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Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation:
Science and Engineering
Gilberto Reynoso Meza

Xavier Blasco Ferragud
Javier Sanchis Saez
Juan Manuel Herrero Durá
Controller Tuning
with Evolutionary
Multiobjective
Optimization
A Holistic Multiobjective Optimization
Design Procedure
Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation:
Science and Engineering
Volume 85
Editor
Professor S.G. Tzafestas, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Editorial Advisory Board:

Professor P. Antsaklis, University of Notre Dame, IN, USA
Professor P. Borne, Ecole Centrale de Lille, France
Professor R. Carelli, Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Argentina
Professor T. Fukuda, Nagoya University, Japan
Professor N.R. Gans, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
Professor F. Harashima, University of Tokyo, Japan
Professor P. Martinet, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, France
Professor S. Monaco, University La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Professor R.R. Negenborn, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Professor A.M. Pascoal, Institute for Systems and Robotics, Lisbon, Portugal
Professor G. Schmidt, Technical University of Munich, Germany
Professor T.M. Sobh, University of Bridgeport, CT, USA
Professor C. Tzafestas, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Professor K. Valavanis, University of Denver, Colorado, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6259
Gilberto Reynoso Meza Xavier Blasco Ferragud
•
Javier Sanchis Saez Juan Manuel Herrero Durá

•
Controller Tuning
with Evolutionary
Multiobjective Optimization
A Holistic Multiobjective Optimization
Design Procedure
123
Gilberto Reynoso Meza Javier Sanchis Saez
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná Universitat Politècnica de València
Curitiba, Paraná Valencia
Brazil Spain
Xavier Blasco Ferragud Juan Manuel Herrero Durá

Universitat Politècnica de València Universitat Politècnica de València
Valencia Valencia
Spain Spain
ISSN 2213-8986 ISSN 2213-8994 (electronic)

Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation: Science and Engineering
ISBN 978-3-319-41299-3 ISBN 978-3-319-41301-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41301-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943806
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

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Printed on acid-free paper
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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
In this book we summarise the efforts and experiences gained by working with
multiobjective optimization techniques in the control engineering field.
Our studies began with an incursion into evolutionary optimization and two
major control systems applications: controller tuning and system identification. It
quickly became evident that using evolutionary optimization in order to adjust a
given controller is helpful when dealing with a complex cost function. Nevertheless
two issues were detected regarding the cost function: (1) sometimes minimizing a
given index fails to guarantee the expected performance (that is, when it is
implemented); and (2) it fails to reflect properly the expected trade-off between
conflictive design objectives. The former issue is sometimes simply that the index
does not accurately reflect what the control engineer really wants, the latter because
sometimes it is difficult to built a cost index, merging all design objectives and
seeking a desired balance among them.
That is how multiobjective evolutionary optimization entered into the scene.
Sometimes when aggregating design objectives in order to create a single index for
optimization, some understanding of the outcome solution is lost. With multiob-
jective optimization it is possible to work with each design objective individually.
Furthermore it is possible to analyse, at the end of the optimization process, a set of
solutions with a different trade-off (the so-called Pareto front). Therefore, it is
possible to select a given solution, with the desired balance between conflictive
design objectives.
From there, a lot of work has been carried out on identifying applications,
developing optimization algorithms and developing visualization tools. The book is
part of a bigger research line in evolutionary multiobjective optimization tech-
niques. Its contents focus mainly on controller tuning applications; nevertheless, its
ideas, tools and guidelines could be used in different engineering fields.
Curitiba, Brazil Gilberto Reynoso Meza

Valencia, Spain Xavier Blasco Ferragud
April 2016 Javier Sanchis Saez
Juan Manuel Herrero Durá
v
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the departments and universities that hosted our research on
multiobjective optimization over these years:
• Instituto Universitario de Automática e Informática Industrial Universitat
Politècnica de València, Spain.
• Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Produção e Sistemas
Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Brazil.
• Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness with the projects:
DPI2008-02133, TIN2011-28082, ENE2011-25900 and DPI2015-71443-R.
• National Council of Scientific and Technologic Development of Brazil (CNPq)
with the postdoctoral fellowship BJT-304804/2014-2.
Also to our colleagues in this journey of the CPOH (http://cpoh.upv.es/): Sergio
García-Nieto, Jesús Velasco, Miguel Martínez, José V. Salcedo, César Ramos and
Raúl Simarro.
vii
Contents
Part I Fundamentals
1 Motivation: Multiobjective Thinking in Controller Tuning . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Controller Tuning as a Multiobjective Optimization Problem:
A Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Conclusions on This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Background on Multiobjective Optimization for Controller
Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Multiobjective Optimization Design (MOOD) Procedure . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Multiobjective Problem (MOP) Definition . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.2 Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization (EMO) . . . . . 29
2.2.3 MultiCriteria Decision Making (MCDM) . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Related Work in Controller Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1 Basic Design Objectives in Frequency Domain . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2 Basic Design Objectives in Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.3 PI-PID Controller Design Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.4 Fuzzy Controller Design Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3.5 State Space Feedback Controller Design Concept . . . . . 48
2.3.6 Predictive Control Design Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Conclusions on This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3 Tools for the Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure . . . . . . 59
3.1 EMO Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.1 Evolutionary Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.2 A MOEA with Convergence Capabilities: MODE. . . . . 62
3.1.3 An MODE with Diversity Features: sp-MODE . . . . . . . 63
3.1.4 An sp-MODE with Pertinency Features:
sp-MODE-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 69
ix
x Contents
3.2 MCDM Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 75

3.2.1 Preferences in MCDM Stage
Using Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.2 Level Diagrams for Pareto Front Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.3 Level Diagrams for Design Concepts Comparison . . . . 82
3.3 Conclusions of This Chapter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Part II Basics
4 Controller Tuning for Univariable Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3 The MOOD Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 Performance of Some Available Tuning Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5 Controller Tuning for Multivariable Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Model Description and Control Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6 Comparing Control Structures from a Multiobjective
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2 Model and Controllers Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.3.1 Two Objectives Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3.2 Three Objectives Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Part III Benchmarking

7 The ACC’1990 Control Benchmark: A Two-Mass-Spring
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2 Benchmark Setup: ACC Control Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.4 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Contents xi
8 The ABB’2008 Control Benchmark: A Flexible Manipulator . . . . . 159

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2 Benchmark Setup: The ABB Control Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.4 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9 The 2012 IFAC Control Benchmark: An Industrial Boiler
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.2 Benchmark Setup: Boiler Control Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.4 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Part IV Applications
10 Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure for Controller
Tuning of a Peltier Cell Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.2 Process Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.4 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11 Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure for Controller
Tuning of a TRMS Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.3 The MOOD Approach for Design Concepts Comparison . . . . . . 203
11.4 The MOOD Approach for Controller Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.5 Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12 Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure
for an Aircraft’s Flight Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.4 Controllers Performance in a Real Flight Mission . . . . . . . . . . . 222
12.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Acronyms
AOF Aggregate Objective Function

DE Differential Evolution
DM Decision Maker
EA Evolutionary Algorithm
EMO Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization
FEs Function Evaluations
GFCL Generate First, Choose Later
GPP Global Physical Programming
IAE Integral of the Absolute Value of Error
ITAE Integral of the Time Weighted Absolute Value of Error
LD Level Diagrams
MCDM Multicriteria Decision Making
MIMO Multiple Input, Multiple Output
MODE Multiobjective Differential Evolution
MOEA Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm
MOO Multiobjective Optimization
MOOD Multiobjective Optimization Design
MOP Multiobjective Problem
PI Proportional-Integral
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative
SISO Single Input, Single Output
sp-MODE Multiobjective Differential Evolution with Spherical Pruning
xiii
Part I
Fundamentals
This part is devoted to covering the motivational and theorical background required
for this book on MOOD procedures for controller tuning. Firstly the motivation of this
book will be provided, trying to answer the question why multiobjective optimization
techniques are valuable for controller tuning applications? Afterwards, desirable
features regarding the Multiobjective Problem (MOP) definition, the Evolutionary
Multiobjective Optimization (EMO) process and the Multicriteria Decision Making
(MCDM) stage, will be discussed. Finally, tools for the EMO process and the MCDM
stage (used throughout this book) will be provided for practitioners.
Chapter 1
Motivation: Multiobjective Thinking
in Controller Tuning
Abstract Throughout this chapter, we intend to provide a multiobjective

awareness of the controller tuning problem. Beyond the fact that several objec-
tives and requirements must be fulfilled by a given controller, we will show the
advantages of considering this problem in its multiobjective nature. That is, optimiz-
ing simultaneously several objectives and following a multiobjective optimization
design (MOOD) procedure. Since the MOOD procedure provides the opportunity to
obtain a set of solutions to describe the objectives trade-off for a given multiobjective
problem (MOP), it is worthwhile to use it for controller tuning applications. Due to
the fact that several specifications such as time and frequency requirements need to
be fulfilled by the control engineer, a procedure to appreciate the trade-off exchange
for complex processes is useful.
1.1 Controller Tuning as a Multiobjective Optimization

