
We also made an effort to highlight new conceptual developments and engineering
applications.
In the introductory material, we judged that Chaps. 2 and 3 needed little
alteration (though there is a new Sect. 2.6 on other approaches to the topic), but
our improved understanding of the basic modeling of flow through a porous
medium has led to a number of changes in Chap. 1, both within the old sections
and by the addition of a section on turbulence in porous media and a section on
fractured media, deformable media, and complex porous structures.
In Chap. 4, on forced convection, we have added major new sections on compact
heat exchangers, on heatlines for visualizing convection, and on constructal tree
networks for the geometric minimization of the resistance to volume-to-point flows
in heterogeneous porous media.
In Chap. 5 (external natural convection) there is a substantial amount of new
material inserted in the existing sections. In Chaps. 6 and 7, on internal natural
convection, we now have included descriptions of the effects of a magnetic field
and rotation, and there are new sections on periodic heating and on sources in
confined or partly confined regions; the latter is a reflection of the current interest in
the problem of nuclear waste disposal. In Chap. 8, on mixed convection, there are
no new sections, but in a new subsection we have given some prominence to the
unified theory that has been developed for boundary layer situations. In Chap. 9, on
double-diffusive convection (heat and mass transfer) there is a new section on
convection produced by inclined gradients, a topic that has also been given wider
coverage in the related section in Chap. 7.

xiii
xiv Preface to the Second Edition

In Chap. 10, which deals with convection with change of phase, we have a new
subsection on the solidification of binary alloys, a research area that has blossomed
in the last decade. We also have a new section on spaces filled with fluid and fibers
coated with a phase-change material. In the first edition we had little to say about
two-phase flow, despite its importance in geothermal and other contexts. We now
have included a substantial discussion on this topic, which we have placed at the
end of Chap. 11 (geophysical aspects). Once again we decided that, except for a
brief mention, convection in unsaturated media had to be beyond the scope of
this book.
D.A.N. again enjoyed the hospitality of the Department of Mechanical Engi-
neering and Materials Science at Duke University while on Research and Study
Leave from the University of Auckland, and both of those institutions again
provided financial support.
We are grateful for comments from Graham Weir and Roger Young on a draft of
Sect. 11.9, a topic on which we had much to learn. We also are grateful to a large
number of people who provided us with preprints of their papers prior to publica-
tion. Other colleagues have improved our understanding of the subject of this book
in ways too numerous to mention here.
Once again we relied on the expertise and hard work of Linda Hayes for the
preparation of the electronic version of our manuscript, and again the staff at the
Engineering Library of Duke University made our search of the literature an
enjoyable experience.

Auckland, New Zealand Donald A. Nield

Durham, NC, USA Adrian Bejan
Preface to the First Edition

In this book we have tried to provide a user-friendly introduction to the topic of

convection in porous media. We have assumed that the reader is conversant with the
basic elements of fluid mechanics and heat transfer, but otherwise the book is self-
contained. Only routine classic mathematics is employed. We hope that the book
will be useful both as a review (for reference) and as a tutorial work (suitable as a
textbook in a graduate course or seminar).
This book brings into perspective the voluminous research that has been
performed during the last two decades. The field recently has exploded because
of worldwide concern with issues such as energy self-sufficiency and pollution of
the environment. Areas of application include the insulation of buildings and
equipment, energy storage and recovery, geothermal reservoirs, nuclear waste
disposal, chemical reactor engineering, and the storage of heat-generating materials
such as grain and coal. Geophysical applications range from the flow of ground-
water around hot intrusions to the stability of snow against avalanches.
We believe that this book is timely because the subject is now mature in the
sense that there is a corpus of material that is unlikely to require major revision in
the future. As the reader will find, the relations for heat transfer coefficients and
flow parameters for the case of saturated media are now known well enough for
engineering design purposes. There is a sound basis of underlying theory that has
been validated by experiment. At the same time there are outstanding problems in
the cases of unsaturated media and multiphase flow in heterogeneous media, which
are relevant to such topics as the drying of porous materials and enhanced oil
recovery.
The sheer bulk of the available material has limited the scope of this book. It has
forced us to omit a discussion of convection in unsaturated media and also of
geothermal reservoir modeling; references to reviews of these topics are given. We
also have excluded mention of several hundred additional papers, including some of
our own. We have emphasized reports of experimental work, which are in relatively
short supply (and in some areas are still lacking). We also have emphasized simple
analysis where this illuminates the physics involved. The excluded material

xv
xvi Preface to the First Edition

includes some good early work, which has now been superseded, and some recent
numerical work involving complex geometry. Also excluded are papers involving
the additional effects of rotation or magnetic fields; we know of no reported
experimental work or significant applications of these extensions. We regret that
our survey could not be exhaustive, but we believe that this book gives a good
picture of the current state of research in this field.
The first three chapters provide the background for the rest of the book. Chapters
4 through 8 form the core material on thermal convection. Our original plan, which
was to separate foundational material from applications, proved to be impractical,
and these chapters are organized according to geometry and the form of heating.
Chapter 9 deals with combined heat and mass transfer and Chap. 10 with convec-
tion coupled with change of phase. Geophysical themes involve additional physical
processes and have given rise to additional theoretical investigations; these are
discussed in Chap. 11.
This book was written while D.A.N. was enjoying the hospitality of the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science at Duke University, while
on Research and Study Leave from the University of Auckland. Financial support
for this leave was provided by the University of Auckland, Duke University, and the
United States–New Zealand Cooperative Science Program. We are particularly
grateful to Dean Earl H. Dowell and Prof. Robert M. Hochmuth, both of Duke
University, for their help in making this book project possible.
Linda Hayes did all the work of converting our rough handwritten notes into the
current high-quality version on computer disk. She did this most efficiently and
with tremendous understanding (i.e., patience!) for the many instances in which we
changed our minds and modified the manuscript.
At various stages in the preparation of the manuscript and the figures we were
assisted by Linda Hayes, Kathy Vickers, Jong S. Lim, Jose L. Lage, and Laurens
Howle. Eric Smith and his team at the Engineering Library of Duke University went
to great lengths to make our literature search easier. We are very grateful for all the
assistance we have received.

