Connected Vehicles Intelligent

Transportation Systems 1st Edition

Radovan Miucic
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/connected-vehicles-intelligent-transportation-systems
-1st-edition-radovan-miucic/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Emerging Technologies for Connected Internet of

Vehicles and Intelligent Transportation System
Networks: Emerging Technologies for Connected and Smart
Vehicles Mohamed Elhoseny
https://textbookfull.com/product/emerging-technologies-for-
connected-internet-of-vehicles-and-intelligent-transportation-
system-networks-emerging-technologies-for-connected-and-smart-
vehicles-mohamed-elhoseny/

Handbook of Human Factors for Automated, Connected, and

Intelligent Vehicles 1st Edition Donald L. Fisher
(Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-human-factors-for-
automated-connected-and-intelligent-vehicles-1st-edition-donald-
l-fisher-editor/

Intelligent Transportation Systems – Problems and

Perspectives 1st Edition Aleksander S■adkowski

https://textbookfull.com/product/intelligent-transportation-
systems-problems-and-perspectives-1st-edition-aleksander-
sladkowski/

Data Analytics for Intelligent Transportation Systems

Mashrur Chowdhury

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-analytics-for-intelligent-
transportation-systems-mashrur-chowdhury/
Big Data Analytics for Connected Vehicles and Smart
Cities 1st Edition Bob Mcqueen

https://textbookfull.com/product/big-data-analytics-for-
connected-vehicles-and-smart-cities-1st-edition-bob-mcqueen/

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Functional Design

for Effective Traffic Management 2nd Edition Robert
Gordon (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/intelligent-transportation-
systems-functional-design-for-effective-traffic-management-2nd-
edition-robert-gordon-auth/

Exergetic Aspects of Renewable Energy Systems-Insights

to Transportation and Energy Sector for Intelligent
Communities 1st Edition Evanthia A. Nanaki

https://textbookfull.com/product/exergetic-aspects-of-renewable-
energy-systems-insights-to-transportation-and-energy-sector-for-
intelligent-communities-1st-edition-evanthia-a-nanaki/

Toward Connected, Cooperative and Intelligent IoV:

Frontier Technologies and Applications 1st Edition Kai
Liu

https://textbookfull.com/product/toward-connected-cooperative-
and-intelligent-iov-frontier-technologies-and-applications-1st-
edition-kai-liu/

Robotic Vehicles Systems and Technology 1st Edition

Tian Seng Ng

https://textbookfull.com/product/robotic-vehicles-systems-and-
technology-1st-edition-tian-seng-ng/
Wireless Networks

Radovan Miucic Editor

Connected
Vehicles
Intelligent Transportation Systems
Wireless Networks

Series editor
Xuemin Sherman Shen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14180
Radovan Miucic
Editor

Connected Vehicles
Intelligent Transportation Systems

123
Editor
Radovan Miucic
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Wayne State University
Detroit, MI, USA

ISSN 2366-1186 ISSN 2366-1445 (electronic)

Wireless Networks
ISBN 978-3-319-94784-6 ISBN 978-3-319-94785-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94785-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018957111

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Radovan Miucic
Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Zeljko Popovic and Radovan Miucic
Human Machine Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Zeljko Medenica
A Security Credential Management System for V2X Communications . . . . . 83
Benedikt Brecht and Thorsten Hehn
V2V Vehicle Safety Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Shubham Shrivastava
Vehicle to Infrastructure Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Samer Rajab
Cooperative Vehicle to Pedestrian Safety System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Radovan Miucic and Sue Bai
5.9 GHz Spectrum Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Ehsan Moradi-Pari
Efficient and High Fidelity DSRC Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Yaser P. Fallah and S. M. Osman Gani
Applications of Connectivity in Automated Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Ahmed Hamdi Sakr, Gaurav Bansal, Vladimeros Vladimerou,
Kris Kusano, and Miles Johnson

v
Introduction

Radovan Miucic

Introduction

Next generation of vehicle safety applications will hinge on connectivity. It is

also widely accepted notion that connectivity will be key enabling technology
for autonomous driving. That connectivity may include Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V),
Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I), and Vehicle to Pedestrian (V2P) communications.
One of the questions is “what technology will prevail?” Lower layers of Dedicated
Short Range Communication (DSRC) are defined in IEEE 802.11. The automotive
industry, academia, and government have been evaluating DSRC since late 1990s.
On the other side, recently the cellular industry has taken an interest in developing
standards for vehicular usage. DSRC is based on relatively old physical layer
protocol. But, it has been tested and proven to meet requirements for the vast
majority of the cooperative safety applications in term of range and latency. The
newer 5G cellular approach is not thoroughly tested for cooperative vehicle safety.
It does offer potentially better communication performance and a path for system
upgradeability. Whichever technology prevails, safety communication requirements
will remain unchanged: high availability and low latency. Vehicle to everything
(V2X) communications needs to accommodate fast-moving vehicles. Vehicles in
various traffic situations need to communicate with low latency. End to end latency
should be in the order of 100 ms. It is necessary for V2X communications to
be highly available. In other words, V2X is not to compete with other crowded
communications networks such as WiFi and cellular networks.
DSRC historically evolved from WiFi. In late 1990s, when the DSRC research
was in its infancy, the best wireless technology was Wi-Fi. The researchers used

R. Miucic ()
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wayne State
University, Detroit, MI, USA
e-mail: radovan@wayne.edu

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

R. Miucic (ed.), Connected Vehicles, Wireless Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94785-3_1
2 R. Miucic

Wi-Fi chipsets for the V2X communication development. More recently dedicated
chipsets for DSRC started to take a foothold. IEEE task force introduced DSRC
physical layer modifications in 802.11 as an 802.11p amendment. The amendment
was fully integrated into 2012 version of the 802.11 standard. Aims of modifications
are to reduce overhead, to limit out of band interference, and make provisions
for outdoor multi-path and higher vehicle speeds. In the US, IEEE standards
define lower layers of DSRC. SAE documents define the application layer. IEEE
802.11 details physical and lower Media Access Control (MAC) layers. IEEE
1609.4 describes upper MAC layer. IEEE 802.4 covers logical link control (LLC)
layer. IEEE 1609.3 defines Network and Transportation layers. IEEE 1609.2
covers security. Finally, SAE J2735 and J2945 specify application layer. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) allocated 75 MHz for V2X communication in
1999. At that time FCC crafted the usage for manually driven vehicles. The main
usage of V2X indents to improve travelers’ safety. Other approved usages include
decreasing traffic congestion, air pollution, and fuel consumption. In the future, V2X
communication may extend to include the needs of the autonomous vehicles.
V2X communication is a set of communication protocols, experiments, and
pilot deployments. As such, V2X communications are addressing the needs of
current and future travelers. It is important that V2X is a direct communication.
For example, V2V communication is the exchange of the information directly
between vehicles without intermediaries such as cell-phone infrastructure or WiFi
hotspot. DSRC-V2V does not require infrastructure to facilitate the communication
between vehicles. Another mode of communication is Vehicle to Infrastructure
(V2I). V2I communication is the exchange of information between vehicles and
roadside infrastructure. For example, a RoadSide Unit (RSU) can be connected
to a signal controller at an intersection. RSU sends out intersection map (MAP)
message and traffic signal status message know as Signal Phase and Timing (SPaT)
message. Next in line is Vehicle to Pedestrian (V2P) communication. V2P involves
exchanging information between vehicles and pedestrians. For example, DSRC
enabled smartphone can serve as a pedestrian communication device. Implemen-
tation of the V2X in a vehicle consists of the several standard components. The
components include localization device, computation platform, HMI interface and
DSRC transceiver. Collection of these components is commonly called On-Board
Equipment (OBE). Fully implemented OEM V2X system may include connections
to the internal vehicle bus. Aftermarket devices may not have access to the internal
vehicle bus.
The most important message in V2V communication is Basic Safety Message
(BSM). A DSRC equipped vehicle broadcasts BSMs to all other vehicles in its
vicinity. BSM consists of crucial information about the vehicle such as position
and vehicle dynamics. Some elements of the BSM are latitude, longitude, elevation,
speed, heading, brake status, accelerations, dimensions, and path history and path
prediction. Once a vehicle receives BSM from a remote vehicle it is able to compute
collision probability and if needed warns the driver.
V2V cooperative safety applications are addressing immediate situations. These
situations include collision avoidance and traffic scene awareness. For example, a
Introduction 3