Problem: A Simple Example
Most engineering design statements, particularly controller tuning, can be formu-

lated as an optimization problem. Firstly, the design problem has to be defined;
that is to identify decision variables θ = [θ1 , ..., θn ] and design objectives J =
[J1 (θ), · · · , Jm (θ)]. For instance, consider a standard Proportional-Integral (PI) con-
troller:
⎛ ⎞
t
1
u(t) = Kc ⎝e(t) + e(t)dt ⎠ (1.1)
Ti
0
For the PI tuning problem, the decision variables will be its parameters: the pro-
portional gain Kc and the integral time Ti , that is θ = [Kc , Ti ].
The design objective may be a single index (m = 1). Assume for example that
the Integral of the Absolute Error (IAE), the cumulative difference between desired
and controlled output, is selected:
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 3

G. Reynoso Meza et al., Controller Tuning with Evolutionary
Multiobjective Optimization, Intelligent Systems, Control and Automation:
Science and Engineering 85, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41301-3_1
4 1 Motivation: Multiobjective Thinking in Controller Tuning
tf tf
J1 (θ ) = IAE(θ ) = |r(t) − y(t)| dt = |e(t)| dt. (1.2)
t=t0 t=t0
Then the tuning problem could be formulated as:
min J1 (θ ) = min IAE(θ) (1.3)

θ θ
st :
θi ≤ θi ≤ θi , i = [1, 2]
where θi and θi are the lower and upper bounds of the decision variables.
Clearly, the solution obtained and its performance depends strongly on the design
objective. For the following first order plus time delay model (delay and time constant
in seconds),
Y (s) 3.2 −3s
= P(s) = e (1.4)
U(s) 10s + 1
the PI controller (see Fig. 1.1),

U(s) 11
= C(s) = Kc 1 + (1.5)
E(s) Ti s
and the following constraints for decision variables θ = [0.1, 1] and θ = [10, 100],
the optimal solution with the IAE as design objective is given by: Kc = 0.640 and
Ti = 10.68 s. For this solution, the minimum IAE achieved is J1min = IAE min =
12.517 Units·s. (see Fig. 1.2)
If a different objective is set, for instance J2 (θ) = t98 % (θ ), the time output y takes
to get within 2 % of its final value, the new optimization problem will be:
min J2 (θ) = min t98 % (θ) (1.6)

θ θ
st :
θi ≤ θi ≤ θi , i = [1, 2]
Fig. 1.1 Basic PI control structure

1.1 Controller Tuning as a Multiobjective … 5
2.5
1.5
Y(ud Y)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T(sec)
Fig. 1.2 Closed loop simulation with PI parameters obtained for IAE minimization. r(t) = 2
and the optimal solution now is: Kc = 0.5444 and Ti = 11.08 s, producing the
minimum settling time J2min = t98 % = 10.6 s. (Fig. 1.3 shows the simulation results
min
and compares with the IAE solution obtained previously).

Table 1.1 and Fig. 1.4 compare the results obtained by each solution with respect
to J1 (θ ) and J2 (θ ). Both solutions are optimal according to the objective for which
they were calculated, but not when they are checked against the other. In general, this
situation is common in a wide variety of engineering design problems; depending on
the objective selected the solution may differ. This situation leads to the following
questions:
• Which solution is better?

• Which controller tuning should be implemented for the given process?
Both answers lie in the practical aspects of the problem to solve. There is not a bet-
ter solution than the other, but a solution with different trade off between (apparently)
conflicting objectives. At the end, controller parameters Kc , Ti to be implemented
will depend on the designer’s preferences and the requirements that must be fulfilled
for the given process. If one of the solutions fulfills the designer’s expectations, then
there is nothing more to be done and the tuning problem is solved by implementing
the set of parameters from one of the above stated optimization problems.
2.5
IAE
t98%
1.5
Y(ud Y)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T(sec)
Fig. 1.3 Closed loop simulation with PI parameters obtained for t98 % minimization compared with
the IAE minimization one. r(t) = 2
Table 1.1 Comparison of IAE and t98 % minimization results

Objective minimized Decision variables θ J1 (θ ) Units·s J2 (θ) s
IAE Kc = 0.6400 12.517 22.3
Ti = 10.68s s
t98 % Kc = 0.5444 12.999 10.6
Ti = 11.08 s
Nevertheless, the designer may be interested in the minimization of both objectives

J1 (θ ) and J2 (θ ) simultaneously; that is, a solution with different exchange between
those conflicting objectives. Figure 1.4 shows a wide area between both solutions
where you could find new ones with different trade-offs. In that case, we are facing
a multiobjective optimization problem (MOP), stated as:
min J = [J1 (θ ), J2 (θ )] (1.7)

θ
st :
θi ≤ θi ≤ θi , i = [1, 2].
24
Minimal IAE solution
22
20
18
J2: t98%
Area of other possible solutions

with different trade−off
16
14
Minimal t98% solution
12
10
12.5 12.55 12.6 12.65 12.7 12.75 12.8 12.85 12.9 12.95 13
J : IAE
1
Fig. 1.4 Comparison of minimum IAE and minimum settling time solutions in the objective space
As more than one objective is set and the objectives are in conflict, there is no
unique optimal solution but a set of optimal solutions (no one is better than any
other). This optimal set is known as a Pareto Set and the objective values for this
set comprises a Pareto Front.
Let’s put the above commented thoughts within a general engineering design
context, which will be solved through an optimization statement. Let m be the number
of objectives in which the designer is interested. If m = 1, it is said to deal with a
single-objective problem (Eqs. 1.3 or 1.6), while with m ≥ 2 (Eq. 1.7) it is a MOP.
In Fig. 1.5, a general (maybe brief) methodology to solve an engineering design
problem by means of an optimization statement is presented.
According to [9], there are two main approaches to face a MOP: the Aggregate
Objective Function (AOF) and the Generate-First Choose-Later (GFCL). In the AOF
context, a mono-index optimization statement merging all the design objectives is
defined. For instance, taking into account time and IAE as the Integral of the Time
weighted Absolute Error (ITAE) is an easy way to apply AOF to our PI tuning
example:
tf
J3 (θ) = ITAE(θ) = t |r(t) − y(t)| dt. (1.8)
t=t0
Fig. 1.5 Design methodology by means of optimization
Then a new optimization problem can be stated as:
min J3 (θ ) = min ITAE(θ) (1.9)

θ θ
st :
θi ≤ θi ≤ θi , i = [1, 2]
and another new solution is obtained, which can be compared with previous solutions
for IAE and t98 % minimization (Fig. 1.6 and Table 1.2). As expected, ITAE solution
is the best for ITAE minimization but it would be an intermediate solution if preferred
objectives were J1 and J2 . As it is shown in Fig. 1.7, if ITAE solution is compared
with IAE one, it is better in J2 but worst in J1 objective. Again, if ITAE solution is
compared with t98 % one, it has better J1 but worst J2 . For this situation, it is said
that no one dominates the others (notice that none of the solutions are better in both
objectives J1 and J2 simultaneously).
ITAE index is a traditional AOF which takes into account error and time, however
it is difficult to know a priori which will be the trade-off between them. When the
designer needs a different trade-off between objectives an intuitive AOF approach is
by adding J1 and J2 , using weights to express relative importance among them as in
Eq. (1.10).
J4 (θ) = α · J1 (θ ) + (1 − α) · J2 (θ ). (1.10)
2.5
IAE
t98%
ITAE
1.5
Y(ud Y)
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T(sec)
Fig. 1.6 Closed loop simulation with PI parameters obtained for ITAE minimization compared
with the IAE and t98 % minimization ones
Table 1.2 Comparison of IAE, t98 % and ITAE minimization results

Objective Decision J1 J2 J3
minimized variables
Units·s s Units·s2
IAE (J1 ) Kc = 0.6400 12.517 22.3 55.65
Ti = 10.68 s
t98 % (J2 ) Kc = 0.544 12.999 10.6 61.67
Ti = 11.08 s
ITAE (J3 ) Kc = 0.5512 12.778 17.8 51.26
Ti = 10.06 s
With this formulation the designer has the possibility to assign, for instance, an
80 % of importance to J1 and a 20 % to J2 just setting α = 0.8. But unfortunately
achieving the desired balance between the two objectives also depends on other
factors. The main problem probably is:
• How to weight different objectives? or for this case ...