Auckland, New Zealand Donald A. Nield

Durham, NC, USA Adrian Bejan
Contents

1 Mechanics of Fluid Flow Through a Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Seepage Velocity and the Equation of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Momentum Equation: Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Darcy’s Law: Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Deterministic Models Leading to Darcy’s Law . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Statistical Models Leading to Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Extensions of Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Acceleration and Other Inertial Effects . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Quadratic Drag: Forchheimer’s Equation . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.3 Brinkman’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.4 Non-Newtonian Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6 Hydrodynamic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 Effects of Porosity Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.8 Turbulence in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.9 Fractured Media, Deformable Media, and Complex
Porous Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.10 Bidisperse Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Heat Transfer Through a Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1 Energy Equation: Simple Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2 Energy Equation: Extensions to More Complex
Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.1 Overall Thermal Conductivity of a Porous
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.2 Effects of Pressure Changes and Viscous
Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.3 Absence of Local Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.4 Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

xvii
xviii Contents

2.2.5 Cellular Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.2.6 Heat Wave Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 Oberbeck–Boussinesq Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Thermal Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5 Hele-Shaw Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6 Bioheat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7 Other Approaches, Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3 Mass Transfer in a Porous Medium: Multicomponent
and Multiphase Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Multicomponent Flow: Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Mass Conservation in a Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 Combined Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Effects of a Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5 Multiphase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5.1 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5.2 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5.3 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5.4 Summary: Relative Permeabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.6 Unsaturated Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.7 Electrodiffusion Through Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.8 Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.8.1 Property Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.8.2 Processes Associated with the Smallness
of Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4 Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Plane Wall with Prescribed Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Plane Wall with Constant Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3 Sphere and Cylinder: Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4 Point Source and Line Source: Thermal Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5 Confined Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.6 Transient Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.6.1 Scale Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6.2 Wall with Constant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6.3 Wall with Constant Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6.4 Other Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 Effects of Inertia and Thermal Dispersion: External Flow . . . . . 104
4.8 Effects of Boundary Friction and Porosity Variation:
Exterior Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.9 Effects of Boundary Friction, Inertia, Porosity
Variation, Thermal Dispersion, and Axial Conduction:
Confined Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.10 Local Thermal Nonequilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.11 Partly Porous Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Contents xix

4.12 Transversely Heterogeneous Channels and Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . 124

4.13 Thermal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.14 Surfaces Covered with Porous Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.15 Designed Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.16 Other Configurations or Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.16.1 Effect of Temperature-Dependent Viscosity . . . . . . . 134
4.16.2 Oscillatory Flows, Counterflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.16.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.16.4 Bidisperse Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.16.5 Other Flows, Other Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.17 Heatlines for Visualizing Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.18 Constructal Tree Networks: Flow Access
in Volume-to-Point Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.18.1 The Fundamental Volume-to-Point Flow
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.18.2 The Elemental Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.18.3 The First Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.18.4 Higher-Order Constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.18.5 The Constructal Law of Design and Evolution
in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.19 Constructal Multiscale Flow Structures: Vascular Design . . . . . 154
4.20 Optimal Spacings for Plates Separated
by Porous Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5 External Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1 Vertical Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.1 Power Law Wall Temperature: Similarity
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1.2 Vertical Plate with Lateral Mass Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.1.3 Transient Case: Integral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.1.4 Effects of Ambient Thermal Stratification . . . . . . . . . 168
5.1.5 Conjugate Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.1.6 Higher-Order Boundary Layer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.1.7 Effects of Boundary Friction, Inertia,
and Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.1.8 Experimental Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.1.9 Further Extensions of the Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.2 Horizontal Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.3 Inclined Plate, Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.4 Vortex Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.5 Horizontal Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.5.1 Flow at High Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.5.2 Flow at Low and Intermediate Rayleigh
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
xx Contents

5.6 Sphere or Spherical Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.6.1 Flow at High Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.6.2 Flow at Low Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.6.3 Flow at Intermediate Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.7 Vertical Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.8 Cone or Wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.9 General Two-Dimensional or Axisymmetric Surface . . . . . . . . 217
5.10 Horizontal Line Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.10.1 Flow at High Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.10.2 Flow at Low Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.11 Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.11.1 Flow at High Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.11.2 Flow at Low Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.11.3 Flow at Intermediate Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.12 Other Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.12.1 Fins Projecting from a Heated Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.12.2 Flows in Regions Bounded by Two Planes . . . . . . . . 236
5.12.3 Other Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.13 Surfaces Covered with Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6 Internal Natural Convection: Heating from Below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.1 Horton-Rogers-Lapwood Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2 Linear Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.3 Weak Nonlinear Theory: Energy and Heat Transfer
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.4 Weak Nonlinear Theory: Further Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.5 Effects of Solid-Fluid Heat Transfer: Local Thermal
Nonequilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.6 Non-Darcy, Dispersion, and Viscous Dissipation Effects . . . . . 260
6.7 Non-Boussinesq Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.8 Finite-Amplitude Convection: Numerical Computation
and Higher-Order Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.9 Experimental Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.9.1 Observations of Flow Patterns and Heat
Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.9.2 Correlations of the Heat Transfer Data . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.9.3 Further Experimental Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
6.10 Effect of Net Mass Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.10.1 Horizontal Throughflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.10.2 Vertical Throughflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.11 Effect of Nonlinear Basic Temperature Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.11.1 General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.11.2 Internal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.11.3 Time-Dependent Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Contents xxi