very typical V2V application is Electronic Emergency Brake Light (EEBL). EEBL
informs the driver when a vehicle in front brakes hard. EEBL helps the driver by
giving an early notification that the leading vehicle is braking hard. EEBL warns
even in the case of limited driver’s visibility (e.g. a large truck is blocking the
driver’s view, heavy fog or rain). Another V2V example is co-operative Forward
Collision Warning (FCW). FCW issues a warning to the driver of the host vehicle
in case of an impending front-end collision. For example, a slow-moving vehicle
ahead in the same lane and direction of travel is a candidate for FCW warning. FCW
helps drivers avoid a collision in the forward path of travel. Blind Spot Warning
(BSW) provides a notification to the driver when a remote vehicle is in its blind
spot. Left Turn Assist (LTA) warns the driver in case it is unsafe to make a left
turn at an intersection. For example, a remote vehicle approaches from the opposite
direction in the adjacent lane. Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) issues a warning
to the driver in case of an impending side collision. A remote vehicle driving in a
perpendicular direction to the ego vehicle is a candidate for IMA warning. This often
happens at an intersection. Control Loss Warning (CLW) issues a warning in case of
a possible collision with a remote vehicle of which the driver has lost control. CLW
helps avoid or mitigate collisions in a variety of traffic scenarios.
Like BSM, a Pedestrian Safety Message (PSM) is being transmitted from a
smartphone. PSM consists of vital pedestrian data. The data include latitude,
longitude, elevation, speed, heading, and dimensions. PSM has similar but less
information than BSM. V2P collision avoidance application works in a similar
fashion to V2V. An aim of V2P cooperative safety applications is an increase
in driver awareness. Candidates for V2P applications are vulnerable road users
(generally pedestrians and cyclists). Pedestrian collision avoidance application
warns the driver of impending pedestrians. For example, a vehicle would warn the
driver in case a pedestrian, crossing the street, jumps in front of the moving vehicle.
V2I applications are usually local in character. An example is Cooperative
Intersection Collision Avoidance Systems (CICAS). CICAS can issue traffic signal
violation warning to the driver if he is about to run the red light. Pothole Detection
is an example collaborative V2I application. Pothole Detection leverage collabo-
ration from many vehicles and the infrastructure. Vehicles share information with
infrastructure about their location and sudden events. One type of events includes
maneuvers the driver is taking to avoid the pothole. Another type of events includes
a sudden change in vertical acceleration of the vehicle going over a pothole. The
infrastructure analyzes many such reports from vehicles. The infrastructure then
sends aggregated data informing the vehicles about the existence of a pothole.
A unique feature of the V2X technology is the ability to detect threats in non-
line of site situations. Many safety applications such as FCW, BSW and pedestrian
collision warning are implemented using a traditional line of sight sensors such
as camera or radars. However, cameras and radars cannot detect vehicles and
pedestrians in non line of sight scenarios such as a blind intersection or obstructed
traffic. V2X is envisioned to fill “the gap” and enhance the sensing ability of
the vehicle. A traditional line-of-sight sensor (e.g. camera or radar) is estimating
information such as relative position, speed, direction and infer the braking status of
4 R. Miucic

the targets whereas V2X is actually getting this information from the best possible
sensors, from the remote vehicle internal bus itself.

List of Chapters

This will book covers the current status and many remaining challenges that face
communication for the Intelligent Transportation Systems. The material covered
in the book is organized as follows. Chapter “Positioning” describes principles
of localization services as a key enabler for V2X technology. Chapter “Human
Machine Interface” focuses on Human Machine Interface for the cooperative
safety applications. Chapter “A Security Credential Management System for V2X
Communications” gives an overview of the Security Credential Management
System (SCMS) for V2X communications system. Chapters “V2V Vehicle Safety
Communication”, “Vehicle to Infrastructure Communications” and “Cooperative
Vehicle to Pedestrian Safety System” identify V2V, V2I, and V2P applications
and requirements. Chapter “5.9 GHz Spectrum Sharing” explains proposals for
sharing the 5.9 GHz spectrum between Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
and Consumers Electronic industries. Chapter “Efficient and High Fidelity DSRC
Simulation” explains the work done in simulating DSRC communication networks.
Finally, Chapter “Applications of Connectivity in Automated Driving” looks into
the potential future usage for the V2X technology by exploring applications of
connectivity in automated driving.

Positioning

Benefits of connectivity in ITS, including safety and convenience, arise from

information shared between connected vehicles, other connected traffic participants,
and road infrastructure. An essential shared set of information includes position
(location) and velocity because they allow the connected device to know the
presence and predict behavior of other relevant traffic, even by relying solely on
the exchanged data in absence of other sensors. This further enables an in-vehicle
system to warn the human driver, or even automatically initiate corrective actions.
Satellite-based positioning systems, including the American Global Positioning
System (GPS) and also other such Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS),
provide globally referenced location and velocity that are often sufficiently accurate
for many ITS applications, but their performance suffers in obstructed skies.
Integration of other positioning-relevant data through sensor fusion, such as that
from inertial, ranging, and vision sensors, but also from maps, improves positioning
robustness across diverse environments. Application of advanced satellite-based
positioning algorithms, such as Differential GPS (DGPS), Real-Time Kinematic
(RTK), and precise point positioning (PPP), to data received from ground reference
Introduction 5

stations, allows decimeter-level global positioning accuracy and improved integrity

measures that further extend the scope of supported ITS applications. The DSRC
standards, intended for ITS applications, conveniently provide for sharing of basic
position data, local high-definition map data, as well as data for enabling high
accuracy positioning. Planned improvements and expansions of GNSS systems,
and trends of increasing performance-to-cost ratio of positioning-aiding sensors,
suggest future gains in positioning accuracy, integrity, and availability. Positioning
performance of currently available and expected future positioning solutions is
assessed against their cost. There are currently available automotive-grade and ITS-
suitable positioning systems that achieve lane-level accuracy, conditions-dependent,
with some uncertainty. More advanced systems are expected to provide within-lane
positioning with tight integrity measures.

Human Machine Interface

The main intention of this chapter is to describe what Human Computer Interaction
(HMI) is, why it is important in the automotive context and how connected vehicles
can benefit from it. Every device that is meant for people to use, cars included,
should provide means that enable successful interaction. This is what HMI is all
about: how to design an interface that enables intuitive, simple and timely interaction
with a machine. Depending on the nature of the task some of these aspects may
have higher priority compared to others. However, all three are extremely important
in vehicles, because driving is a complex hands-busy, eyes-busy activity that poses
both physical and cognitive load on drivers. In a situation like this, it is necessary
for an HMI to provide adequate information to drivers without negatively affecting
their primary task of driving. Information presented to drivers can be roughly
divided in two categories: infotainment and safety. Infotainment is mostly concerned
with convenience features in vehicles, such as navigation, music, climate control,
phone, etc. In this chapter, we are primarily concerned with HMI for safety-related
applications, since this is the area where connected vehicles can contribute the
most. V2X communication enables a completely new horizon of sensing that is
not achievable with any of the currently available vehicle sensors, such as radar,
lidar, camera, etc. This makes it possible to design completely new safety-related
and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) compared to what was possible
before. In any case, the corresponding HMI should effectively explain the situation
on the road and stimulate drivers to perform adequate actions (such as avoiding
an obstacle or preemptive braking). This can be achieved by using any kinds of
modalities (and their combinations) that influence people’s basic senses: sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste. In this chapter, we will cover some representative
safety-related applications and analyze how different modalities can be used to
create a successful HMI. Finally, we will briefly explore how HMI and connected
vehicles converge in the autonomous driving domain.
6 R. Miucic

A Security Credential Management System for V2X

Communications

V2X communications system requires that users are able to trust information
presented to them. To this end, each receiver must be able to tell whether messages
received over the air interface come from a trustworthy source and have not been
tampered with during transmission. This trust relation needs to be established as
soon as two vehicles receive messages from each other. At the same time, users care
about privacy and will unlikely accept the system if it allows for tracking of singular
devices. Providing both security and privacy to the largest extent reasonable and
possible is the major challenge and design goal of the Security SCMS presented
in this chapter. It has been designed for V2V and V2I communications and has
been developed by the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP) under a
Cooperative Agreement with the USDOT. It is based on public key infrastructure
(PKI) principles and issues digital certificates to participating vehicles and infras-
tructure nodes for trustworthy communications among them, which is necessary for
safety and mobility applications based on V2X communications. Standard solutions
from literature, such as group signature schemes and management schemes for
symmetric keys, do not meet the requirements of a V2X communications system.
We briefly review these well-known schemes and show where they do not meet
the requirements of V2X. The SCMS supports four main use cases, namely
bootstrapping, certificate provisioning, misbehavior reporting and revocation. To
achieve a reasonable level of privacy, vehicles are issued pseudonym certificates,
and the generation and provisioning of those certificates are divided among multiple
organizations. One of the main challenges is to facilitate efficient revocation of
misbehaving or malfunctioning vehicles, while at the same time preserving privacy
against attacks from insiders. We present a revocation process which actively
informs the fleet about misbehaving devices and is very efficient in terms of revoking
a high number of pseudonym certificates with little amount of data signaled over the
air. Another challenge is to handle certificate authority revocations without requiring
all affected devices to come back to dealerships or some form of secure environment.
We present an approach called Elector-based Root Management to minimize the
impact on devices.