• How to equally compare IAE [Unit·s] and t98 % [s]?
24
22
20
Minimal ITAE solution
18
J2: t98%
16
14
12
10
12.5 12.55 12.6 12.65 12.7 12.75 12.8 12.85 12.9 12.95 13
J : IAE
1
Fig. 1.7 Comparison of minimal IAE, ITAE and setling time solutions in the objective space
Therefore some normalization between objectives is needed to achieve a fair

comparison among them. For example, it is popular in problems stated in terms of
benefits and costs to put prices in terms of money, getting a common framework to
compare design objectives. But in general for controller tuning is not always possible
and the designer has to decide how to normalize and assign a physical or interpretable
meaning. For our problem, IAE could be first dividing by the span time used in the
integral; Tspan = tf − t0 , Eq. (1.11) to achieve some physical meaning (average error
in units of the controlled variable).
J1 (θ )
J1 (θ ) = . (1.11)
Tspan
Besides, declaring which objective values are equivalent to allow comparison

between their magnitudes/units will be required, for instance, according to a maxi-
mum value. With these considerations a new objective that aggregates the two original
ones will be:
J1 (θ ) J2 (θ )
J4 (θ ) = α
+ (1 − α) · . (1.12)
J1max tmax
Table 1.3 Pareto optimal solutions obtained for different α values at J4 minimization
Pareto solutions Designer Pareto front solutions
preference
Kc Ti α J1 (θ ) J2 (θ)
0.5444 11.08 0 13.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.05 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.10 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.15 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.20 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.25 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.30 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.35 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.40 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.45 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.50 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.55 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.60 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.65 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.70 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.75 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.80 12.999 10.6
0.5444 11.08 0.85 12.999 10.6
0.5481 11.17 0.90 13.004 10.6
0.6288 10.56 0.95 12.520 16.1
0.6400 10.68 1.00 12.517 22.3
Notice that aggregation of several objectives, showing accurately the designer

preferences, is not an easy task. In this case, the decision maker (DM or simply
the designer) needs to describe the trade-offs at the beginning of the optimization
process. Therefore, depending on the selected α, different results will be obtained
(Table 1.3).
It can be observed in Table 1.3 that for several different values of α the same
solution is obtained. Using a weight of α = 0.05 (DM gives a 5 % of importance to
J1 and 95 % to J2 ) is equivalent to minimizing with α = 0.9 (90 % of importance to
J1 and 10 % to J2 ). If we plot the results, as in Fig. 1.8, a wide area between groups
of solutions and a high concentration of them in one extreme is observed. Notice
that the ITAE solution is worst, regarding the two objectives, than the one obtained
with α = 0.95, because the ITAE uses a different way to agglutinate objectives; so
this solution is optimal in the ITAE sense, but suboptimal in both objectives when
comparing with the original design objectives. In fact, it seems there is not a lot of
24
22
20
18
J : t98%
2
Solutions from weighting method

16
14
12
10
12.5 12.55 12.6 12.65 12.7 12.75 12.8 12.85 12.9 12.95 13
J : IAE
1
Fig. 1.8 Solutions for J4 problem using different α values marked as +
options for the DM: minimum IAE, minimum t98 % or the middle solution presenting
the same trade-off. This fact leads to the following questions:
• Is the DM missing some information? or furthermore ...
• Is the weighting method an infallible way to specify trade-off between objectives?
The answer is, it depends on the problem, but in general, it is a hard task to know
a priori if the problem is going to be efficiently solved by the weighting method. The
suitability of this method depends on the convexity and geometrical properties of
the multiobjective problem. In our example, minimize IAE and settling time by the
weighting method, shows efficiently a strong trade-off between design objectives;
nevertheless, it does not seem a good alternative if the designer wants to sweep all
possible trade-offs in order to analyze the solutions and select a preferable controller.
The first case represents the essence of the AOF approach and the second one,
the essence of the GFCL method.
When a better understanding of objectives trade-off is needed, multiobjective
optimization may provide the required insight. For this purpose, a multiobjective
optimization algorithm is needed to search for a good approximation of the Pareto
front (without any subjective weighting selection). This optimization approach seeks
for a set of Pareto optimal solutions to approximate the Pareto Front [8, 11]. This
approximation provides a preliminary idea of an objective space; and according

to [1], it could be helpful when it is necessary to explain and justify the MCDM
procedure. As drawbacks, more time and embedment from the DM in the overall
process is needed.
If a multiobjective optimization algorithm (further explained in Chap. 3) is used
to solve our MOP (Eq. 1.7), the Pareto Front approximation of Table 1.4 and Fig. 1.9
is obtained. As it is shown, the front is non convex and presents discontinuities. This
kind of Pareto Front are difficult to approximate correctly.
When simultaneous objective optimization is performed, the designer is provided
with a set of solutions with different trade-offs. Notice that solving a MOP concludes
with the selection of the final solution, which takes place in a Multicriteria Decision
Making (MCDM) step. That is when the DM analyzes the trade-off among objectives,
and selects the best solution according to his/her preferences. For that purpose, several
techniques [5] and visualization approaches [7] are available; however this step may
not be a trivial task since the analysis and visualization complexity increases with the
number of objectives. Sometimes decision making could be more time consuming
than the optimization process itself [3], and requires tools to help the DM. Moreover,
notice there is a high degree of subjectivity in this extremely important step.
To illustrate the last idea, Fig. 1.10 shows two alternatives. The first one is the
selection of the Pareto front solution nearest to the ideal point (J ideal ). The ideal
point is an utopian point built with the minimum values of both objectives. It seems
to be a default choice to start but it is not always a preferred choice. Remark that each
objective has its own units and that using pure geometrical distance could create a
distortion or at least a misunderstanding of this measure. The second one could be the
nearest point to a certain preferred area. If the DM has an idea about some preferred
limits for J1 and J2 , a preferred area to look for can be defined. Depending on the
shape of the Pareto Front, some points could be inside and the DM could refine the
final choice with an additional preference (for instance, proximity to ideal point). If
none of the Pareto Front points are inside, the DM choice could be the nearest to this
area of interest. (See Fig. 1.11 to compare the two aforementioned alternatives for
final controller selection.)
Additionally to objectives definition and final decision procedure, a suitable mul-
tiobjective optimization algorithm is required. As it has been shown in the example
the type of problem has to be considered in the algorithm selection. Lots of alter-
natives are available for different types of problems but a rough classification could
be between convex optimization and global optimization.
Sometimes it is difficult and costly to produce a well distributed Pareto Front with
techniques based on convex optimization. As example, let’s apply the goal attainment
methodology1 to our PI tuning example. As most of the classical methods, converting
the multiobjective problem into several single objective problems is the shortcut to
obtain the Pareto Front. Therefore, Problem 1.7 is converted into multiple single
objective problem (SOP) as:
1 For example, using the fgoalattain function from the Matlab

c Optimization Toolbox.
Table 1.4 Pareto Set, and Front approximations for IAE and t98 % minimization
Pareto set Pareto front
Kc Ti J1 J2
0.5444 11.08 12.999 10.6
0.5501 11.19 12.996 13.5
0.5487 11.16 12.992 13.6
0.5507 11.18 12.985 13.7
0.5507 11.17 12.978 13.8
0.5517 11.17 12.969 13.9
0.5517 11.16 12.961 14.0
0.5532 11.16 12.948 14.1
0.5553 11.18 12.934 14.2
0.5562 11.17 12.923 14.3
0.5570 11.16 12.911 14.4
0.5582 11.14 12.891 14.5
0.5608 11.15 12.871 14.6
0.5620 11.13 12.852 14.7
0.5644 11.12 12.831 14.8
0.5664 11.11 12.810 14.9
0.5695 11.10 12.783 15.0
0.5733 11.09 12.755 15.1
0.5764 11.07 12.729 15.2
0.5799 11.05 12.704 15.3
0.5841 11.02 12.674 15.4
0.5877 10.98 12.649 15.5
0.5940 10.95 12.616 15.6
0.5984 10.90 12.593 15.7
0.6038 10.84 12.569 15.8
0.6124 10.77 12.543 15.9
0.6199 10.68 12.527 16.0
0.6275 10.58 12.521 16.1
0.6291 10.55 12.520 16.2
0.6291 10.56 12.520 20.9
0.6285 10.57 12.520 21.1
0.6313 10.56 12.519 21.4
0.6340 10.58 12.518 21.7
0.6362 10.63 12.517 22.0
0.6400 10.68 12.517 22.3
24
22
20
Solutions from weighting method
18
J2: t98%
16
14
Other Pareto Solutions
(Pareto optimal)
12
10
12.5 12.55 12.6 12.65 12.7 12.75 12.8 12.85 12.9 12.95 13
J : IAE
1
Fig. 1.9 Pareto Front approximation (•) for J1 and J2 minimization
min α (1.13)
θ
st :
J = [J1 (θ), J2 (θ )] (1.14)
J u + αω ≥ J (1.15)
θi ≤ θi ≤ θi , i = [1, 2].
For each different J u and/or different weighting vector ω a different SOP is stated
and solved by a convex optimization algorithm. Although the method is quite effec-
tive, several parameter adjustments (J u , ω) and initial points to feed the solver are
needed and, if the problem is non-convex, a wrong starting point would produce a
local optima or no solution at all.
For the selection of J u and ω (in charge of defining the different SOPs that will
produce individual points of the Pareto Front) some knowledge of the problem is
convenient. The extremes of the Pareto Front can be useful to bound the objective
space area where the Pareto Front should be located. These extremes are obtained by
minimizing J1 and J2 separately. Of course, if for this purpose a convex optimization
24
22
20
Nearest to
ideal point
18 Nearest to
J2: t98%
preferred area
16
14 Preferred area
12 Ideal point
10
12.5 12.55 12.6 12.65 12.7 12.75 12.8 12.85 12.9 12.95 13
J : IAE
1
Fig. 1.10 Two alternatives for final selection step
algorithm2 is used, it is necessary to supply an initial point and the designer has to
guess or use a priori information to focus optimization algorithm into the proper
area of the search space. Therefore minimum values of Ji (which produce the ideal
point) can be an appropriate choice for the goal (J u = J ideal ).
With a fixed goal, the weighting vector ω changes the search direction and, ideally,
it produces a different point of the front. For our PI tuning problem an intuitive way
to select ω could be changing the orientation from an angle β = 0◦ to β = 90◦ by
increments according to the desired point distribution of the Pareto Front. Then, for
a particular value of this angle β, the 2D weighting vector can be computed as:
ω = [cos(β), sin(β)]. (1.16)
For each ω stated, an initial point x 0 is needed to feed the algorithm which solves
the SOP generated. After several trials, starting at random points and using the last
result as the starting point of the next run, it is very difficult to achieve a solu-
tion similar to the one of Table 1.1. Other strategies exploiting the problem char-
acteristics could be used: a starting point from a classical PID tuning methodology
2 For instance, the fmincon function from the Matlab