6.11.4 Penetrative Convection, Icy Water, Quadratic

Density Model, Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.11.5 Imperfect Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.12 Effects of Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.13 Effects of Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.13.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.13.2 Layered Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.13.3 Analogy Between Layering and Anisotropy . . . . . . . 304
6.13.4 Heterogeneity in the Horizontal Direction . . . . . . . . . 304
6.13.5 Heterogeneity in Both Horizontal and Vertical
Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.13.6 Strong Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.14 Effects of Nonuniform Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.15 Rectangular Box or Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.15.1 Linear Stability Analysis, Bifurcation Theory,
and Numerical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.15.2 Thin Box or Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.15.3 Additional Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.16 Cylinder or Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.16.1 Vertical Cylinder or Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.16.2 Horizontal Cylinder or Annulus
or Spherical Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.17 Internal Heating in Other Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.18 Localized Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.19 Superposed Fluid and Porous Layers, Partly Porous
Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
6.19.1 Onset of Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
6.19.2 Flow Patterns and Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.19.3 Other Configurations and Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
6.20 Layer Saturated with Water Near 4
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.21 Effects of a Magnetic Field or Electric Field,
Ferromagnetic Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.21.1 MHD Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.21.2 Ferrofluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.21.3 Electroconvection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.22 Effects of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.22.1 Coriolis and Centrifugal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.22.2 Rotating Non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.23 Non-Newtonian and Other Types of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.23.1 Power-Law Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.23.2 Micropolar Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
6.23.3 Viscoelastic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
6.23.4 Couple-Stress Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
6.23.5 Other Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
xxii Contents

6.24 Effects of Vertical Vibration and Variable Gravity . . . . . . . . . . 350

6.25 Bioconvection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.26 Constructal Theory of Bénard Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.26.1 The Many Counterflows Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.26.2 The Few Plumes Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.26.3 The Intersection of Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.27 Bidisperse Porous Media, Cellular Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7 Internal Natural Convection: Heating from the Side . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1 Darcy Flow Between Isothermal Side Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1.1 Heat Transfer Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1.2 Boundary Layer Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
7.1.3 Shallow Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.1.4 Stability of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.1.5 Conjugate Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7.1.6 Non-Newtonian Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.1.7 Other Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
7.2 Side Walls with Uniform Flux and Other Thermal
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.3 Other Configurations and Effects of Property Variation . . . . . . 385
7.3.1 Internal Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
7.3.2 Effects of Heterogeneity and Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.3.3 Cylindrical or Annular Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.3.4 Spherical Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.3.5 Porous Medium Saturated with Water Near 4
C . . . . 397
7.3.6 Triangular Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.3.7 Other Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
7.3.8 Internal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
7.3.9 Bidisperse Porous Media, Other Situations . . . . . . . . 404
7.4 Penetrative Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
7.4.1 Lateral Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
7.4.2 Vertical Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.4.3 Other Penetrative Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
7.5 Transient Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.6 Departure from Darcy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.6.1 Inertial Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.6.2 Boundary Friction, Variable Porosity, Local
Thermal Nonequilibrium, Viscous Dissipation,
and Thermal Dispersion Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
7.7 Fluid and Porous Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
7.8 Sloping Porous Layer or Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
7.9 Inclined Temperature Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
7.10 Periodic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
7.11 Sources in Confined or Partly Confined Regions . . . . . . . . . . . 434
7.12 Effects of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Contents xxiii

8 Mixed Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

8.1 External Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.1.1 Inclined or Vertical Plane Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.1.2 Horizontal Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
8.1.3 Cylinder or Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.1.4 Other Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.1.5 Unified Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
8.1.6 Other Aspects of External Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
8.2 Internal Flow: Horizontal Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
8.2.1 Horizontal Layer: Uniform Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
8.2.2 Horizontal Layer: Localized Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
8.2.3 Horizontal Cylinder or Annulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
8.2.4 Horizontal Layer: Lateral Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
8.3 Internal Flow: Vertical Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
8.3.1 Vertical Layer: Uniform Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
8.3.2 Vertical Layer: Localized Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
8.3.3 Vertical Cylinder or Annulus: Uniform Heating . . . . 465
8.3.4 Vertical Annulus: Localized Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
8.4 Other Geometries and Other Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
8.4.1 Partly Porous Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
8.4.2 Jet Impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
8.4.3 Other Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
9 Double-Diffusive Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.1 Vertical Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.1.1 Horton-Rogers-Lapwood Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.1.2 Nonlinear Initial Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
9.1.3 Finite-Amplitude Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
9.1.4 Soret and Dufour Cross-Diffusion Effects . . . . . . . . . 482
9.1.5 Flow at High Rayleigh Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
9.1.6 Other Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
9.2 Horizontal Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
9.2.1 Boundary Layer Flow and External
Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
9.2.2 Enclosed Porous Medium: Channel or Box . . . . . . . . 505
9.2.3 Transient Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
9.2.4 Stability of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
9.3 Concentrated Heat and Mass Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.3.1 Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.3.2 Horizontal Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
9.4 Other Configurations and Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
9.5 Inclined and Crossed Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
9.6 Mixed Double-Diffusive Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
9.6.1 Mixed External Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
9.6.2 Mixed Internal Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
xxiv Contents

9.7 Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

9.7.1 Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
9.7.2 Internal Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
9.7.3 External Natural Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
9.7.4 Mixed Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
10 Convection with Change of Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.1 Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.1.1 Enclosure Heated from the Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
10.1.2 Scale Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
10.1.3 Effect of Liquid Superheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
10.1.4 Horizontal Liquid Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
10.1.5 Vertical Melting Front in an Infinite Porous
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
10.1.6 A More General Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
10.1.7 Further Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
10.2 Freezing and Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
10.2.1 Cooling from the Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
10.2.2 Cooling from Above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
10.2.3 Solidification of Binary Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
10.3 Boiling and Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
10.3.1 Boiling and Evaporation Produced by Heating
from Below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
10.3.2 Film Boiling and Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
10.4 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
10.5 Spaces Filled with Fluid and Fibers Coated
with a Phase-Change Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
11 Geophysical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
11.1 Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
11.2 Patterned Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
11.3 Thawing Subsea Permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
11.4 Magma Production and Magma Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
11.5 Diagenetic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
11.6 Oceanic Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
11.6.1 Heat Flux Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
11.6.2 Topographical Forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
11.7 Geothermal Reservoirs: Injection and Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . 607
11.8 Other Aspects of Single-Phase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
11.9 Two-Phase Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
11.9.1 Vapor–Liquid Counterflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
11.9.2 Heat Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
11.9.3 Other Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
11.10 Cracks in Shrinking Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
11.11 Carbon Dioxide Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Contents xxv