V2V Vehicle Safety Communication

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NTHSA) has been interested in

V2V communication as the next step in addressing grooving rates of fatalities from
vehicle related crashes. Today’s crash avoidance technologies depend on on-board
sensors like camera and radar to provide awareness input to the safety applications.
These applications are warning the driver of imminent danger or sometimes even
act on the driver’s behalf. However, even technologies like those cannot “predict”
Introduction 7

a crash that might happen because of a vehicle which is not very close or not in
the line of sight to the host vehicle. A technology that can “see” through another
vehicle or obstacles like buildings and predict a danger can fill these gaps and
reduce crashes drastically. V2V communications can provide vehicles the ability
to talk to each other and therefore see around corners and through the obstacles over
a longer distance compared to the current on-board sensors. It is estimated that V2X
communications address up to 80% of the unimpaired crashes. By means of Notice
of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM), NHTSA is working towards standardization of
V2V communications and potentially mandating the broadcast of vehicle data (e.g.
GPS coordinates, speed, acceleration) over DSRC through V2V.A vehicle needs an
On-Board Unit (OBU) to establish the V2V communication with other vehicles
also equipped with OBUs or V2I communication with the traffic infrastructure
equipped with Road-Side Units (RSUs). In general, an OBU has a DSRC radio
for transmission and reception, GNSS receiver, a processor, and several interfaces
(e.g. CAN, Ethernet, GPS) for obtaining the vehicle data. Essential message in
V2V communication is called Basic Safety Messages (BSM). BSM is a broadcast
message typically transmitted frequently up to 10 times a second. Content of BSM
includes vehicle information such as vehicle speed, location, and brake status.
Safety applications use the remote vehicles (RVs) data from BSM and Host Vehicle
(HV) data from the OBU interfaces like CAN and GNSS to predict a potential
crash and alert the driver. V2V messages could also potentially be fused with on-
board sensors like Radar, LiDAR, and Camera to improve the confidence level of
vehicle detection for safety applications or even for autonomous driving to some
extent. Majority of the crash scenarios can be addressed by the following safety
applications: (1) Forward Collision Warning (FCW), (2) Electronic Emergency
Brake Light (EEBL), (3) Intersection Move Assist (IMA), (4) Left Turn Assist
(LTA), (5) Do Not Pass Warning (DNPW), and (6) Blind Spot Warning/Lane
Change Warning (BSW/LCW). These applications showed promise to mitigate and
prevent potential crashes in recent the Connected Vehicle Safety Pilot Deployment
Program conducted by University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute
(UMTRI) which was launched in August 2012.This chapter will describe six
primary safety applications, their requirements from the implementation point of
view, and will explain how each of these applications can alert the driver of a
forthcoming crash threat to help reduce the crash.

Vehicle to Infrastructure Communications

Vehicle to Infrastructure communications (V2I) is one of the emerging connected

vehicles technologies holding a promise for significant benefits to both road
users and operators. A considerable research effort has been invested in V2I
communications technology leading to a number standardized messages as well as
application concepts. A number of V2I deployments are currently being planned
and executed around the United States taking advantage of the recent technology
8 R. Miucic

maturity level. An overview of these deployment efforts will be given in this chapter.
Several aspects make V2I technology attractive to the ITS industry including early
deployment benefits, extended information sharing ranges and sensing capabilities
afar from what a vehicle on-board sensors can offer in real-time. Such aspects may
provide substantial safety, mobility and environmental value as will be discussed
in this chapter. This chapter deliberates on V2I communications technology and
examines additional benefits it offers beyond V2V technology. Details of V2I Over
The Air (OTA) messages developed by research and standardization organizations
will be provided and discussed. Such messages enable wide variety of V2I safety,
mobility and environmental applications. Examples of these applications will be
detailed in the chapter.

Cooperative Vehicle to Pedestrian Safety System

This chapter provides an overview of the V2P cooperative safety application,

enabling technologies and field test results. The chapter also covers the motivation
for DSRC based V2P safety application research. We continue with comparison
of the DSRC and Vision V2P collision detection systems. The chapter describes
implemented system architecture and basic concepts of operation. A new mes-
sage Pedestrian Safety Message (PSM), similar to BSM, was invented to signal
pedestrian presence to surrounding vehicles. We used both PSMs and BSMs
in our implementation of the V2P system. Our work was forerunner for the
development of SAE J2945/9 standard “Vulnerable Road User Safety Message
Minimum Performance Requirements”. It is crucial for the V2P system to have
a usable vehicle warning strategy consisting of informative and alerting modalities.
We present a multi stage warning system for alerting the driver of impeding collision
with the pedestrian. This is followed by a description of our test setup. Finally we
present the results of communication and application performance.

5.9 GHz Spectrum Sharing

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued a Notice of Proposed

Rulemaking (NPRM) on February 20, 2013, regarding the feasibility and potential
use of the 5.9 GHz Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) spectrum
by Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (U-NII) devices. FCC is inves-
tigating the feasibility of sharing 5.85–5.925 GHz spectrum between DSRC and
unlicensed devices such as those using 802.11-based standards. The primary
spectrum allocation for DSRC use was granted to the transportation community
on December 17, 2003 with a condition for the need to prove that DSRC could
co-exist with the other primary uses for military radar, satellite uplinks, and indoor
industrial, scientific, and medical devices. Two interference mitigation approaches
Introduction 9

are introduced as candidates for spectrum sharing solution: (1) Detect and Avoid
(DAA) and (2) modified DSRC channelization (re-channelization). This chapter
explains current spectrum allocation as well as the impact the two proposals would
have on the DSRC.

Efficient and High Fidelity DSRC Simulation

Vehicular communication is the backbone of connected vehicle (CV) technology.

As a result, evaluation of the performance of vehicular wireless networks becomes
a necessary part of designing CV applications. Given the complexities of channel
and network situations it is not practical to test applications in field trials. In
particular, when networks of thousands of vehicles within vicinity of each other
is considered, it becomes prohibitively expensive and complex to setup tests in
which a meaningful set of network and applications conditions are considered. As
a result, simulation studies, in particular with respect to the DSRC component of
the CV systems becomes necessary. Simulating DSRC networks can be done at
many different levels, resolutions and fidelities. In this chapter we discuss different
components of a DSRC network, and identify features and characteristics that
impact CV application behavior, and thus require special attention in simulator
design. We then identify modeling schemes and simulator design approaches that
allow capturing the major and important features of DSRC networks. In particular,
recent efforts in designing simulation models based on simulators such as ns-3 and
OPNET will be discussed. Mathematical models that can further abstract network
and communication link behaviors will also be discussed. The general modeling
approach is discussed at three levels (layers) of channels, transceivers and networks.
We explore the diversity of vehicular communication channels and determine the
issues that arise when different channel models are considered for evaluation of
CV applications. Transmitter/Receiver models are also discussed and presented at
different levels of fidelity. Network models are shown to be generally dependent
on road topology and vehicle density; though it is possible to find several general
models for network behavior. The chapter is concluded with a study of the impact
of simplification of models in each of the above three layers.

Applications of Connectivity in Automated Driving

Vehicles in the near future will be equipped with DSRC transceiver which holds
great promise of significantly reducing vehicle collisions by enabling V2V and V2I
communications. In addition, modern vehicles will be equipped with different on-
board sensors such as GPS receivers, cameras, radars, LiDARs, etc. Using these
technologies, we propose two applications to improve the driving experience and
enable future advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). In the first application,
10 R. Miucic

we propose a comprehensive system design to improve the positioning of an

ego vehicle based on Kalman filters. In this approach, the ego vehicle fuses its
own position information obtained by the on-board GPS receiver with position
information of nearby vehicles collected by the on-board ranging sensor(s) and the
messages received via the DSRC transceiver from other equipped vehicles. This
process also involves performing track matching using a multi-sensor multi-target
track association algorithm. On the other hand, the second application aims at road
geometry estimation as an essential step in ADAS applications where an ego vehicle
builds a local map of the road ahead using its on-board sensors. We propose a novel
design for road geometry estimation by fusing on-board sensor (camera and radar)
data with the standard V2V messages received from remote vehicles via DSRC.
Our Kalman Filter-based methods fuse measurements by on-board sensors with
information from V2V messages to produce a long-range estimate for the road
geometry ahead of the ego vehicle. For the localization application, we provide
insights on the system design and present simulation and experimental results that
show significant performance gains of the proposed methods in terms of localization
accuracy and matching accuracy. For the road geometry estimation application, we
show by experimental data that the proposed method achieves more than 7× the
accuracy of current state-of-the-art camera-radar fusion methods.
Positioning

Zeljko Popovic and Radovan Miucic

Introduction

Motivation

Ubiquity of devices with satellite location technology, and their usefulness, has
made the location technology familiar to the masses. There is almost a dependence
on it for achieving efficient everyday mobility. However, it is the promise of
sharing the location data among traffic participants that elevates its significance
from providing universal navigation convenience to helping bring provide traffic
safety for all.
V2X communication technology, that is, the communication technology that
allows vehicles to communicate with all other traffic participants (vehicle, V2V;
pedestrians, V2P), as well as to traffic control infrastructure (V2I), promises a
new, cost-effective, layer of safety. The primary mechanism for this is sharing
of location data. Location shared among surrounding traffic and infrastructure
allows all to be aware of all others, even when other forms of sensing fail due
to sight-line obstructions. On-board computers could even use this awareness to
automatically initiate defensive actions to reduce the risk of collisions. Furthermore,
the communication and positioning technologies that are required to support this are
less expensive to add than sensors used so far in avoiding collisions—such as lidars,
radars, and cameras—thus allowing V2X technology to bring automatic collision
avoidance, and conveniences, beyond luxury vehicles to all road users.