c Optimization Toolbox.
2.5
PI obtained for IAE
1.5 PI obtained for t98%

Y(ud Y)
0.5
Nearest Ideal Point

Nearest Preferred Area
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
T(sec)
Fig. 1.11 Closed loop simulation with different PI selections: IAE, t98 %, nearest to ideal point
and nearest to preferred area
(Ziegler-Nichols, S-IMC, etc.). Even so, some extra work exploiting the problem
characteristics is necessary to help the solver if you want to succeed with the goal
attainment method. Let’s use the minima IAE and t98 % solutions obtained previ-
ously. It is reasonable (but not always true) that the Pareto solution should be inside
an area between both minima solutions. Then a reasonable initial point should be
in and for example, a linear distribution between minimum IAE and minimum t98 %
solutions can be used. For instance, if 50 Pareto points are desired, initial guesses
for the starting point x 0 and weighting vectors ω can be calculated as:
IAE = [0.6400, 10.68]

θ min
θ t98 % = [0.5444, 11.18]
min
J u = [J1min J2min ]
div = 50,
β0 = 0
βstep = 90o /div
24
fgoalattain sol
22
20
18
J2: t98%
16
14
12
10
12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 13 13.1
J1: IAE
Fig. 1.12 Pareto Front approximation obtained by goal attainment procedure. In this case the
fgoalattain from Matlab
c has been used
βk = βk−1 + βstep k ∈ [1 . . . div]

ω = [cos(βk ), sin(βk )].
x 0 = θ min
t98 %
IAE − θ t98 %
θ min min
xstep =
div
xk0 = xk−1
0
+ xstep k ∈ [1 . . . div].
With these selections it is possible to achieve the Pareto Front approximation