11.12 Reaction Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

11.12.1 Reaction Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
11.12.2 Gradient Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
11.12.3 Mixing Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Nomenclature

B Transition number for electrodiffusion, Eq. (3.95)

Be Bejan number, Eq. (4.145)
Br Brinkman number, Sect. 2.2.2
C Concentration
c Specific heat
ca Acceleration coefficient
cF Forchheimer coefficient
cP Specific heat at constant pressure
D Diameter
D d/dz
Dm Solute diffusivity
DCT Thermodiffusion coefficient (Soret coefficient times Dm)
Da Darcy number
dp Particle diameter
Ec Eckert number, Sect. 2.2.2
g Gravitational acceleration
Ge Gebhart number, Sect. 2.2.2
H Vertical dimension
i, j, k Unit vectors
Ja Jakob number
K Permeability
k Thermal conductivity
km Thermal conductivity of the porous medium
L Horizontal dimension
Le Lewis number
N Buoyancy ratio
Nu Nusselt number
P Pressure
Pe Pe´clet number
Pr Prandtl number

xxvii
xxviii Nomenclature

q0 , q00 , q000 Heat transfer rate per unit length, area, volume, respectively
r. e. v Representative elementary volume
Ra Thermal Rayleigh (Rayleigh-Darcy) number
RaD Solutal Rayleigh number
Re Reynolds number
r Radial coordinate
Sc, Sh Jakob numbers
Ste Stefan number
s Time constant
T Temperature
t Time
V Intrinsic velocity
v (u, v, w), seepage velocity
x, y, z Position coordinates
α Nondimensional wavenumber
αBJ Beavers-Joseph coefficient
αm Thermal diffusivity of the porous medium
β Thermal expansion coefficient
βC Concentration expansion coefficient
δ Boundary layer thickness
ζ Interphase momentum transfer coefficient
η Similarity variable
θ Angle
θ Temperature perturbation amplitude
λ Exponent in power law variation
μ Dynamic viscosity
μ
e Effective viscosity (Brinkman)
ν Kinematic viscosity
ρ Density
σ Heat capacity ratio, σ ¼ φ+(1φ)(ρc)s/(ρcP)f
τ Nondimensional time
φ Porosity
φ Angle
ψ Streamfunction
ω Frequency
χ cFK½

Subscripts
b Basic state
b Bulk
C Concentration
c Critical
D Parameter based on length D
Nomenclature xxix

e Effective
eff Effective
f Fluid
g Gas
H Horizontal
L Parameter based on length L
l Liquid
m Porous medium
p Particle
ref Reference
s Solid
V Vertical
w Wall
x Parameter based on length x
0 Reference
1 Far field

Superscripts
0
Perturbation
Chapter 1
Mechanics of Fluid Flow Through a Porous
Medium

1.1 Introduction

By a porous medium we mean a material consisting of a solid matrix with an

interconnected void. We suppose that the solid matrix is either rigid (the usual
situation) or it undergoes small deformation. The interconnectedness of the void
(the pores) allows the flow of one or more fluids through the material. In the
simplest situation (single-phase flow) the void is saturated by a single fluid. In
“two-phase flow” a liquid and a gas share the void space.
In a natural porous medium the distribution of pores with respect to shape and
size is irregular. Examples of natural porous media are beach sand, sandstone,
limestone, rye bread, wood, and the human lung (Fig. 1.1 and Table 1.1).
Man-made porous media include ceramics, composite materials, and high porosity
metallic foams. On the pore scale (the microscopic scale) the flow quantities
(velocity, pressure, etc.) will be clearly irregular. But in typical experiments the
quantities of interest are measured over areas that cross many pores, and such
space-averaged (macroscopic) quantities change in a regular manner with respect to
space and time, and hence are amenable to theoretical treatment.
How we treat a flow through a porous structure is largely a question of dis-
tance—the distance between the problem solver and the actual flow structure
(Bejan 2004a, b). When the distance is short, the observer sees only one or two
channels, or one or two open or closed cavities. In this case it is possible to use
conventional fluid mechanics and convective heat transfer to describe what happens
at every point of the fluid- and solid-filled spaces. When the distance is large so that
there are many channels and cavities in the problem solver’s field of vision, the
complications of the flow paths rule out the conventional approach. In this limit,
volume averaging and global measurements (e.g., permeability, conductivity) are
useful in describing the flow and in simplifying the description. As engineers focus
more and more on designed porous media at decreasing pore scales, the problems
tend to fall between the extremes noted above. In this intermediate range, the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

D.A. Nield, A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-49562-0_1
2 1 Mechanics of Fluid Flow Through a Porous Medium

Fig. 1.1 Top: Examples of natural porous materials: (a) beach sand, (b) sandstone, (c) limestone,
(d) rye bread, (e) wood, and (f) human lung (Collins 1961, with permission from Van Nostrand
Reinhold). Bottom: Granular porous materials used in the construction industry, 0.5-cm-diameter
Liapor® spheres (left), and 1-cm-size crushed limestone (right) (Bejan 1984)

challenge is not only to describe coarse porous structures but also to optimize flow
elements, and to assemble them. The resulting flow structures are designed porous
media (see Bejan et al. 2004; Bejan 2004b).
The usual way of deriving the laws governing the macroscopic variables is to
begin with the standard equations obeyed by the fluid and to obtain the macroscopic
equations by averaging over volumes or areas containing many pores. There are
two ways to do the averaging: spatial and statistical. In the spatial approach, a
macroscopic variable is defined as an appropriate mean over a sufficiently large
1.1 Introduction 3