Z. Popovic ()
San Francisco, CA, USA
R. Miucic
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
e-mail: radovan@wayne.edu

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 11

R. Miucic (ed.), Connected Vehicles, Wireless Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94785-3_2
12 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

Positioning Requirements for Intelligent Transportation Systems

For sharing of position data to be effective in improving safety, it needs to be of

certain accuracy and reliability. There are some traffic scenarios in which road-level
positioning accuracy—knowing which road we are on—can be sufficient to provide
assessments needed for issuing warnings and corrective actions that can improve
safety. Examples include dealing with oncoming traffic in making unprotected turns
through intersections and slowing down for road conditions ahead (tight turns seen
in maps, icy spots reported by other vehicles, . . . ). Beyond that, there is a significant
portion of traffic scenarios in which reliably knowing positions of traffic participants
down to the lane of travel is needed (and sufficient) to prevent collisions or road
excursions. Among others these include: anticipating sudden traffic slow-downs
in our own lane, preventing unintended lane or road departures, and reacting to
traffic controls applicable only to our lane, where the latter can depend on similarly
accurate maps of intersection zones.
With the aim of quantifying the required positioning accuracy levels, road-level
accuracy values are derived from the need to distinguish between nearby or adjacent
roads that have similar directions of travel but are not physically or topologically
connected and thus can’t influence each other’s traffic. This distinction is needed
to prevent false warnings and reactions. In the most stringent and ambiguous
cases, for example adjacent lanes separated by a barrier, this requirement reduces
to the requirement of lane-level accuracy, but often 5 or 10 m of accuracy is
sufficient.
Setting a number for lane-level accuracy also does not have a definite anchor, but
1.5 m is suggested here because for a vehicle travelling down the middle of a 3 m
lane any larger error would place it in another (and thus wrong) lane. A 3 m lane,
which is an unusually narrow lane in the United State, is used here in order to cover
most of the lane width diversity: In the US, lanes with widths of 3 m or more are
used about 90% of the time [1].
The main source of positioning information in V2X systems, and the only source
of absolute positioning information, has been GPS (Global Positioning System,
maintained by the United States government) and similar systems maintained by
other governments, where any such system is known as a GNSS system (Global
Navigation Satellite System). GNSS can provide adequate positioning performance
for V2X in most cases, but to make a positioning system sufficiently robust for
safety applications it needs to be combined with other information, typically from
sensors that reliably relate a vehicle’s change of position over time (such as inertial
sensors), but can’t provide absolute position coordinates (which are required for
seamless sharing of location with other vehicles and for use of maps).
The aims of this chapter are to introduce: operation of GNSS systems while using
GPS as the main example (Section “GNSS Principles”), use of GNSS positioning
in V2X systems (Section “Basic GNSS Positioning in Cooperative Vehicles”),
GNSS sources of errors and ways of limiting those errors, including advanced
techniques for achieving centimeter-level accuracy (Section “GNSS Performance
Positioning 13

and High-Accuracy Methods”), and ways of combing GNSS data with other
sensing for achieving a robust position solution (Section “Multi-Sensor Fusion
for Robust and Accurate Positioning”). The goal of covering this broad scope
in a single introductory chapter does not allow room for getting into the depth
of theoretical derivations and implementation details, but those are already well
covered in existing dedicated publications and the value of this chapter instead lies
in enabling those new to these fields to quickly become familiar with numerous
key concepts through an intuitively developed understanding. This serves to allow
effective initial consideration of the technologies involved and can efficiently direct
further independent study.

GNSS Principles

What Is GPS?

GPS, strictly speaking, stands for Global Positioning System. It is the United States
maintained system that consists of a set of Earth-orbiting satellites. The satellites
continually broadcast signals that allow an Earth-based user with a suitable device
(a GPS receiver) to determine the user location coordinates on Earth typically
to an accuracy in the order of meters, and down to centimeters when locally-
specific corrective data is available. In this proper sense, which will be used in
this chapter, a GPS receiver that does not contain maps and does not provide
navigation direction. In popular use however, in particular in the United States, the
meaning of “GPS” has been extended to refer to any device that provides displays of
user’s global location on a map and that might also provide turn-by-turn directions,
which elsewhere in the world is more tellingly referred to as “satellite navigation”
or “sat-nav”.
There are similar systems maintained, or in process of development, by other
countries. Such a system is generically referred to as a Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS). Characteristics of other GNSS systems are presented in Section
“Other GNSS Systems”.
The discussion that follows is presented as GPS specific, but in most cases, it
applies to all other GNSS systems. Any important differences will be specifically
noted.

Trilateration and Triangulation Concepts

The method that underlies GPS (and GNSS) location determination is trilateration,
which is an estimation of user position based on user measurements of distances
to objects with known locations. Sometimes this estimation is mistakenly referred
14 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

to as triangulation, which is a different method that relies on the use of angle

measurements.
In the case of GPS, the objects with known locations are the GPS satellites. The
satellites make their locations known to the user’s device via messages carried on
signals that they transmit. The user’s receiver measures the distances to each visible
satellite by converting to distance the time delay in getting the signal, using the
speed of light (Eq. (1)):

(distance to satellite) = (signal speed)∗ (signal arrival time–signal sending time)

(1)

The signal sending time is encoded in the message, while the determination of
the signal arrival time will be explained in the next section.
Given the satellite locations and distances to at least four satellites, the user
location estimate can be visualized as the intersection of spheres (circles in 2D). The
spheres are centered at the satellites locations and with radii equal to the distances
to the satellites (Fig. 1).
Spheres from three satellites are needed to narrow down their intersection to a
point (in the case of perfect measurements). The fourth satellite is needed because
there is drift between the receiver and satellite clocks that converts into position
uncertainty and thus also needs to be estimated. Using more than four satellites
reduces the estimate error, as further discussed in Section “Calculation of Position
and Time” on position, velocity, and time calculations.

Fig. 1 Trilateration using three satellite locations and distances

Positioning 15

Basic Operation of GPS Positioning

Keeping the concept of trilateration in mind, here is a more extended, but still
simplified, outline of how various quantities are extracted from GPS signals and
combined into a position estimate (Fig. 2).
The actual specification of GPS signals and data described below is given by the
Interface Control Document IS-GPS-200. Is latest version is H-003 [2].
1. Each satellite sends a unique but known signal which is received by the receiver.
(Signals from all satellites arrive combined to the receiver, but can be separated
using signal processing techniques to be discussed later.)
2. The parameters of orbits of all satellites (and thus their locations at any time) are
known and transmitted in the message from each satellite. This data is known
as ephemeris. The GPS receiver decodes the ephemeris to know which satellites
are visible to it (that is, which are above the horizon, so that their signals are
expected to reach the receiver when there are no obstructions).
3. There are GPS time timestamps periodically embedded in a message carried by
the signal that is known as the navigation message. The GPS receiver uses these
timestamps to internally generate the expected signal (unique for each satellite)
at the expected time for each visible satellite. (Synchronization of the receiver to
the globally maintained GPS time is a challenge that will be addressed later.)
4. There is a difference between the receiver-generated signal and the receiver-
received signal, for each satellite, because of the time it takes the signal to arrive
from the satellite to the receiver. The receiver can measure this time difference,

Fig. 2 Approach to
measuring the pseudorange to
a GPS satellite
16 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

t, by delay-shifting the generated signal until it lines up in time with the
received signal.
5. This time difference is converted to a distance (known as the pseudorange, ρ,
because it is corrupted by errors) by multiplying the time difference with the
speed of the signal, which is the speed of light, c.
6. The pseudorange to a satellite, the location of which is known, constrains the
receiver location to a sphere. The intersection of such spheres based on signals
from multiple satellites is the receiver location. This intersection can be found by
solving a simultaneous set of equations, as discussed in Section “Calculation of
Position and Time”.