shown in Fig. 1.12. Obviously, there is no guarantee that it was a good approximation
but at least it is a candidate for it.
In summary, for our 2D problem, achieving this result had required several trial
and error steps and additional work to help the optimizer. For a higher dimensional
problem and time consuming objective functions, this process is more and more long
and complex. It is fair to say that convex optimization has achieved a very high degree
24
fgoalattain sol
global optimizer sol
22
20
18
J2: t98%
16
14
12
10
12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 13 13.1
J1: IAE
Fig. 1.13 Comparison of Pareto Front approximation obtained by fgoalattain function and a global
optimizer
of development and can manage very effectively nonlinear problems with thousands
of variables. It is highly recommended for a great variety of problems and it is easy
to find commercial and open algorithms.
Traditionally, classic techniques [11] to calculate Pareto Front approximations
have been used (such as varying weighting vectors, -constraint, and goal pro-
gramming methods) as well as specialized algorithms (normal boundary intersection
method [4], normal constraint method [10], and successive Pareto front optimiza-
tion [13]).
But there is another set of problems where convex optimization is not enough and
global optimization has to be used to increase the probability of achieving an accurate
Pareto Front. For instance, if a global optimizer is used for our PI tuning problem
the result shown in Fig. 1.13 produces a better front approximation than the one
obtained by the goal attainment methodology. In this case, an evolutionary technique
has been used (it will be described later). Since the computational cost is higher
than the goal attainment procedure, a global optimizer increases the probability to
obtain a better solution. An additional advantage of evolutionary techniques: it is not
strictly necessary any previous tuning of the algorithm taking into account problem
characteristics (for instance, initial points are not needed). So, when multiobjective
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United States (which, after the expiration of its national charter, had
become a State corporation chartered by the Legislature of
Pennsylvania in January, 1836) for the purpose of restoring
themselves to power. The whole proceeding became clear to those
who could see nothing while it was in progress. Even those of the
democratic party whose votes had helped to do the mischief, could
now see that the attempt to deposit forty millions with the States was
destruction to the deposit banks; that the repeal of President
Jackson’s order, known as the “specie circular”—requiring payment
for public lands to be in coin—was to fill the treasury with paper
money, to be found useless when wanted; that distress was purposely
created to throw blame of it upon the party in power; that the
promptitude with which the Bank of the United States had been
brought forward as a remedy for the distress, showed that it had
been held in reserve for that purpose; and the delight with which the
whig party saluted the general calamity, showed that they considered
it their own passport to power. Financial embarrassment and general
stagnation of business diminished the current receipts from lands
and customs, and actually caused an absolute deficit in the public
treasury. In consequence, the President found it an inexorable
necessity to issue his proclamation convening Congress in extra
session.
The first session of the twenty-fifth Congress met in extra session,
at the call of the President, on the first Monday of September, 1837.
The message was a review of the events and causes which had
brought about the panic; a defense of the policy of the “specie
circular,” and a recommendation to break off all connection with any
bank of issue in any form; looking to the establishment of an
Independent Treasury, and that the Government provide for the
deficit in the treasury by the issue of treasury notes and by
withholding the deposit due to the States under the act then in force.
The message and its recommendations were violently assailed both
in the Senate and House by able and effective speakers, notably by
Messrs. Clay and Webster, and also by Mr. Caleb Cushing, of
Massachusetts, who made a formal and elaborate reply to the whole
document under thirty-two distinct heads, and reciting therein all
the points of accusation against the democratic policy from the
beginning of the government down to that day. The result was that
the measures proposed by the Executive were in substance enacted;
and their passage marks an era in our financial history—making a
total and complete separation of Bank and State, and firmly
establishing the principle that the government revenues should be
receivable in coin only.
The measures of consequence discussed and adopted at this
session, were the graduation of price of public lands under the pre-
emption system, which was adopted; the bill to create an
independent Treasury, which passed the Senate, but failed in the
House; and the question of the re-charter of the district banks, the
proportion for reserve, and the establishment of such institutions on
a specie basis. The slavery question was again agitated in
consequence of petitions from citizens and societies in the Northern
States, and a memorial from the General Assembly of Vermont,
praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and
territories, and for the exclusion of future slave states from the
Union. These petitions and memorials were disposed of adversely;
and Mr. Calhoun, representing the ultra-Southern interest, in several
able speeches, approved of the Missouri compromise, he urged and
obtained of the Senate several resolutions declaring that the federal
government had no power to interfere with slavery in the States; and
that it would be inexpedient and impolitic to interfere, abolish or
control it in the District of Columbia and the territories. These
movements for and against slavery in the session of 1837–38 deserve
to be noticed, as of disturbing effect at the time, and as having
acquired new importance from subsequent events.
The first session of the twenty-sixth Congress opened December,
1839. The organization of the House was delayed by a closely and
earnestly contested election from the State of New Jersey. Five
Democrats claiming seats as against an equal number of Whigs.
Neither set was admitted until after the election of Speaker, which
resulted in the choice of Robert M. T. Hunter, of Virginia, the Whig
candidate, who was elected by the full Whig vote with the aid of a few
democrats—friends of Mr. Calhoun, who had for several previous
sessions been acting with the Whigs on several occasions. The House
excluding the five contested seats from New Jersey, was really
Democratic; having 122 members, and the Whigs 113 members. The
contest for the Speakership was long and arduous, neither party
adhering to its original caucus candidate. Twenty scattering votes,
eleven of whom were classed as Whigs, and nine as Democrats,
prevented a choice on the earlier ballots, and it was really Mr.
Calhoun’s Democratic friends uniting with a solid Whig vote on the
final ballot that gained that party the election. The issue involved was
a vital party question as involving the organization of the House. The
chief measure, of public importance, adopted at this session of
Congress was an act to provide for the collection, safe-keeping, and
disbursing of the public money. It practically revolutionized the
system previously in force, and was a complete and effectual
separation of the federal treasury and the Government, from the
banks and moneyed corporations of the States. It was violently
opposed by the Whig members, led by Mr. Clay, and supported by
Mr. Cushing, but was finally passed in both Houses by a close vote.
At this time, and in the House of Representatives, was exhibited
for the first time in the history of Congress, the present practice of
members “pairing off,” as it is called; that is to say, two members of
opposite political parties, or of opposite views on any particular
subject, agreeing to absent themselves from the duties of the House,
for the time being. The practice was condemned on the floor of the
House by Mr. John Quincy Adams, who introduced a resolution:
“That the practice, first openly avowed at the present session of
Congress, of pairing off, involves, on the part of the members
resorting to it, the violation of the Constitution of the United States,
of an express rule of this House, and of the duties of both parties in
the transaction, to their immediate constituents, to this House, and
to their country.” This resolution was placed in the calendar to take
its turn, but not being reached during the session, was not voted on.
That was the first instance of this justly condemned practice, fifty
years after the establishment of the Government; but since then it
has become common, even inveterate, and is now carried to great
lengths.
The last session of the twenty-sixth Congress was barren of
measures, and necessarily so, as being the last of our administration
superseded by the popular voice, and soon to expire; and therefore
restricted by a sense of propriety, during the brief remainder of its
existence, to the details of business and the routine of service. The
cause of this was the result of the presidential election of 1840. The
same candidates who fought the battle of 1836 were again in the
field. Mr. Van Buren was the Democratic candidate. His
administration had been satisfactory to his party, and his
nomination for a second term was commended by the party in the
different States in appointing their delegates; so that the proceedings
of the convention which nominated him were entirely harmonious
and formal in their nature. Mr. Richard M. Johnson, the actual Vice-
President, was also nominated for Vice-President.
On the Whig ticket, General William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was
the candidate for President, and Mr. John Tyler, of Virginia, for Vice-
President. The leading statesmen of the Whig party were again put
aside, to make way for a military man, prompted by the example in
the nomination of General Jackson, the men who managed
presidential elections believing then as now that military renown was
a passport to popularity and rendered a candidate more sure of
election. Availability—for the purpose—was the only ability asked for.
Mr. Clay, the most prominent Whig in the country, and the
acknowledged head of the party, was not deemed available; and
though Mr. Clay was a candidate before the convention, the
proceedings were so regulated that his nomination was referred to a
committee, ingeniously devised and directed for the afterwards
avowed purpose of preventing his nomination and securing that of
General Harrison; and of producing the intended result without
showing the design, and without leaving a trace behind to show what
was done. The scheme (a modification of which has since been
applied to subsequent national conventions, and out of which many
bitter dissensions have again and again arisen) is embodied and was
executed in and by means of the following resolution adopted by the
convention: “Ordered, That the delegates from each State be
requested to assemble as a delegation, and appoint a committee, not
exceeding three in number, to receive the views and opinions of such
delegation, and communicate the same to the assembled committees
of all the delegations, to be by them respectively reported to their
principals; and that thereupon the delegates from each State be
requested to assemble as a delegation, and ballot for candidates for
the offices of President and Vice-President, and having done so, to
commit the ballot designating the votes of each candidate, and by
whom given, to its committee, and thereupon all the committees
shall assemble and compare the several ballots, and report the result
of the same to their several delegations, together with such facts as
may bear upon the nomination; and said delegation shall forthwith
reassemble and ballot again for candidates for the above offices, and
again commit the result to the above committees, and if it shall
appear that a majority of the ballots are for any one man for
candidate for President, said committee shall report the result to the
convention for its consideration; but if there shall be no such
majority, then the delegation shall repeat the balloting until such a
majority shall be obtained, and then report the same to the
convention for its consideration. That the vote of a majority of each
delegation shall be reported as the vote of that State; and each State
represented here shall vote its full electoral vote by such delegation
in the committee.” This was a sum in political algebra, whose
quotient was known, but the quantity unknown except to those who
planned it; and the result was—for General Scott, 16 votes; for Mr.
Clay, 90 votes; for General Harrison, 148 votes. And as the law of the
convention impliedly requires the absorption of all minorities, the
106 votes were swallowed up by the 148 votes and made to count for
General Harrison, presenting him as the unanimity candidate of the
convention, and the defeated candidates and all their friends bound
to join in his support. And in this way the election of 1840 was
effected—a process certainly not within the purview of those framers
of the constitution who supposed they were giving to the nation the
choice of its own chief magistrate.
The contest before the people was a long and bitter one, the
severest ever known in the country, up to that time, and scarcely
equalled since. The whole Whig party and the large league of
suspended banks, headed by the Bank of the United States making
its last struggle for a new national charter in the effort to elect a
President friendly to it, were arrayed against the Democrats, whose
hard-money policy and independent treasury schemes, met with
little favor in the then depressed condition of the country. Meetings
were held in every State, county and town; the people thoroughly
aroused; and every argument made in favor of the respective
candidates and parties, which could possibly have any effect upon
the voters. The canvass was a thorough one, and the election was
carried for the Whig candidates, who received 234 electoral votes
coming from 19 States. The remaining 60 electoral votes of the other
9 States, were given to the Democratic candidate; though the popular
vote was not so unevenly divided; the actual figures being 1,275,611
for the Whig ticket, against 1,135,761 for the Democratic ticket. It was
a complete rout of the Democratic party, but without the moral effect
of victory.
On March 4, 1841, was inaugurated as President, Gen’l Wm. H.
Harrison, the first Chief Magistrate elected by the Whig party, and
the first President who was not a Democrat, since the installation of
Gen’l Jackson, March 4, 1829. His term was a short one. He issued a
call for a special session of Congress to convene the 31st of May
following, to consider the condition of the revenue and finances of
the country, but did not live to meet it. Taken ill with a fatal malady
during the last days of March, he died on the 4th of April following,
having been in office just one month. He was succeeded by the Vice-
President, John Tyler. Then, for the first time in our history as a
government, the person elected to the Vice-Presidency of the United
States, by the happening of a contingency provided for in the
constitution, had devolved upon him the Presidential office.
The twenty-seventh Congress opened in extra session at the call of
the late President, May 31, 1841. A Whig member—Mr. White of
Kentucky—was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. The
Whigs had a majority of forty-seven in the House and of seven in the
Senate, and with the President and Cabinet of the same political
party presented a harmony of aspect frequently wanting during the
three previous administrations. The first measure of the new
dominant party was the repeal of the independent treasury act
passed at the previous session; and the next in order were bills to
establish a system of bankruptcy, and for distribution of public land
revenue. The former was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically
an insolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. It
applied to all persons in debt, allowed them to institute the
proceedings in the district where the petitioner resided, allowed
constructive notices to creditors in newspapers—declared the
abolition of the debt where effects were surrendered and fraud not
proved; and gave exclusive jurisdiction to the federal courts, at the
will of the debtor. It was framed upon the model of the English
insolvent debtors’ act of George the Fourth, and embodied most of
the provisions of that act, but substituting a release from the debt
instead of a release from imprisonment. The bill passed by a close
vote in both Houses.
The land revenue distribution bill of this session had its origin in
the fact that the States and corporations owed about two hundred
millions to creditors in Europe. These debts were in stocks, much