Table 1.1 Properties of common porous materials [based on data compiled by Scheidegger
(1974) and Bejan and Lage (1991)]
Surface per unit
Material Porosity (φ) Permeability (K[cm2]) (volume [cm
1])
Agar-agar 2  10
10–4.4  10
9
Black slate powder 0.57–0.66 4.9  10
10–1.2  10
9 7  103–8.9  103
Brick 0.12–0.34 4.8  10
11–2.2  10
9
Catalyst (Fischer-Tropsch, 0.45 5.6  105
granules only)
Cigarette 1.1  10
5
Cigarette filters 0.17–0.49
Coal 0.02–0.12
Concrete (ordinary mixes) ~0.1
Concrete (bituminous) 1  10
9–2.3  10
7
Copper powder 0.09–0.34 3.3  10
6–1.5  10
5
(hot-compacted)
Cork board 2.4  10
7–5.1  10
7
Fiberglass 0.88–0.93 560–770
Granular crushed rock 0.45
Hair (on mammals) 0.95–0.99
Hair felt 8.3  10
6–1.2  10
5
Leather 0.56–0.59 9.5  10
10–1.2  10
9 1.2  104–1.6  104
Limestone (dolomite) 0.04–0.10 2  10
11–4.5  10
10
Sand 0.37–0.50 2  10
7–1.8  10
6 150–220
Sandstone (oil sand) 0.08–0.38 5  10
12–3  10
8
Silica grains 0.65
Silica powder 0.37–0.49 1.3  10
10–5.1  10
10 6.8  103–8.9  103
Soil 0.43–0.54 2.9  10
9–1.4  10
7
Spherical packings 0.36–0.43
(well shaken)
Wire crimps 0.68–0.76 3.8  10
5–1  10
4 29–40

representative elementary volume (r.e.v.); this operation yields the value of that
variable at the centroid of the r.e.v. It is assumed that the result is independent of the
size of the representative elementary volume. The length scale of the r.e.v. is much
larger than the pore scale, but considerably smaller than the length scale of the
macroscopic flow domain (Fig. 1.2).
In the statistical approach the averaging is over an ensemble of possible pore
structures that are macroscopically equivalent. A difficulty is that usually the
statistical information about the ensemble has to be based on a single sample, and
this is possible only if statistical homogeneity (stationarity) is assumed.
If one is concerned only with deriving relationships between the space-averaged
quantities and is not concerned about their fluctuation, then the results obtained by
using the two approaches are essentially the same. Thus in this situation one might
as well use the simpler approach, namely the one based on the r.e.v. An example of
4 1 Mechanics of Fluid Flow Through a Porous Medium

Representative
elementary Solid
volume (r.e.v.)
Fluid

Flow domain

Fig. 1.2 The representative elementary volume (r.e.v.): the figure illustrates the intermediate size
relative to the sizes of the flow domain and the pores

its use is given in Sect. 3.5. This approach is discussed at length by Bear and
Bachmat (1990). However, a number of problems require a statistical approach
[see, for example, Georgiadis and Catton (1987, 1988a, 1988b) and Georgiadis
(1991)].
For an extensive treatment of the method of volume averaging, the reader is
referred to Whitaker (1999). Civan (2014) pointed out an averaging error in some
previous publications.