GPS Architecture

The GPS system was developed and is maintained by the US Department of

Defense. Its architecture was approved in 1973. The first satellite was launched in
1978, but it took years to get in orbit all 24 satellites required for the intended global
coverage and to prove the system out through testing. The system was declared
operational in 1995.
The GPS system consists of three segments: the space segment, the control
segment, and the user segment. The space segment nominally consists of 24
satellites orbiting Earth in Medium Earth Orbit at the height of about 21,000 km.
The satellites are allocated across six orbital planes, each inclined at 55◦ to the
Equator, with four satellites in a plane (Fig. 4). Each satellite (Fig. 3) is continually
broadcasting a unique signal at known periodic times. The satellites are not
stationary above a point on Earth but instead traverse a trajectory above ground
that repeats about once every 12 h. However, due to the arrangement of all satellite
orbits, the exact same arrangement of all satellites above a particular point on Earth
repeats only about once every 24 h. That is, over each period of about 24 h, a user
on Earth will be experiencing a constantly changing satellite coverage, even when
completely at rest and without any sky obstructions.
The constellation of 24 satellites is needed to provide the minimum designed
global coverage where at least 6 satellites are visible from any unobstructed point
on Earth at any time. Note that at any one place the number of visible satellites
changes over times as satellites orbit the Earth (Fig. 5).
The number of satellites in the constellation changes as old satellites are
decommissioned and new added to replace them. In recent years usually, there have
been more than 24, in order to improve the number of satellites visible from any
one place and time and to provide for some robustness against temporary satellite
outages. For example, there were 31 satellites in orbit in March of 2016.
The control segment consists of monitor stations, the master control station
(MCS), and ground antennas. The monitor stations consist of GPS receivers with
atomic clocks, weather instruments, and communications equipment. They are
unmanned, receive GPS signals, and send data to MCS (Figs. 6 and 7).
Positioning 17

Fig. 3 GPS satellite, an illustration in space and a close-up photograph on the ground

Orbital z
plane
Equatorial
plane

x
Fig. 4 GPS orbital plane

The MCS maintains GPS time that is used to synchronize time across the entire
GPS system. It also monitors and predicts orbits. Based on the orbit predictions, it
updates the messages from satellites containing the orbit parameters. Another key
role of the MCS is to generate commands to satellites to perform corrective moves
in order to stay in the desired orbit.
The unmanned ground antennas upload to satellites the motion commands and
the messages to be sent by the satellites.
18 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

8 Visible Satellites 5 Visible Satellites

Fig. 5 GPS constellation as seen from one place at two different times

Fig. 6 GPS control segment ground stations

Positioning 19

Fig. 7 GPS monitoring station in Hawaii

Fig. 8 An early GPS receiver

on the back of a soldier

The user segment consists of all devices capable of receiving the GPS signals
and using them to determine position, velocity, and time (GPS receivers) (Figs. 8
and 9).

Other GNSS Systems

Besides GPS, there are other GNSS systems, which are currently either partially or
fully operational. Nations develop their own systems in order to be able to control
their location service in a time of war where other nations might deny the use of their
systems. From the user point of view, having access to multiple systems provides
benefits in terms of increased satellite visibility, which is particularly important in
20 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

Fig. 9 Modern GPS receiver

obstructed sky conditions (such as in densely urban or mountainous areas) where

only a small portion of the sky is open to allow signal reception. The downside
is that multi-GNSS capability increases the complexity and cost of location device
hardware and software.
Here is a brief look at GNSS systems that are at least partially operational.
GLONASS is the Russian system and is the only other system besides GPS that is
currently fully operational. Its first satellite was launched in 1982. It had troubles
obtaining funding in the 1990s leading to its constellation dropping to only 6
satellites in 2001, but it has recovered since and it had 29 satellites in orbit in 2016.
GLONASS is commonly supported on scientific GPS receivers and becomes more
so on automotive receivers as well, but it is not common on mobile phones.
Galileo is the European system. It is the most recent fully global development
that includes improved signal design based on what has been learned about GNSS
technology from decades of GPS use. Its first satellite was launched in 2011 and it
had 11 satellites in 2016. It will not be fully operational until 2019.
BeiDou is the Chinese system. It was originally limited to regional use around
China but it is planned to have a global reach from 2020. Its first satellite launch
was in 2000 and it had 20 satellites in 2016.
QZNSS is Japanese system that is designed for regional use. It can provide
benefits in an area of Pacific ocean that includes Japan and spans down to Indonesia.
Its first launch was in 2010 and it had one satellite in 2016.
Positioning 21

IRNSS or NAVIC is Indian regional satellite navigation system. It provides

positioning services in the area that includes India, Indian Ocean, and South Asia.
Its first launch was in 2013 and it had seven satellites in 2017.

Performance

The achievable GNSS accuracy is subject to a number of error sources but there
are methods for constraining the errors. Section “GNSS Performance and High-
Accuracy Methods” will address those topics after the immediately following
Section “Basic GNSS Positioning in Cooperative Vehicles” with introduction to how
basic GNSS position data is used in V2X.

Further Resources

For more in-depth coverage of the topics in Section “GNSS Principles”, and for
other related topics, consult the excellent introductory but comprehensive texts
[3, 4].

Basic GNSS Positioning in Cooperative Vehicles

Accurate positioning is essential for proper functioning of V2V safety applications.

Most V2V safety applications require relative lane-level positioning of the HV
and RVs. For example, a safety application has to be able to determine if the
Host Vehicle (HV) and a Remote Vehicle (RV) are in the same lane. V2X system
includes GNSS receiver providing the system with its own position and accurate
time. The onboard system retains path history and calculates path prediction. Each
vehicle broadcasts BSMs containing motion data: time-stamped speed, acceleration,
position, heading, path history and path prediction. Given HV and RV information,
the system calculates range, the difference in heading, and the relative position
between vehicles. The path history and path prediction are used to aid in lane level
target classification of the remote vehicle. Industry consensus is that vehicle has
to localize its self within a lane. Therefore, minimum performance requirement for
vehicle positioning is 1.5 m in absolute terms [6].
The effectiveness of cooperative applications degrades gracefully when subject
to reduced GNSS availability. Urban canyons, tunnels or dense foliage significantly
reduce satellite signal quality. Positioning then can depend on dead reckoning using
other vehicle sensors such as IMU, camera or odometer. The reference system is
relatively immune to the sporadic outages (less than 1 s). Outages of less than 1 s in
duration accounted for the majority (93%) observed during the 20,000 miles of data
22 Z. Popovic and R. Miucic

Fig. 10 Overview of OBE

functional blocks DSRC GPS
Antenna Antenna OBE

Computing
GPS Receiver Unit
To
HMI

DSRC
Transceiver Vehicle CAN

collected in the DOT-CAMP system performance testing [5]. Prolonged outages

(2–5 s) typically result in degrading of the V2V functionality. Applications that
require lane-level accuracy would be disabled (e.g. EEBL). However, applications
needing road level (e.g. IMA) would still be operational. Road Side equipment
(RSE) devices are sending differential corrections that will improve localization of
the connected vehicles at the equipped intersections. According to SAE J2945/1 [31]
V2X positioning subsystem shall use WAAS corrections when the WAAS signal is
available; in order to improve the position accuracy. SAE J2945/1 standard also
requires the position to be acquired 10 times a second. There are many national
or state agencies providing correction data as well. For example, state of Michigan
is running a network of Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) and
providing updates over the internet free of charge [7].

Positioning Device in Vehicle Architecture

To describe the place of a positioning device in a typical vehicle connected

architecture (probably needs to refer to “Vehicle Architecture” chapter).
A typical implementation of the DSRC system in vehicles is enclosed within
On Board Equipment OBE device [8, 9]. Figure 10 shows logical links between
major functional components in an OBE. Computing Unit reads vehicle information
data from the vehicle CAN bus. GPS receiver supplies current vehicle position
information. From these two data sources Computing Unit composes and transmits
messages via DSRC transceiver. At the same time, any computed collision warning
is further passed to the HMI link.

Positioning Provisions of Communication Protocol

In the most typical configuration, a DSRC equipped vehicle will have one or two
channel configuration setup. At least one channel will be tuned to Channel 172
Positioning 23

(CH172). CH172 will mainly be used for sending V2V messages (BSMs), SPaT
and MAP, and security service messages. V2V traffic will occupy the majority of
the channel load. There will be limited opportunity to exchange large content such as
regional maps, with the exception of MAP messages. MAP message is transmitted
from RSE. The MAP contains detailed lane and available approaches information
of the intersection the RSE is placed to.
The most common implementation of Traffic Sign Violation application is
described in CICAS-V project [22]. A vehicle, using its ego position information,
locates itself in a particular approach. The system then listens for a SPaT message
that contains the state of the traffic light for that approach. If the system determines
the speed is not adequate for the vehicle to safely stop at the red light, it will warn
the driver of impending traffic light violation.