depreciated by the failure in many instances to pay the accruing
interest—in some instances failure to provide for the principal. These
creditors, becoming uneasy, wished the federal government to
assume their debts. The suggestion was made as early as 1838,
renewed in 1839, and in 1840 became a regular question mixed up
with the Presidential election of that year, and openly engaging the
active exertions of foreigners. Direct assumption was not urged;
indirect by giving the public land revenue to the States was the mode
pursued, and the one recommended in the message of President
Tyler. Mr. Calhoun spoke against the measure with more than usual
force and clearness, claiming that it was unconstitutional and
without warrant. Mr. Benton on the same side called it a squandering
of the public patrimony, and pointed out its inexpediency in the
depleted state of the treasury, apart from its other objectionable
features. It passed by a party vote.
This session is remarkable for the institution of the hour rule in
the House of Representatives—a very great limitation upon the
freedom of debate. It was a Whig measure, adopted to prevent delay
in the enactment of pending bills. It was a rigorous limitation,
frequently acting as a bar to profitable debate and checking members
in speeches which really impart information valuable to the House
and the country. No doubt the license of debate has been frequently
abused in Congress, as in all other deliberative assemblies, but the
incessant use of the previous question, which cuts off all debate,
added to the hour rule which limits a speech to sixty minutes
(constantly reduced by interruptions) frequently results in the
transaction of business in ignorance of what they are about by those
who are doing it.
The rule worked so well in the House, for the purpose for which it
was devised—made the majority absolute master of the body—that
Mr. Clay undertook to have the same rule adopted in the Senate; but
the determined opposition to it, both by his political opponents and
friends, led to the abandonment of the attempt in that chamber.
Much discussion took place at this session, over the bill offered in
the House of Representatives, for the relief of the widow of the late
President—General Harrison—appropriating one year’s salary. It was
strenuously opposed by the Democratic members, as
unconstitutional, on account of its principle, as creating a private
pension list, and as a dangerous precedent. Many able speeches were
made against the bill, both in the Senate and House; among others,
the following extract from the speech of an able Senator contains
some interesting facts. He said: “Look at the case of Mr. Jefferson, a
man than whom no one that ever existed on God’s earth were the
human family more indebted to. His furniture and his estate were
sold to satisfy his creditors. His posterity was driven from house and
home, and his bones now lay in soil owned by a stranger. His family
are scattered: some of his descendants are married in foreign lands.
Look at Monroe—the able, the patriotic Monroe, whose services were
revolutionary, whose blood was spilt in the war of Independence,
whose life was worn out in civil service, and whose estate has been
sold for debt, his family scattered, and his daughter buried in a
foreign land. Look at Madison, the model of every virtue, public or
private, and he would only mention in connection with this subject,
his love of order, his economy, and his systematic regularity in all his
habits of business. He, when his term of eight years had expired, sent
a letter to a gentleman (a son of whom is now on this floor) [Mr.
Preston], enclosing a note of five thousand dollars, which he
requested him to endorse, and raise the money in Virginia, so as to
enable him to leave this city, and return to his modest retreat—his
patrimonial inheritance—in that State. General Jackson drew upon
the consignee of his cotton crop in New Orleans for six thousand
dollars to enable him to leave the seat of government without leaving
creditors behind him. These were honored leaders of the republican
party. They had all been Presidents. They had made great sacrifices,
and left the presidency deeply embarrassed; and yet the republican
party who had the power and the strongest disposition to relieve
their necessities, felt they had no right to do so by appropriating
money from the public Treasury. Democracy would not do this. It
was left for the era of federal rule and federal supremacy—who are
now rushing the country with steam power into all the abuses and
corruptions of a monarchy, with its pensioned aristocracy—and to
entail upon the country a civil pension list.”
There was an impatient majority in the House in favor of the
passage of the bill. The circumstances were averse to deliberation—a
victorious party, come into power after a heated election, seeing their
elected candidate dying on the threshold of his administration, poor
and beloved: it was a case for feeling more than of judgment,
especially with the political friends of the deceased—but few of whom
could follow the counsels of the head against the impulsions of the
heart.
The bill passed, and was approved; and as predicted, it established
a precedent which has since been followed in every similar case.
The subject of naval pensions received more than usual
consideration at this session. The question arose on the discussion of
the appropriation bill for that purpose. A difference about a navy—on
the point of how much and what kind—had always been a point of
difference between the two great political parties of the Union,
which, under whatsoever names, are always the same, each
preserving its identity in principles and policy, but here the two
parties divided upon an abuse which no one could deny or defend. A
navy pension fund had been established under the act of 1832, which
was a just and proper law, but on the 3d of March, 1837, an act was
passed entitled “An act for the more equitable distribution of the
Navy Pension Fund.” That act provided: I. That Invalid naval
pensions should commence and date back to the time of receiving
the inability, instead of completing the proof. II. It extended the
pensions for death to all cases of death, whether incurred in the line
of duty or not. III. It extended the widow’s pensions for life, when
five years had been the law both in the army and navy. IV. It adopted
the English system of pensioning children of deceased marines until
they attained their majority.
The effect of this law was to absorb and bankrupt the navy pension
fund, a meritorious fund created out of the government share of
prize money, relinquished for that purpose, and to throw the
pensions, arrears as well as current and future, upon the public
treasury, where it was never intended they were to be. It was to
repeal this act, that an amendment was introduced at this session on
the bringing forward of the annual appropriation bill for navy
pensions, and long and earnest were the debates upon it. The
amendment was lost, the Senate dividing on party lines, the Whigs
against and the Democrats for the amendment. The subject is
instructive, as then was practically ratified and re-enacted the
pernicious practice authorized by the act of 1837, of granting
pensions to date from the time of injury and not from the time of
proof; and has grown up to such proportions in recent years that the
last act of Congress appropriating money for arrears of pensions,
provided for the payment of such an enormous sum of money that it
would have appalled the original projectors of the act of 1837 could
they have seen to what their system has led.
Again, at this session, the object of the tariff occupied the attention
of Congress. The compromise act, as it was called, of 1833, which was
composed of two parts—one to last nine years, for the benefit of
manufactures; the other to last for ever, for the benefit of the
planting and consuming interest—was passed, as hereinbefore
stated, in pursuance of an agreement between Mr. Clay and Mr.
Calhoun and their respective friends, at the time the former was
urging the necessity for a continuance of high tariff for protection
and revenue, and the latter was presenting and justifying before
Congress the nullification ordinance adopted by the Legislature of
South Carolina. To Mr. Clay and Mr. Calhoun it was a political
necessity, one to get rid of a stumbling-block (which protective tariff
had become); the other to escape a personal peril which his
nullifying ordinance had brought upon him, and with both, it was a
piece of policy, to enable them to combine against Mr. Van Buren, by
postponing their own contention; and a device on the part of its
author (Mr. Clayton, of Delaware) and Mr. Clay to preserve the
protective system. It provided for a reduction of a certain per centage
each year, on the duties for the ensuing nine years, until the revenue
was reduced to 20 per cent. ad valorem on all articles imported into
the country. In consequence the revenue was so reduced that in the
last year, there was little more than half what the exigencies of the
government required, and different modes, by loans and otherwise,
were suggested to meet the deficiency. The Secretary of the Treasury
had declared the necessity of loans and taxes to carry on the
government; a loan bill for twelve millions had been passed; a tariff
bill to raise fourteen millions was depending; and the chairman of
the Committee of Ways and Means, Mr. Millard Fillmore, defended
its necessity in an able speech. His bill proposed twenty per cent.
additional to the existing duty on certain specified articles, sufficient
to make up the amount wanted. This encroachment on a measure so
much vaunted when passed, and which had been kept inviolate while
operating in favor of one of the parties to it, naturally excited
complaint and opposition from the other, and Mr. Gilmer, of
Virginia, in a speech against the new bill, said: “In referring to the
compromise act, the true characteristics of that act which
recommended it strongly to him, were that it contemplated that
duties were to be levied for revenue only, and in the next place to the
amount only necessary to the supply of the economical wants of the
government. He begged leave to call the attention of the committee
to the principle recognized as the language of the compromise, a
principle which ought to be recognized in all time to come by every
department of the government. It is, that duties to be raised for
revenue are to be raised to such an amount only as is necessary for
an economical administration of the government. Some incidental
protection must necessarily be given, and he, for one, coming from
an anti-tariff portion of the country, would not object to it.”
The bill went to the Senate where it found Mr. Clay and Mr.
Calhoun in positions very different from what they occupied when
the compromise act was passed—then united, now divided—then
concurrent, now antagonistic, and the antagonism general, upon all
measures, was to be special upon this one. Their connection with the
subject made it their function to lead off in its consideration; and
their antagonist positions promised sharp encounters, which did not
fail to come. Mr. Clay said that he “observed that the Senator from
South Carolina based his abstractions on the theories of books on
English authorities, and on the arguments urged in favor of free
trade by a certain party in the British Parliament. Now he, (Mr.
Clay,) and his friends would not admit of these authorities being
entitled to as much weight as the universal practice of nations, which
in all parts of the world was found to be in favor of protecting home
manufactures to an extent sufficient to keep them in a flourishing
condition. This was the whole difference. The Senator was in favor of
book theory and abstractions: he (Mr. Clay) and his friends, were in
favor of the universal practice of nations, and the wholesome and
necessary protection of domestic manufactures.”
Mr. Calhoun in reply, referring to his allusion to the success in the
late election of the tory party in England, said: “The interests,
objects, and aims of the tory party there and the whig party here, are
identical. The identity of the two parties is remarkable. The tory
party are the patrons of corporate monopolies; and are not you?
They are advocates of a high tariff; and are not you? They are
supporters of a national bank; and are not you? They are for corn
laws—laws oppressive to the masses of the people, and favorable to
their own power; and are not you? Witness this bill.*** The success
of that party in England, and of the whig party here, is the success of
the great money power, which concentrates the interests of the two
parties, and identifies their principles.”
The bill was passed by a large majority, upon the general ground
that the government must have revenue.
The chief measure of the session, and the great object of the whig
party—the one for which it had labored for ten years—was for the re-
charter of a national bank. Without this all other measures would be
deemed to be incomplete, and the victorious election itself but little
better than a defeat. The President, while a member of the
Democratic party, had been opposed to the United States Bank; and
to overcome any objections he might have the bill was carefully
prepared, and studiously contrived to avoid the President’s
objections, and save his consistency—a point upon which he was
exceedingly sensitive. The democratic members resisted strenuously,
in order to make the measure odious, but successful resistance was
impossible. It passed both houses by a close vote; and contrary to all
expectation the President disapproved the act, but with such
expressions of readiness to approve another bill which should be free
from the objections which he named, as still to keep his party
together, and to prevent the resignation of his cabinet. In his veto
message the President fell back upon his early opinions against the
constitutionality of a national bank, so often and so publicly
expressed.
The veto caused consternation among the whig members; and Mr.
Clay openly gave expression to his dissatisfaction, in the debate on
the veto message, in terms to assert that President Tyler had violated
his faith to the whig party, and had been led off from them by new
associations. He said: “And why should not President Tyler have
suffered the bill to become a law without his signature? Without
meaning the slightest possible disrespect to him (nothing is further
from my heart than the exhibition of any such feeling towards that
distinguished citizen, long my personal friend), it cannot be
forgotten that he came into his present office under peculiar
circumstances. The people did not foresee the contingency which has
happened. They voted for him as Vice-President. They did not,
therefore, scrutinize his opinions with the care which they probably
ought to have done, and would have done, if they could have looked
into futurity. If the present state of the fact could have been
anticipated—if at Harrisburg, or at the polls, it had been foreseen
that General Harrison would die in one short month after the
commencement of his administration; so that Vice-President Tyler
would be elevated to the presidential chair; that a bill passed by
decisive majorities of the first whig Congress, chartering a national
bank, would be presented for his sanction; and that he would veto
the bill, do I hazard anything when I express the conviction that he
would not have received a solitary vote in the nominating
convention, nor one solitary electoral vote in any State in the
Union?”
The vote was taken on the bill over again, as required by the
constitution, and so far from receiving a two-thirds vote, it received
only a bare majority, and was returned to the House with a message
stating his objections to it, where it gave rise to some violent
speaking, more directed to the personal conduct of the President
than to the objections to the bill stated in his message. The veto was
sustained; and so ended the second attempt to resuscitate the old
United States Bank under a new name. This second movement to
establish the bank has a secret history. It almost caused the
establishment of a new party, with Mr. Tyler as its head; earnest
efforts having been made in that behalf by many prominent Whigs
and Democrats. The entire cabinet, with the exception of Mr.
Webster, resigned within a few days after the second veto. It was a
natural thing for them to do, and was not unexpected. Indeed Mr.
Webster had resolved to tender his resignation also, but on
reconsideration determined to remain and publish his reasons
therefor in a letter to the National Intelligencer, in the following
words:
“Lest any misapprehension should exist, as to the reasons which
led me to differ from the course pursued by my late colleagues, I wish
to say that I remain in my place, first, because I have seen no
sufficient reasons for the dissolution of the late Cabinet, by the
voluntary act of its own members. I am perfectly persuaded of the
absolute necessity of an institution, under the authority of Congress,
to aid revenue and financial operations, and to give the country the