1.2 Porosity

The porosity φ of a porous medium is defined as the fraction of the total volume of
the medium that is occupied by void space. Thus 1
φ is the fraction that is occupied
by solid. For an isotropic medium the “surface porosity” (that is, the fraction of void
area to total area of a typical cross section) will normally be equal to φ.
In defining φ in this way we are assuming that all the void space is connected. If
in fact one has to deal with a medium in which some of the pore space is
disconnected from the remainder, then one has to introduce an “effective porosity,”
defined as the ratio of connected void to total volume.
For natural media, φ does not normally exceed 0.6. For beds of solid spheres of
uniform diameter φ can vary between the limits 0.2595 (rhombohedral packing)
and 0.4764 (cubic packing). Nonuniformity of grain size tends to lead to smaller
porosities than for uniform grains, because smaller grains fill the pores formed by
larger grains. For man-made materials such as metallic foams ϕ can approach the
value 1.
Table 1.1 shows a compilation of porosities and other properties of common
porous materials.
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Ecribellatae, 385
Ectatosticta davidi, 393
Ectinosoma, 62
Edriophthalmata, 112, 121
Eggs, of Phyllopoda, 32;
of Cladocera, 44;
of Copepoda, 59, 62, 66, 67, 71, 74;
of Branchiura, 77;
of Syncarida, 114;
of Peracarida, 123;
of Hoplocarida, 141;
of Eucarida, 144;
of Trilobites, 238;
of Limulus, 275;
of Pedipalpi, 309;
of Spiders, 358;
of Solifugae, 424;
of Pseudoscorpions, 434;
of Phalangidea, 442;
of Acarina, 456;
of Tardigrada, 478;
of Pentastomida, 493;
of Pycnogons, 520
Ehrenberg, on systematic position of Tardigrada, 483
Eleleis crinita, 396
Ellipsocephalus, 224, 235, 247;
E. hoffi, 248
Embolobranchiata, 258, 259, 297 f.
Emmerich, on facial suture of Trinucleus, 226
Encephaloides, 193;
E. armstrongi, 192, 193;
habitat, 205
Encrinuridae, 251
Encrinurus, 227, 235, 251
Endeis didactyla, 534;
E. gracilis, 539;
E. spinosus, 541
Endite, 9, 10
Endopodite, 9, 10;
of Trilobites, 237
Endosternite, 257, 305, 330
Endostoma, of Eurypterus, 287
Engaeus, 157;
E. fossor, distribution, 213
Enoplectenus, 418
Enterocola, 67;
E. fulgens, 67
Entomostraca, defined, 6;
diagnosis, 18;
of littoral zone, 197;
fresh-water, of southern hemisphere, 216
Entoniscidae, 130, 134
Enyo, 400
Enyoidae, 399
Eoscorpius, 298
Epeira, 409;
E. angulata, 315, 409;
E. basilica, 350, 351;
web of, 351;
E. bifurcata, 359;
E. caudata, 359;
E. cornuta, 409;
E. cucurbitina, 372, 409;
E. diademata, 335, 340, 343, 345, 359, 366, 380, 409;
anatomy, 332;
 cocoon, 358;
silk, 360;
spinnerets, 325;
E. labyrinthea, 350;
E. madagascarensis, 360;
E. mauritia, 349;
E. pyramidata, 409;
E. quadrata, 366, 409;
E. triaranea, 350;
E. umbratica, 409
Epeiridae, 376, 377, 406
Epeirinae, 408
Ephippium, 48
Epiblemum, 420
Epicarida, 129;
sex in, 105
Epicaridian, larva of Epicarida, 130
Epicoxite, of Eurypterus, 287
Epidanus, 449
Epigyne, 319, 333, 378
Epipharynx, 459
Epipodite, 9, 10
Episininae, 402
Episinus truncatus, 403
Epistome, of Eurypterida, 291;
of Pseudoscorpions, 431, 436;
of Phalangidea, 443
Erber, 355, 356
Eremobates, 429
Eremobatinae, 429
Eresidae, 398
Eresus cinnaberinus, 398
Eriauchenus, 411
Erichthoidina, larva of Stomatopod, 143
Ericthus, larva of Stomatopod, 143
Erigone, 405
Erigoninae, 404
Eriophyes, 465;
E. ribis, 455, 465;
E. tiliae, 465
Eriophyidae, 464
Eriphia, 191;
E. spinifrons, 191
Erlanger, von, on development and position of Tardigrada, 483
Ero, 411;
E. furcata, 366, 411;
cocoon, 358;
E. tuberculata, 412
Eryonidae, 158;
habitat, 204
Eryonidea, 157
Erythraeinae, 473
Estheria, 21, 22, 23, 36;
E. gubernator and E. macgillivrayi, habitat, 33;
E. tetraceros, 36
Eucarida, 114, 144 f.
Euchaeta norwegica, 58
Eucopepoda, 57 f.
Eucopia australis, 119
Eucopiidae, 113, 114, 118
Eudendrium, Pycnogons on, 520
Eudorella, 121
Eukoenenia, 423;
E. augusta, 423;
E. florenciae, 423;
E. grassii, 423
Eulimnadia, 36;
E. mauritani, 36;
E. texana, 36
Euloma, 230
Eumalacostraca, 112 f.
Eupagurinae, 180
Eupagurus, 180;
E. bernhardus, commensalism, 172;
distribution, 199;
E. excavatus, parasitic castration of, 101;
E. longicarpus, metamorphosis, 179;
E. prideauxii, commensalism, 172;
E. pubescens, distribution, 199
Euphausia pellucida, 145, 146
Euphausiacea, 144
Euphausiidae, 113, 114, 144;
larval history, 145;
eyes, 150
Eupodes, 471
Euproöps, 278
Eurycare, 232, 247
Eurycercus, 53;
alimentary canal, 42;
E. lamellatus, habitat, 207
Eurycide, 505, 533;
E. hispida, 506, 507, 533
Eurycididae, 533
Eurydium, 485
Euryopis, 404
Eurypelma, 389;
E. hentzii, 361, 370
Euryplax, 195
Eurypterida, 258, 278, 283 f.
Eurypteridae, 290 f.
Eurypterus, 283 f., 290, 291, 292;
E. fischeri, 284, 286, 289
Eurytemora, 59;
E. affinis, habitat, 206
Eusarcus, 283, 291
Euscorpiinae, 308
Euscorpius, 298, 308;
E. carpathicus, 299
Eusimonia, 429
Euterpe acutifrons, 61, 61;
distribution, 203
Euthycoelus, 389
Evadne, 54;
young, 47
Excretory system (including Renal organs), in Crustacea, 12;
in Arachnids, 257;
in Limulus, 270;
in Tardigrada, 481;
in Pentastomida, 491
Exner, on mosaic vision, 148
Exopodite, 9, 10;
of Trilobites, 237
Eyes, compound, of Crustacea, 146, 147;
physiology of, 148;
 of deep-sea Crustacea, 149;
connexion with phosphorescent organs, 151;
regeneration of, 6;
of Trilobites, 227 f., 228;
of Limulus, 271;
of Eurypterida, 285;
of Scorpions, 301;
of Pedipalpi, 309;
of Spiders, 315, 334; of Solifugae, 426;
of Pseudoscorpions, 431;
of Phalangidea, 442;
of Acarina, 458;
of Pycnogons, 517

Fabre, on habits of Spiders, 298 f.;

of Tarantula, 361 f.;
on Wasp v. Spider, 368 f.
Facet, of Trilobites, 235
Facial suture, 225 f., 232
Falanga, 424
False articulations, 444
False-scorpions, 430
Fecenia, 399
Filistata, 391;
F. capitata, 392;
F. testacea, 392
Filistatidae, 319, 336, 391
Finger-keel, 303
Fixed cheek, 225, 226, 227
Flabellifera, 124 f.
Flabellum, 270
Flacourt, 363
Flagellum, in Solifugae, 426, 428;
in Pseudoscorpions, 433
Forbes, 374
Ford, S. W., on development of Trilobites, 238
Forel, on Lake of Geneva, 206
Formicina, 405
Formicinae, 405
Formicinoides brasiliana, 318
Fragilia, 535
Free cheek, 225, 226, 227
Fresh-water, Crustacea, 205 f.;
Spiders, 357
Furcilia (Metazoaea), larva of Euphausia, 145
Fusulae, 325, 335