Positioning Data Flow in a Connected Vehicle

Most common wired communication links between GPS receiver and Computing
Unit in a typical embedded solution include I2C, SPI, USB and UART [9, 12, 21].
Another important physical signal from GPS receiver is Pulse per Second (PPS).
PPS signal is used for synchronizing OBEs between vehicles. To communicate
actual positioning information GPS receiver is using NMEA messages. NMEA 0183
is a combined electrical and data specification for communication standards over a
serial connection.
Most useful NMEA messages for V2X/OBE are GPGGA and GPRMC [10].
Figure 11 shows a sample of NMEA stream with GPGGA and GPRMC messages
highlighted.
GGA message contains essential fix data which provide 3D location and accuracy
data. The following NMEA string: “$GPGGA,171546.0,4228.594269,N,08306.
957771,W,1,09,0.7,186.1,M,-34.0,M,*6A” is dissected and explained in Table 1.
RMC (Recommended Minimum C) message contains essential GPS (position,
velocity, time) data.
The following NMEA string: “$GPRMC,171546.0,A,4228.594269,N,08306.
957771,W,44.7,255.9,290315,0.0,E,A*29” is dissected and explained in Table 2.

Fig. 11 A sample NMEA file

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER XLV.
ASSASSINATION OF ALY.

A.H. XL. A.D. 661.

The theocratic Separatists were sorely

troubled at the prospects of Islam. It was Three Khârejite fanatics
not that raids and robbery, dissension and conspire to assassinate Aly,
Muâvia, and Amru. a.h. XL.
strife, had been the order of the day. That a.d. 661.
they could bear, for bloodshed was more
tolerable than apostasy. To the Khârejite, the cessation of war
brought with it no peace of mind. A settled government was the ruin
of his hopes. Aly having come to terms with Muâvia, there was no
longer room to expect that the ungodly kingdoms of the earth would
be overthrown, and the reign of righteousness established in their
stead. Thus the theocratic party brooded over the blood that had
been shed in vain upon the plain of Nehrwân and other fields of
battle, and for the present abandoned themselves to despair. Many
took refuge from the godless tyranny (as they called it) prevailing all
around, in the sacred precincts of the Hejâz, where they might
lament freely with one another over the miserable fate of Islam. As
three of these thus mourned together, a gleam of hope suddenly
shot across their path. ‘Our blood need not have been thus shed in
vain; let each of us kill one of the three oppressors of the Faithful;
Islam may yet again be free, and the reign of the Lord appear.’ It was
one of the band of regicides that spoke; and so, as in the case of
Othmân, but under another guise and urged by bolder hopes, the
three again conspired against the State. The fatal resolve once
taken, details were speedily arranged. Aly and Muâvia both must fall;
and Amru also, not only as the godless Arbitrator, but also as the
likeliest successor to the throne left vacant by the other two. Each
was to dispose of his fellow, as he presided at the morning service,
on the same Friday when, in the month of Ramadhân, the cathedral
Mosques of Kûfa, Damascus, and Fostât would be thronged with
fasting worshippers. They dipped their swords in a powerful poison;
and separated from one another, swearing that they would either
fulfil the task or perish in the attempt. Amru
escaped. He was sick that day, and the Amru escapes.
captain of his guard, presiding in the
Mosque at prayers, fell a victim in his stead.[561] At Damascus,
Muâvia was not so fortunate.[562] The blow
fell upon him, and was near to being fatal. Muâvia
recovers.
wounded, but
His physician declared that his life could be
saved only by the cautery, or by a potent draught that would deprive
him of the hope of further progeny. He shrank from the cautery, and
chose the draught. The remedy was effectual, and he survived.
At Kûfa things turned out differently.
The conspirator Ibn Muljam, one of the Aly attacked by assassins in
the Mosque of Kûfa.
Egyptian regicides, was able there to gain
two desperate accomplices from the Beni Taym. The tribe, deeply
imbued with the fanaticism of the day, had suffered severely in the
massacre of Nehrwân, and ever since had nursed its resentment
against the Caliph. Ibn Muljam loved Catâm, a beautiful maid of the
same tribe, who having on that fatal day lost her father, her brother,
and other near relatives, was roused thereby to a savage ardour.
‘Bring me,’ said the maid to her lover, ‘the head of Aly as my dower;
if thou escapest alive, thou shalt enjoy me as thy guerdon here; if
thou perish, thou shalt enjoy better than me above,’ So she
introduced him to Werdân, a warrior burning with the same spirit of
revenge, and also to another accomplice, named Shuhîb, On the
appointed morning, the latter, with Ibn Muljam, lay in wait on either
side of the door leading into the crowded Mosque; if their blows
should fail, Werdân, stationed outside, was in the confusion to rush
upon Aly, and complete the work. At the time appointed, the Caliph
entered the Mosque calling aloud as usual, To prayers, ye people! To
prayers! Immediately he was set upon on either hand. Shuhîb’s
sword fell upon the lintel; but Ibn Muljam wounded the Caliph
severely on the head and side. He was seized. The other two fled;
one was cut to pieces, the other escaped in the tumult. Aly was
carried into the palace, but retained strength sufficient to question
the assassin, who was brought before him. Ibn Muljam declared
boldly, that the deed had been forty days in contemplation; and
during all that time he had prayed without ceasing to the Lord, ‘that
the Wickedest of mankind might meet his fate.’ ‘Then,’ replied Aly,
‘that must have been thyself.’ So saying, he turned to his son,
Hasan, and bade him keep the assassin in close custody: ‘If I die, his
life is forfeited to justice, and he shall be slain for the deed he hath
done; but see,’ said he, ‘that thou mutilate him not, for that was
forbidden by the Prophet.’ During the day Omm Kolthûm went into
the assassin’s cell and cursed him, adding, what no doubt she was
fain to believe, ‘My father shall yet live.’ ‘Then, Lady,’ replied the
fanatic, ‘whence these tears? Listen. That sword I bought for a
thousand pieces, and a thousand more it cost to poison it. None may
escape a wound from it.’
It soon became evident that the wound indeed was mortal. They
asked the Caliph whether if he died, it was his will that Hasan, his
eldest son, should succeed to the throne.
Still true to the elective principle, Aly Aly’s death. 17 Ramadhân,
answered: ‘I do not command this, neither a.h. XL. Jan. 25, a.d. 661.
do I forbid it. See ye to it.’ Then he called Hasan and Hosein to his
bedside, and counselled them to be steadfast in piety and
resignation to the will of God, and to be kind to their younger brother,
the son of his Hanifite wife. After that he wrote his testament, and
continuing to repeat the name of the Lord to the end, so breathed his
last. When they had performed the funeral obsequies, Hasan
arraigned the assassin before him. Nothing daunted, Ibn Muljam
said: ‘I made a covenant with the Lord before the holy House at
Mecca, that I would slay both Aly and Muâvia. Now, if thou wilt, I
shall go forth and kill the other, or perish in the attempt. If I succeed,
I will return and swear allegiance unto thee.’ ‘Nay,’ said Hasan, ‘not
before thou hast tasted of the fire.’ He was
put to death, and the body, tied up in a Ibn Muljam put to death.
sack, was committed to the flames.[563]
Tradition, strange to say, is silent, and
opinion uncertain, as to where the body of Aly’s burial-place unknown.
Aly lies. Some believe that he was buried
in the cathedral Mosque at Kûfa, others in the palace.[564] Certainly,
his tomb was never, in early times, the object of any care or
veneration. The same indifference attached to his memory
throughout the realm of Islam, as had attached to his person during
life, and it was not till that generation had passed away that the
sentiment of reverence and regard for the husband of the Prophet’s
daughter, and father of his only surviving progeny, began to show
itself.
Aly died about sixty years of age. His
troubled and contested reign had lasted His family.
but four years and nine months. For a time
(like Mahomet himself) he had been content with a single wife, the
Prophet’s daughter Fâtima, by whom he had three sons and two
daughters, the progenitors of the Synd race—the nobility of Islam.
[565] After she died, he took many women into his harem, both free
and servile; by whom he had, in all, eleven sons and fifteen
daughters. Aly was a tender-hearted father. In his old age, a little girl
was born to him, with whose prattle he would beguile his troubles; for
he had her always on his knee, and doted on her with a special love.
[566]

In the character of Aly there are many

things to commend. Mild and beneficent, Forbearance and
he treated the rebel city of Bussorah, when magnanimity of Aly.
prostrate at his feet (as Mahomet had done the ungrateful city of his
birth) with a generous forbearance. Towards the theocratic fanatics,
who wearied his patience by incessant intrigue and insensate
rebellion, he showed no vindictiveness. Excepting Muâvia (the man
of all others whom he ought not to have estranged) he carried his
policy of conciliation to a dangerous extreme. In compromise indeed,
and in procrastination, lay the failure of his
Caliphate. With greater vigour, spirit, and Procrastination and
compromise, his failings.
determination, he might have maintained
the integrity of the empire and averted the schism which for a time
threatened the existence of Islam, and is felt in its debilitating
influences to the present day.