blessings of a good currency and cheap exchanges. Notwithstanding
what has passed, I have confidence that the President will co-operate
with the legislature in overcoming all difficulties in the attainment of
these objects; and it is to the union of the Whig party—by which I
mean the whole party, the Whig President, the Whig Congress, and
the Whig people—that I look for a realization of our wishes. I can
look nowhere else. In the second place if I had seen reasons to resign
my office, I should not have done so, without giving the President
reasonable notice, and affording him time to select the hands to
which he should confide the delicate and important affairs now
pending in this department.”
The conduct of the President in the matter of the vetoes of the two
bank bills produced revolt against him in the party; and the Whigs of
the two Houses of Congress held several formal meetings to consider
what they should do in the new condition of affairs. An address to the
people of the United States was resolved upon. The rejection of the
bank bill gave great vexation to one side, and equal exultation to the
other. The subject was not permitted to rest, however; a national
bank was the life—the vital principle—of the Whig party, without
which it could not live as a party; it was the power which was to give
them power and the political and financial control of the Union. A
second attempt was made, four days after the veto, to accomplish the
end by amendments to a bill relating to the currency, which had been
introduced early in the session. Mr. Sargeant of Pennsylvania, moved
to strike out all after the enacting clause, and insert his amendments,
which were substantially the same as the vetoed bill, except changing
the amount of capital and prohibiting discounts on notes other than
bills of exchange. The bill was pushed to a vote with astonishing
rapidity, and passed by a decided majority. In the Senate the bill
went to a select committee which reported it back without alteration,
as had been foreseen, the committee consisting entirely of friends of
the measure; and there was a majority for it on final passage.
Concurred in by the Senate without alteration, it was returned to the
House, and thence referred to the President for his approval or
disapproval. It was disapproved and it was promulgated in language
intended to mean a repudiation of the President, a permanent
separation of the Whig party from him, and to wash their hands of all
accountability for his acts. An opening paragraph of the address set
forth that, for twelve years the Whigs had carried on a contest for the
regulation of the currency, the equalization of exchanges, the
economical administration of the finances, and the advancement of
industry—all to be accomplished by means of a national bank—
declaring these objects to be misunderstood by no one and the bank
itself held to be secured in the Presidential election, and its
establishment the main object of the extra session. The address then
proceeds to state how these plans were frustrated:
“It is with profound and poignant regret that we find ourselves
called upon to invoke your attention to this point. Upon the great
and leading measure touching this question, our anxious endeavors
to respond to the earnest prayers of the nation have been frustrated
by an act as unlooked for as it is to be lamented. We grieve to say to
you that by the exercise of that power in the constitution which has
ever been regarded with suspicion, and often with odium, by the
people—a power which we had hoped was never to be exhibited on
this subject, by a Whig President—we have been defeated in two
attempts to create a fiscal agent, which the wants of the country had
demonstrated to us, in the most absolute form of proof to be
eminently necessary and proper in the present emergency. Twice
have we with the utmost diligence and deliberation matured a plan
for the collection, safe-keeping and disbursing of the public moneys
through the agency of a corporation adapted to that end, and twice
has it been our fate to encounter the opposition of the President,
through the application of the veto power.*** We are constrained to
say that we find no ground to justify us in the conviction that the veto
of the President has been interposed on this question solely upon
conscientious and well-considered opinions of constitutional scruple
as to his duty in the case presented. On the contrary, too many proofs
have been forced upon our observation to leave us free from the
apprehension that the President has permitted himself to be beguiled
into an opinion that by this exhibition of his prerogative he might be
able to divert the policy of his administration into a channel which
should lead to new political combinations, and accomplish results
which must overthrow the present divisions of party in the country;
and finally produce a state of things which those who elected him, at
least, have never contemplated.
“In this state of things, the Whigs will naturally look with anxiety
to the future, and inquire what are the actual relations between the
President and those who brought him into power; and what, in the
opinion of their friends in Congress, should be their course
hereafter.*** The President by his withdrawal of confidence from his
real friends in Congress and from the members of his cabinet; by his
bestowal of it upon others notwithstanding their notorious
opposition to leading measures of his administrations has voluntarily
separated himself from those by whose exertions and suffrage he was
elevated to that office through which he has reached his present
exalted station.*** The consequence is, that those who brought the
President into power can be no longer, in any manner or degree,
justly held responsible or blamed for the administration of the
executive branch of the government; and the President and his
advisers should be exclusively hereafter deemed accountable.*** The
conduct of the President has occasioned bitter mortification and
deep regret. Shall the party, therefore, yielding to sentiments of
despair, abandon its duty, and submit to defeat and disgrace? Far
from suffering such dishonorable consequences, the very
disappointment which it has unfortunately experienced should serve
only to redouble its exertions, and to inspire it with fresh courage to
persevere with a spirit unsubdued and a resolution unshaken, until
the prosperity of the country is fully re-established, and its liberties
firmly secured against all danger from the abuses, encroachments or
usurpations of the executive department of the government.”
This was the manifesto, so far as it concerns the repudiation of
President Tyler, which Whig members of Congress put forth: it was
answered (under the name of an address to his constituents) by Mr.
Cushing, in a counter special plea—counter to it on all points—
especially on the main question of which party the President was to
belong to; the manifesto of the Whigs assigning him to the
democracy—the address of Mr. Cushing, claiming him for the Whigs.
It was especially severe on Mr. Clay, as setting up a caucus
dictatorship to coerce the President; and charged that the address
emanated from this caucus, and did not embody or represent the
sentiments of all Whig leaders; and referred to Mr. Webster’s letter,
and his remaining in the cabinet as proof of this. But it was without
avail against the concurrent statements of the retiring senators, and
the confirmatory statements of many members of Congress. The
Whig party recoiled from the President, and instead of the unity
predicted by Mr. Webster, there was diversity and widespread
dissension. The Whig party remained with Mr. Clay; Mr. Webster
retired, Mr. Cushing was sent on a foreign mission, and the
President, seeking to enter the democratic ranks, was refused by
them, and left to seek consolation in privacy, for his political errors
and omissions.
The extra session, called by President Harrison, held under Mr.
Tyler, dominated by Mr. Clay, commenced May 31, and ended Sept.
13, 1841—and was replete with disappointed calculations, and nearly
barren of permanent results. The purposes for which it was called
into being, failed. The first annual message of President Tyler, at the
opening of the regular session in December, 1841, coming in so soon
after the termination of the extra session, was brief and meagre of
topics, with few points of interest.
In the month of March, 1842, Mr. Henry Clay resigned his place in
the Senate, and delivered a valedictory address to that body. He had
intended this step upon the close of the previous presidential
campaign, but had postponed it to take personal charge of the
several measures which would be brought before Congress at the
special session—the calling of which he foresaw would be necessary.
He resigned not on account of age, or infirmity, or disinclination for
public life; but out of disgust—profound and inextinguishable. He
had been basely defeated for the Presidential nomination, against the
wishes of the Whig party, of which he was the acknowledged head—
he had seen his leading measures vetoed by the President whom his
party had elected—the downfall of the Bank for which he had so
often pledged himself—and the insolent attacks of the petty
adherents of the administration in the two Houses: all these causes
acting on his proud and lofty spirit, induced this withdrawal from
public life for which he was so well fitted.
The address opened with a retrospect of his early entrance into the
Senate, and a grand encomium upon its powers and dignity as he
had found it, and left it. Memory went back to that early year, 1806,
when just past thirty years of age, he entered the United States
Senate, and commenced his high career—a wide and luminous
horizon before him, and will and talent to fill it. He said: “From the
year 1806, the period of my entering upon this noble theatre of my
public service, with but short intervals, down to the present time, I
have been engaged in the service of my country. Of the nature and
value of those services, which I may have rendered during my long
career of public life, it does not become me to speak. History, if she
deigns to notice me, and posterity—if a recollection of any humble
service which I may have rendered, shall be transmitted to posterity
—will be the best, truest, and most impartial judges; and to them I
defer for a decision upon their value. But, upon one subject, I may be
allowed to speak. As to my public acts and public conduct, they are
for the judgment of my fellow-citizens; but my private motives of
action—that which prompted me to take the part which I may have
done, upon great measures during their progress in the national
councils, can be known only to the Great Searcher of the human
heart and myself; and I trust I shall be pardoned for repeating again
a declaration which I made thirty years ago: that whatever error I
may have committed—and doubtless I have committed many during
my public service—I may appeal to the Divine Searcher of hearts for
the truth of the declaration which I now make, with pride and
confidence, that I have been actuated by no personal motives—that I
have sought no personal aggrandizement—no promotion from the
advocacy of those various measures on which I have been called to
act—that I have had an eye, a single eye, a heart, a single heart, ever
devoted to what appeared to be the best interests of the country.”
Mr. Clay led a great party, and for a long time, whether he dictated
to it or not, and kept it well bound together, without the usual means
of forming and leading parties. It was surprising that, without power
and patronage, he was able so long and so undividedly to keep so
great a party together, and lead it so unresistingly. He had great
talents, but not equal to some whom he led. He had eloquence—
superior in popular effect, but not equal in high oratory to that of
some others. But his temperament was fervid, his will was strong,
and his courage daring; and these qualities, added to his talents, gave
him the lead and supremacy in his party, where he was always
dominant. The farewell address made a deep impression upon the
Senators present; and after its close, Mr. Preston brought the
ceremony to a conclusion, by moving an adjournment, which was
agreed to.
Again at this session was the subject of the tariff considered, but
this time, as a matter of absolute necessity, to provide a revenue.
Never before were the coffers and the credit of the treasury at so low
an ebb. A deficit of fourteen millions in the treasury—a total inability
to borrow, either at home or abroad, the amount of the loan of twelve
millions authorized the year before—the treasury notes below par,
and the revenues from imports inadequate and decreasing.
The compromise act of 1833 in reducing the duties gradually
through nine years, to a fixed low rate; the act of 1837 in distributing
the surplus revenue; and the continual and continued distribution of
the land revenue, had brought about this condition of things. The
remedy was sought in a bill increasing the tariff, and suspending the
land revenue distribution. Two such bills were passed in a single
month, and both vetoed by the President. It was now near the end of
August. Congress had been in session for an unprecedentedly long
time. Adjournment could not be deferred, and could not take place
without providing for the Treasury. The compromise act and the land
distribution were the stumbling-blocks: it was resolved to sacrifice
them together; and a bill was introduced raising the duties above the
fixed rate of twenty per cent., and that breach of the mutual
assurance in relation to the compromise, immediately in terms of the
assurance, suspended the land revenue distribution—to continue it
suspended while duties above the compromise limit continued to be
levied. And as that has been the case ever since, the distribution of
the land revenue has been suspended ever since. The bill was passed,
and approved by the President, and Congress thereupon adjourned.
The subject of the navy was also under consideration at this
session. The naval policy of the United States was a question of party
division from the origin of parties in the early years of the
government—the Federal party favoring a strong and splendid navy,
the Republican a moderate establishment, adapted to the purposes
of defense more than of offense. And this line of division has
continued. Under the Whig regime the policy for a great navy
developed itself. The Secretary of the Navy recommended a large
increase of ships, seamen and officers, involving a heavy expense,
though the government was not in a condition to warrant any such
expenditure, and no emergency required an increase in that branch
of the public service. The vote was taken upon the increase proposed
by the Secretary of the Navy, and recommended by the President;
and it was carried, the yeas and nays being well defined by the party
line.
The first session of the twenty-eighth Congress, which convened
December 1843, exhibited in its political complexion, serious losses
in the Whig following. The Democratic candidate for Speaker of the
House of Representatives, was elected over the Whig candidate—the
vote standing 128 to 59. Thus an adverse majority of more than two
to one was the result to the Whig party at the first election after the
extra session of 1841. The President’s message referred to the treaty
which had lately been concluded with Great Britain relative to the
northwestern territory extending to the Columbia river, including
Oregon and settling the boundary lines; and also to a pending treaty
with Texas for her annexation to the United States; and concluded
with a recommendation for the establishment of a paper currency to
be issued and controlled by the Federal government.
For more than a year before the meeting of the Democratic
Presidential Convention in Baltimore, in May 1844, it was evident to
leading Democrats that Martin Van Buren was the choice of the
party. To overcome this popular current and turn the tide in favor of
Mr. Calhoun, who desired the nomination, resort was had to the
pending question of the annexation of Texas. Mr. Van Buren was
known to be against it, and Mr. Calhoun for it. To gain time, the
meeting of the convention was postponed from December previous,
which had been the usual time for holding such elections, until the
following May. The convention met, and consisted of two hundred
and sixty-six delegates, a decided majority of whom were for Mr. Van
Buren, and cast their votes accordingly on the first ballot. But a
chairman had been selected, who was adverse to his nomination; and
aided by a rule adopted by the convention, which required a
concurrence of two-thirds to effect a nomination, the opponents of
Mr. Van Buren were able to accomplish his defeat. Mr. Calhoun had,
before the meeting of the convention, made known his
determination, in a public address, not to suffer his name to go
before that assemblage as a candidate for the presidency, and stated
his reasons for so doing, which were founded mainly on the manner
in which the convention was constituted; his objections being to the
mode of choosing delegates, and the manner of their giving in their