Galathea, 169, 170;

G. intermedia, Pleurocrypta parasitic on, 133;
G. strigosa, 170;
gut of, 15
Galatheidae, 169
Galatheidea, 169
Galea, 433, 436
Galena, 412
Galeodes, 429, 527;
nervous system, 428;
chelicera, 429;
G. arabs, 425;
G. araneoides, 425
Galeodidae, 428
Gall-mites, 455, 464
Gamasidae, 470
Gamasinae, 470
Gamasus, 460, 461, 463, 470;
G. coleoptratorum, 470;
G. crassipes, 470;
G. terribilis, 461
Gammaridae, 138
Gammarus, 137, 138;
of Lake Baikal, 212;
of Australia, 216;
G. locusta, 138, 138;
G. pulex, 138
Gampsonyx, 115, 118
Garstang, on respiration of crabs, 186 n.
Garypinae, 436, 437
Garypus, 431, 436, 437, 438;
chelicera, 432;
G. littoralis, 430
Gaskell, 270, 277, 334
Gasteracantha, 410;
G. minax, 410
Gasteracanthinae, 317, 409
Gastrodelphys, 73
Gastrolith, of Lobster, 155
Gaubert, 525 n.
Gebia littoralis, 167
Gecarcinidae, 196
Gecarcinus, 194, 195, 196
Gegenbaur, 523
Gelanor, 411, 412
Gelasimus, 194, 196;
habitat, 198;
distribution, 210;
G. annulipes, 194
Genal angle, 225
Gené, 461
Genital operculum, of Eurypterida, 288, 289, 291
Genysa, 388
Gerardia, Laura parasitic on, 93
Geryon, 195
Giardella callianassae, 73
Gibocellidae, 448
Gibocellum sudeticum, 447
Giesbrecht, on Copepoda, 57;
on phosphorescence, 59
Gigantostraca, 258, 283 f.
Gill-book, 270
Glabella, 223
Glabella-furrows, 223
Glands, of Tardigrada, 481;
of Pentastomida, 490, 491;
of Pycnogons, 511;
coxal, of Arachnids, 257, 270, 337;
green, of Malacostraca, 110;
poison-, of Arachnids, 337, 360;
spinning, of Spiders, 335;
of Pseudoscorpions, 434
Glaucothoe, larva of Eupagurus, 179, 180
Gluvia, 429
Glycyphagus, 466;
G. palmifer, 466;
 G. plumiger, 466
Glyphocrangon, 164;
G. spinulosa, 158, 164
Glyphocrangonidae, 164
Glyptoscorpius, 283, 291, 294
Gmelina, 138
Gmogala scarabaeus, 394
Gnamptorhynchus, 533
Gnaphosa, 397
Gnathia maxillaris, 124;
life-history of 125
Gnathiidae, 124
Gnathobase, 10, 264
Gnathophausia, 119, 256 n.;
maxillipede of, 10
Gnathostomata, 56
Gnosippus, 429
Goldsmith, 362
Gonads, = reproductive organs, q.v.
Gonodactylus, 143;
G. chiragra, 143
Gonoplacidae, 195
Gonoplax, 195;
G. rhomboides, 195
Gonyleptidae, 442, 448, 449
Goodsir, Harry, 535, 540
Gordius, parasitic in Spiders, 368
Gossamer, 342
Graells, 364
Graeophonus, 309
Graff, von, on position of Tardigrada, 483
Grapsidae, 193, 195;
habitat, 198, 201
Graptoleberis, 53
Grassi, 422
Green gland, 110 (= antennary gland, q.v.)
Gregarious Spiders, 340
Grenacher, 517
Griffithides, 251
Gruvel, on Cirripedia, 80, 86
Guérin-Méneville, 439
Gurney, on Copepoda, 62;
on Brachyuran metamorphosis, 181 n.
Gyas, 450
Gylippus, 429
Gymnolepas, 89
Gymnomera, 38, 54
Gymnoplea, 57