Aly wise in counsel.

 Aly was wise in counsel, and many an
adage and sapient proverb has been attributed to him. But, like
Solomon, his wisdom was more for others than for himself. His
career cannot be characterised otherwise than as a failure. On the
election of Abu Bekr, influenced probably by Fâtima, who claimed
and was denied a share in her father’s property, Aly retired for a time
into private life. Thereafter we find him taking part in the counsels of
Abu Bekr and his successors, and even performing the functions of
chief judicial officer. But he never asserted the leading position,
which, as the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, might have been
expected of him; nor is there aught (excepting party-coloured and
distorted tradition) to show that this was due to any other cause than
his own easy and inactive temperament.
There is one indelible blot on the The blot upon his escutcheon.
escutcheon of Aly—the flagrant breach of
duty he was guilty of towards his sovereign ruler. He had sworn
allegiance to Othmân, and by him he was bound to have stood in his
last extremity. Instead, he held ignobly aloof, while the Caliph fell a
victim to red-handed treason. Nor can the plea avail that he was
himself in the hands of the insurgents. Had there been a loyal will to
help, there would have been a ready way. In point of fact, his attitude
gave colour to the charge even of collusion.[567] And herein Aly must
be held accountable not only for a grave dereliction of duty, but for a
fatal error, which shook the stability of the Caliphate itself, as he was
not long in finding to his cost.
There is no trace whatever, in the
history of those times, of the extravagant Divine Imâmate, a late
claims made in later days for Aly and his fiction.
family. Clearly none of these were regarded during their lifetime with
any respect or veneration beyond that which was due to their
relationship with the Prophet.[568] On the contrary, we find that even
in their own capital and provinces, there prevailed towards them an
utter want of enthusiasm and loyalty, amounting at times to positive
disaffection. The fiction of the Divine Imâmship was a reaction from
the tragedy at Kerbala (to be told below) and the cruel fate of the
Prophet’s descendants. And the superstition, fostered by Alyite and
Abbasside faction, soon formed a powerful lever which was skilfully
and unscrupulously used in the busy canvass to overthrow the
Omeyyad dynasty.
 CHAPTER XLVI.
HASAN SUCCEEDS ALY.—ABDICATES IN FAVOUR OF MUAVIA.

A.H. XL., XLI. A.D. 661.

When they had committed Aly, we know

not where, to his last home, the people, Hasan succeeds his father
following the example of Cays ibn Sád, Aly. Ramadhân, a.h. XL. Jan.
a.d. 661.
whose influence at the Court of Baghdad
continued undiminished, did homage, as it were by common
consent, to Hasan, the departed Caliph’s eldest son. But Hasan was
a poor-spirited creature, more intent on varying the charms of his
ever-changing harem than on the business of public life, and
altogether unworthy of his descent as the grandson of the Prophet.
[569]

It was, therefore, now Muâvia’s

opportunity for asserting his title to the But, attacked by Muâvia, and
whole Moslem empire. Already, in mobbed by his own troops,
accordance with Amru’s verdict at the Arbitration, he was recognised
as Caliph throughout Syria and Egypt.[570] Resenting the succession
of Hasan to his father’s power at Kûfa, Muâvia at once gathered a
powerful army and marched to invade Irâc. No sooner was this
intelligence received, than the men of Kûfa, impatient at the prospect
of falling under the rule of Syria, rallied beneath their new Caliph’s
standard, and an army forty thousand strong was ready to repel the
attack.[571] But Hasan had no stomach for the war. Sending forward
his vanguard of twelve thousand men under the brave and faithful
Cays, he followed himself irresolutely; and, with the bulk of his army,
rested at Medâin amidst the luxurious gardens of the old Persian
Court.[572] While thus ignobly holding back, the report gained
currency at Medâin that Cays had been defeated on the plains of
Mesopotamia, and slain. An émeute ensued. The troops rose
mutinously upon the Caliph. They rushed into his sumptuous
pavilion, and plundered the royal tents even to the carpets. A project
was set on foot to seize his person, and, by delivering him up to
Muâvia, thus make favourable terms. The faint-hearted Caliph,
alarmed at these demonstrations, took refuge in the Great White
Palace, a more congenial residence for him than the martial camp;
and, trusting no longer to his fickle and disloyal people, sent letters
to Muâvia offering to submit. Hasan agreed
to abdicate and retire to Medîna, on abdicates in favour of Muâvia
condition that he should retain the contents July, a.d. 661.
of the treasury, five million pieces; that he should receive for his
support the revenues of a Persian district; and further, that the
imprecation against his father should be dropped from the public
prayers. Muâvia granted the first two requests; and as for the third,
he consented that no prayer against Aly should be recited within
hearing of his son. The truce was ratified accordingly on the 24th day
of Rabî I.
After a brief and inglorious reign of only five or six months,
Hasan, with his household and belongings, retired to the Hejâz. The
people of Kûfa, we are told, wept at their departure. But Hasan left
them without regret. It was a race, he said, in whom no trust could be
reposed, and who had set purpose neither for good nor for evil.[573]
Cays, whose ability and prowess were
worthy of a better cause, remained for Cays submits to Muâvia.
some little while longer in the field. But at
length, having obtained terms for all his soldiers who had been
fighting on the side of Aly, and there being no longer any master left
to fight for, he laid down his arms and recognised Muâvia as
supreme.[574]
Thus, at last, Muâvia was able to make
a triumphal entry into Kûfa. Having Muâvia sole and undisputed
Caliph.
received the homage of that city and of the
Eastern provinces, he returned to Syria sole and undisputed Caliph
of Islam; and Damascus thenceforth became the capital of the
empire.
 The imprecations against the memory
of Aly, his house, and his adherents, still Continued imprecation
formed part of the public service at against the house of Aly.
Damascus. The curse, indeed, continued to be so used throughout
the whole period of Omeyyad ascendency.[575]
 CHAPTER XLVII.
SOME BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A.H. XL.-L.

Before passing on to the brief

remainder of this work, I purpose to notice Biographical notices.
shortly the sequel of one or two of the
leading men still left at Aly’s death upon the stage.
Hasan, the short-lived Caliph, retired to
Medîna, where, with ample means to Hasan, son of Aly, poisoned
gratify his ruling passion, he lived in ease by his wife.
and quietness, giving no further anxiety to Muâvia. He survived eight
years, and met his death by poison at the hand of one of his wives. It
was a not unnatural end for ‘Hasan the Divorcer;’ but Alyite tradition
would have us to believe that the lady was bribed by the Caliph to
commit the crime, and thus exalt the libertine to the dignity of a
martyr.[576] Of his brother Hosein, we shall hear more anon.
Amru remained in the government of
Egypt till his death, a.h. 43. He died Amru.
seventy-three years of age, and penitent,
we are told, for all his misdeeds. His life was one of the most
eventful in this history. No man influenced more than he the fortunes
of the Caliphate. Brave in the field, astute in counsel, coarse and
unscrupulous in word and action, it was mainly to Amru that Muâvia
owed his ascendency over Aly, and the eventual establishment of the
Omeyyad dynasty. He was four years Governor of Egypt under
Omar; he continued in the same post a like period under Othmân,
who by his recall in an evil hour made him his enemy; and, finally
reappointed by Muâvia on the defeat of Mohammed son of Abu Bekr,
he was still at his death the Governor of Egypt. One of his sons
succeeded him, but not for any lengthened period.[577]
 The vicissitudes in the career of
Moghîra were hardly less surprising than in Moghîra appointed Governor
that of Amru. Clever and designing, he of Kûfa.
survived the disgrace of his fall at Bussorah, and rose again to
influence at court. He was eventually placed by Muâvia in the most
difficult and coveted post of the empire, the government, namely, of
the no longer regal Kûfa, to which was added the northern district of
Persia. By his shrewd and firm administration, he held under strict
control that fickle and restless city, still betrayed ever and anon into
theocratic outbursts, or (the new trouble of the empire) into
treasonable demonstrations in favour of the race of Aly.
But, perhaps, the service of greatest
value which Moghîra rendered to his Ziâd, Governor of Southern
Persia, gives in his adhesion
sovereign, was that he induced Ziâd, now to Muâvia. a.h. XLII. a.d.
holding powerful command in the south of 662.
Persia, to tender his allegiance. The son of
a vagrant bond-woman, whom Abu Sofiân before his conversion
chanced to meet at Tâyif, Ziâd had overcome, by the faithful and
diligent application of his high abilities, the disadvantage of servile
birth. His merits as Chancellor of the Treasury at Bussorah had been
recognised by Omar, and he had risen both under Othmân and Aly
to the most important commands in Bussorah and Southern Persia.
Eloquent in address, and powerful in administration, he was by far
the ablest statesman of the day. Firmly attached to the cause of Aly,
he retained his animosity towards Muâvia, even after Hasan’s
abdication; and as Governor of Istakhr (Persepolis) was a thorn in
the side of the Caliphate. Moghîra, who had not forgotten that he
owed his escape from the capital charge of adultery to the partial
evidence of Ziâd,[578] maintained friendly relations with him, and in
the forty-second year of the Hegira was deputed by Muâvia to the
magnificent viceregal court of Istakhr, and there persuaded him to
tender his submission. Under a safe-conduct, he appeared before
the Caliph at Damascus, and presented, in token of his adhesion, a
purse of a thousand golden pieces. He was dismissed with every
token of honour, and confirmed in his Persian government.
 Not long afterwards a curious episode
in his history disturbed the equanimity of Muâvia declares Ziâd, as son
the Moslem public. Muâvia formally of Abu Sofiân, his brother.
a.h. XLV.
recognised Ziâd as the son of his own
father Abu Sofiân, and therefore as his brother. The open
acknowledgment of the relationship created a serious scandal
throughout Islam, because it was held to contravene the law of
legitimacy, and still more because it made Omm Habîba, one of the
‘Mothers of the Faithful,’ and daughter also of Abu Sofiân, to be the
sister of an adulterous issue. Even the Beni Omeyyad, Muâvia’s own
kinsfolk, were displeased at the affront put upon the purity of their
blood. But the feeling passed away when it was seen that a pillar of
iron strength had been gained to the Omeyyad side.[579] In the year
45 a.h., Ziâd was made Governor of
Bussorah, and of the whole of Southern Ziâd appointed Governor of
Persia, from the Straits of Omân to the Bussorah,
Kûfa.
and eventually of