Textbook Controller Tuning With Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization A Holistic Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure 1St Edition Gilberto Reynoso Meza Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Textbook Controller Tuning With Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization A Holistic Multiobjective Optimization Design Procedure 1St Edition Gilberto Reynoso Meza Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Controller Tuning with Evolutionary

Multiobjective Optimization: A Holistic

Bio-Inspired Algorithms in PID Controller Optimization

Multiobjective Linear Programming: An Introduction 1st

BizTalk Server 2016: Performance Tuning and

Evolutionary Computation in Combinatorial Optimization

Advances in Evolutionary and Deterministic Methods for

Optimization Using Evolutionary Algorithms and

Design And Optimization Of Thermal Systems, With

Design Optimization using MATLAB and SOLIDWORKS 1st

Gilberto Reynoso Meza

Editorial Advisory Board:

Javier Sanchis Saez Juan Manuel Herrero Durá

Xavier Blasco Ferragud Juan Manuel Herrero Durá

ISSN 2213-8986 ISSN 2213-8994 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Curitiba, Brazil Gilberto Reynoso Meza

3.2 MCDM Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 75

Part III Benchmarking

8 The ABB’2008 Control Benchmark: A Flexible Manipulator . . . . . 159

AOF Aggregate Objective Function

Abstract Throughout this chapter, we intend to provide a multiobjective

1.1 Controller Tuning as a Multiobjective Optimization

Most engineering design statements, particularly controller tuning, can be formu-

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 3

Then the tuning problem could be formulated as:

min J1 (θ ) = min IAE(θ) (1.3)

the PI controller (see Fig. 1.1),

min J2 (θ) = min t98 % (θ) (1.6)

Fig. 1.1 Basic PI control structure

and compares with the IAE solution obtained previously).

• Which solution is better?

Table 1.1 Comparison of IAE and t98 % minimization results

Nevertheless, the designer may be interested in the minimization of both objectives

min J = [J1 (θ ), J2 (θ )] (1.7)

Area of other possible solutions

Fig. 1.5 Design methodology by means of optimization

Then a new optimization problem can be stated as:

min J3 (θ ) = min ITAE(θ) (1.9)

Table 1.2 Comparison of IAE, t98 % and ITAE minimization results

• How to weight different objectives? or for this case ...

Therefore some normalization between objectives is needed to achieve a fair

Besides, declaring which objective values are equivalent to allow comparison

Notice that aggregation of several objectives, showing accurately the designer

Solutions from weighting method

Fig. 1.8 Solutions for J4 problem using different α values marked as +

approximation provides a preliminary idea of an objective space; and according

1 For example, using the fgoalattain function from the Matlab

Fig. 1.9 Pareto Front approximation (•) for J1 and J2 minimization

Fig. 1.10 Two alternatives for final selection step

ω = [cos(β), sin(β)]. (1.16)

2 For instance, the fmincon function from the Matlab

1.5 PI obtained for t98%

Nearest Ideal Point

IAE = [0.6400, 10.68]

βk = βk−1 + βstep k ∈ [1 . . . div]

With these selections it is possible to achieve the Pareto Front approximation

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1 For example, using the fgoalattain function from the Matlab

2 For instance, the fmincon function from the Matlab