Hadrotarsidae, 394
Hadrotarsus babirusa, 394
Haeckel, on plankton, 203
Haemaphysalis, 469
Haematodocha, 322
Haemocera, 64;
H. danae, life-history, 64, 65
Haemocoel, 5, 11
Hahnia, 325, 416
Hahniinae, 416
Halacaridae, 472
Halocypridae, 108
Halosoma, 539
Hannonia typica, 533
Hansen, on Choniostomatidae, 76;
on Cirripede Nauplii, 94;
on classification of Malacostraca, 113
Hansen and Sörensen, 422, 439, 443, 448
Hapalogaster, 181;
H. cavicauda, 178
Hapalogasterinae, 181
Harpactes hombergii, 395
Harpacticidae, 61, 62;
habitat, 206
Harpedidae, 245
Harpes, 225, 226, 230, 231, 234, 246;
H. ungula, 248;
H. vittatus, eyes, 228
Harporhynchus, 53
Harvest-bugs, 454, 473
Harvestmen, 440, = Phalangidea, q.v.
Harvest-spiders, 440, = Phalangidea, q.v.
Harvesters, 440, = Phalangidea, q.v.
Hasarius falcatus, 421
Haustellata, 501 n.
Haustoriidae, 137
Haustorius arenarius, 137
Hay, on name Lydella, 486 n.
Heart, of Phyllopoda, 29;
of Cladocera, 43;
of Nebalia, 112;
of Syncarida, 115;
of Peracarida, 118;
of Isopoda, 122;
of Danalia, 132;
of Amphipoda, 136;
of Squilla, 142;
of Eucarida, 144;
of Limulus, 268;
of Scorpions, 305;
of Pedipalpi, 311;
of Spiders, 331;
of Solifugae, 427;
of Pseudoscorpions, 434;
of Phalangidea, 445;
of Acarina, 460;
of Pycnogons, 516
Heart-water, 470
Hedley, on home of cocoa-nut, 174
Heligmonerus, 388
Heller, 455
Hemeteles fasciatus, 367;
H. formosus, 367
Hemiaspis, 278;
H. limuloides, 278
Hemioniscidae, 130
Hemiscorpion lepturus, 307
Hemiscorpioninae, 306, 307
Henking, 447, 460
Hentz, 367
Herbst, on regeneration of eye, 6 n.
Hermacha, 388
Hermaphroditism, 15;
caused by parasite, 101, 102;
partial and temporary, 102;
normal, 105;
in Cymothoidae, 126;
in Isopoda Epicarida, 129;
in Entoniscidae, 135;
in Caprella, 140
Hermippus, 317, 399;
H. loricatus, 400
Hermit-crab, 167, 171;
commensalism, 172;
reacquisition of symmetry, 173;
regeneration of limbs, 156
Hermit-lobster, 167
Herrick, on the Lobster, 154
Hersilia (Araneae), 401;
H. caudata, 400
Hersiliidae (Araneae), 326, 400
Hersiliidae (Copepoda), 73
Hersiliola, 401
Heterarthrandria, 58
Heterocarpus alphonsi (Pandalidae), phosphorescence, 151
Heterochaeta papilligera, 60
Heterocope, 59
Heterogammarus, 138
Heterometrus, 307
Heterophrynus, 313
Heteropoda venatoria, 414
Heterostigmata, 471
Heterotanais, 123
Hexameridae, 91
Hexathele, 390
Hexisopodidae, 429
Hexisopus, 429, 429
Hexura, 391
Hippa, 171;
H. emerita, distribution, 202
Hippidae, 171
Hippidea, 170;
habitat, 198
Hippolyte, 164;
distribution, 200;
H. varians, 164
Hippolytidae, 164;
distribution, 199
Hodge, George, 523, 540
Hodgson, 508
Hoek, on Cirripedia, 80;
on Pycnogons, 505, 512, 513
Holm, G., on Agnostus, 225;
on Eurypterus, 285 n.
Holmia, 236, 242, 247;
H. kjerulfi, 242, 246
Holochroal eye, 228
Holopediidae, 51
Holopedium, 38, 51
Homalonotus, 222, 249;
H. delphinocephalus, 223
Homarus, 154;
habitat, 200;
excretory
glands, 13;
H. americanus, 154;
H. vulgaris, 154
Homoeoscelis, 76
Homola, 184;
distribution, 205
Homolidae, 184
Homolodromia, 184;
H. paradoxa, resemblance to Nephropsidae, 184
Hood, of Phalangidea, 442, 452
Hoplocarida, 114, 141
Hoploderma, 468;
H. magnum, 467
Hoplophora, 468
Horse-foot crab, = Limulus, q.v.
Hoyle, on classification of Pentastomids, 495
Hughmilleria, 283, 290, 292
Humboldt, on Porocephalus, 488 n.
Hutton, 424
Huttonia, 398
Hyale, 139
Hyalella, 137, 139;
distribution, 211, 217
Hyalomma, 469
Hyas, 192, 193;
 distribution, 200
Hyctia nivoyi, 421
Hydrachnidae, 472
Hydractinia, Pycnogons on, 523
Hydrallmania, Pycnogons on, 524
Hymenocaris, 112
Hymenodora, 163
Hymenosoma, 193;
distribution, 200
Hymenosomatidae, 193
Hyperina, 140
Hypochilidae, 393
Hypochilus, 336, 393;
H. thorelli, 393
Hypoctonus, 312
Hypoparia, 243
Hypopus, 463
Hypostome, of Trilobites, 233, 237;
of Bronteus, 233;
of Acarina, 469
Hyptiotes, 349, 411;
H. cavatus, snare, 350;
H. paradoxus, 350, 411

Iasus, 165, 167;

distribution, 200
Ibacus, 167
Ibla, 88;
I. cumingii, 88;
I. quadrivalvis, 88, 89
Ichneumon flies, and Spiders, 367
Icius, 421;
I. mitratus, 382
Idiops, 388
Idothea, habitat, 211
Idotheidae, 127
Ihle, J. E. W., 526 n.
Ilia, 188;
I. nucleus, 188;
respiration, 187
Illaenus, 229, 231, 235, 249;
I. dalmanni, 248
Ilyocryptus, 40, 53
Inachus, 192, 193;
I. mauritanicus, Sacculina parasitic on, 97 f.;
parasitic castration in, 101;
temporary hermaphroditism of, 103;
Danalia and Sacculina parasitic on, 131
Integument, of Pycnogons, 518
Irregular Spider-snares, 351
Ischnocolus, 389
Ischnothele dumicola, 390
Ischnurinae, 306, 307
Ischnurus ochropus, 307
Ischnyothyreus, 394
Ischyropsalidae, 451
Ischyropsalis, 444, 451
Isokerandria, 69 f.
Isometrus europaeus, 306
Isopoda, 121 f., 242
Ixodes, 469;
I. ricinus, 469
Ixodidae, 469
Ixodoidea, 455, 462, 468

Janulus, 403
Jaworowski, on vestigial antennae in a Spider, 263
Johnston, George, 540
Jumping-Spiders, 419

Karshia, 429
Karshiinae, 429
Katipo, 363, 403
King-crab, =Limulus, q.v.
Kingsley, on Trilobites, 239, 243 n.;
on breeding habits of Limulus, 271
Kishinouye, on Limulus, 274, 275
Klebs, on the frequency of human Pentastomids, 494
Knight Errant, 540
Koch, C., 397 n.
Koch, L., 397 n.
Kochlorine, 92;
K. hamata, 93
Koenenia, 422, 527, 528;
K. mirabilis, 423
Koltzoff, 15
König, 524