river Indus. His strong hand fell heavily on

the restless population of Bussorah: the city was patrolled
incessantly by an armed police of a thousand men. None might
venture abroad at night on pain of death; and so ruthless was the
order, that an unlucky Arab, who had wandered unawares into the
precincts of the town, was tried and deliberately executed for the
involuntary offence. Both at the Mosque and the palace, and
whenever he went abroad, Ziâd was attended in Oriental guise by
silver-sticks and lictors, and a body-guard of five hundred soldiers
waited at his gate. The supremacy of law, or, as it might perhaps be
called, the reign of terror, was new at Bussorah, but it effectually
repressed rebellion; and the same may also be said of Kûfa, to
which, on Moghîra’s death, Ziâd was translated. This stern
administration was but a foretaste of the hard and cruel régime
which, later on, found its climax in the bloody rule of Hajjâj; the son
of Yusûf.
In the fiftieth year of the Hegira, we are
told that Muâvia entertained a project for Design of removing
Mahomet’s pulpit to
removing the pulpit and staff of the Prophet Damascus.
from Medîna, the rebellious scene of
Othmân’s murder, to Damascus, now the capital of Islam. But the
impious project was, by Divine interposition, checked. For, ‘on its
being touched, the pulpit trembled fearfully, and the sun was
darkened, so that the very stars shone forth, and men were terrified
at the prodigies.’ The tradition is significant of the superstitious
regard in which everything connected with the Prophet’s person was
held. It is not unlikely that Muâvia did entertain the sacrilegious
design; but, if so, he was dissuaded from it by Abu Horeira, who
urged that where the Prophet had placed his pulpit and his staff,
there they should remain. And so they were left as relics in the Great
Mosque hard by the dwelling-place of Mahomet.[580]
 CHAPTER XLVIII.
YEZID APPOINTED HEIR APPARENT.—HEREDITARY
NOMINATION BECOMES A PRECEDENT.

A.H. LVI. A.D. 676.

The election of a Caliph on each

recurring succession, excepting only that Precedents for nomination or
of Omar, had been followed by the risk of election to the Caliphate.
serious perils to the peace of Islam. The choice was supposed to be
a privilege vested in the inhabitants of Medîna—‘Citizens,’ as well as
‘Refugees;’ but the practice had been various, and the rule had been
oftener broken than observed. The Prophet himself nominated no
one. Abu Bekr may be said to have been chosen by acclamation.
[581] Abu Bekr, on his death-bed, named Omar his successor. And
Omar, establishing yet another precedent, placed the nomination in
the hands of Electors. It is true that on the two last-named
occasions, the choice was ratified by the homage of Medîna; but that
was little more than the formal recognition of an appointment already
made. At the fourth succession, the election of Aly, though carried
out under the compulsion of insurgent bands, resembled somewhat
the popular election of the first Caliph. Then followed the
unsuccessful rebellion of Talha and Zobeir, based on the allegation
that homage had been extorted from them under pressure. After that,
ensued the struggle between Muâvia, the de facto sovereign of
Syria, and Aly, which ended in the irregular recognition of Muâvia as
Caliph upon the so-called Arbitration of Dûma, and in the double
Caliphate. On the death of Aly, who (we are told) declined to
nominate a successor, his son Hasan was elected, not, as
heretofore, by the people of Medîna, but by the citizens of Kûfa. And,
finally, we have the first example of abdication, when Hasan
resigned his rights into the hands of Muâvia, and left him sole Caliph
of Islam.
 Whatever the rights of Medîna originally
may have been, circumstances had now The initiative in election no
materially altered the only practical means longer at Medîna.
of exercising them. Having been abandoned as the seat of
government, the privilege of choosing a Caliph, or of confirming his
nomination, however much it may have vested by prescription in the
citizens of Medîna, had become an anachronism now. The
succession, as in the case of Hasan, followed necessarily, and at
once, upon the death of the reigning Caliph, and Medîna could only
ratify what had taken place elsewhere. The functions of the citizens
of Medîna were thus, from the course of events, transferred to the
inhabitants of the seat of government, wheresoever it might be.
Again, that which had happened after
the election of Aly, might happen again at Danger surrounding each
succession.
any fresh accession to the throne. Zobeir
and Talha raised the standard of revolt on the plea that their oath
was taken under compulsion; while between Aly and Muâvia, there
followed a long and doubtful contest. The internecine struggle had
imperilled the existence of Islam. Not only had the ranks of the
Faithful been seriously thinned by the blood shed on either side; but,
from without, enemies might at any moment have taken advantage
of the strife. Muâvia, in point of fact, made a truce with the Byzantine
Court while the civil war impended. But if a similar opportunity again
offered, the foes of Islam might not be so forbearing, and a fatal
wound might be inflicted thus upon the empire torn by intestine
conflict.
Influenced by such considerations, as well, no doubt, as by the
desire of maintaining the Caliphate in his own line, Muâvia
entertained the project of declaring his son, Yezîd, to be the Heir
Apparent. By securing thus an oath of
fealty to his son throughout the Moslem Muâvia’s design to nominate
world, he would anticipate the event of his his son Heir Apparent.
own decease, and thus prevent the peril of a contested election
when it did occur. Ziâd, summoned to advise, was favourable to the
design, but enjoined deliberation, and a preliminary cautious
canvass throughout the provinces. He also counselled Yezîd, who
was devoted to the chase and careless of public affairs, to amend
his ways in preparation for the throne, and show before the people a
character more fitted for the high dignity in store for him. Moghîra
likewise was strongly in favour of the scheme.[582] But it was not till
both these counsellors had passed away, that Muâvia found himself
in a position to proceed with the design.
So soon as Muâvia felt secure of
adequate support, and especially that Yezîd declared Heir
Medîna would not resent the invasion of its Apparent. a.h. LVI. a.d. 676.
elective privilege,[583] provision was made that deputations from all
the provinces, and also from the chief cities, should present
themselves before the Caliph at Damascus. These, received in state,
affected to press the nomination; and accordingly, without further
ceremony, the oath of allegiance was taken by all present to Yezîd
as next successor to the Caliphate. Syria and Irâc, having without
demur tendered their homage to the same effect, Muâvia set out for
the Hejâz, followed by a retinue of a thousand horse, ostensibly to
perform the Lesser Pilgrimage, but in reality to obtain the assent of
the Holy Cities to what had been enacted at Damascus and
elsewhere. The leading dissentients at
Medîna were Hosein the second son of Mecca and Medîna forced to
Aly, the son of Zobeir, Abd al Rahmân son swear allegiance.
of Abu Bekr, and the son of Omar. Muâvia received them roughly as
they came out to meet him on his entry into the city; and so, to avoid
further mortification, they departed at once for Mecca. The remainder
of the citizens ratified the nomination of Yezîd, and took the oath
accordingly. Continuing his progress, and having arrived at Mecca,
Muâvia carried himself blandly towards the people of the Holy City
during the first few days of his visit, which were occupied with the
rites of pilgrimage. But as the time of departure drew nigh, he stood
up to address them on his errand; and although his speech was
gilded with many plausible assurances that the privileges of the
Sacred places would be religiously respected, there was at the first
no response. Then arose Abdallah son of Zobeir, and boldly said that
the oath of homage to an Heir Apparent would be opposed to all the
precedents of Islam. To such cavils, the Caliph, in answer, urged the