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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Pedro F. Pereira
Nuno M. M. Ramos
João M. P. Q. Delgado
Intelligent
Residential
Buildings and the
Behaviour of the
Occupants
State of the Art
123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology
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Indexed by EI-Compendex, SCOPUS and Springerlink.
João M. P. Q. Delgado
Intelligent Residential
Buildings and the Behaviour
of the Occupants
State of the Art
123
Pedro F. Pereira João M. P. Q. Delgado
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering Faculty of Engineering
University of Porto University of Porto
Porto, Portugal Porto, Portugal
Nuno M. M. Ramos
CONSTRUCT-LFC,
Faculty of Engineering
University of Porto
Porto, Portugal
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Over the last years, intelligent buildings and the behaviour of the occupants have
been the scope of many studies. The number of studies of these areas is growing, as
they appear to be the next step to optimize the energy efficiency of the buildings.
The concept of intelligent building is associated with the creation of a man-
agement system that takes into account the requirements of its occupants in terms
of thermal comfort and the activities of their daily life, maintaining a good indoor
air quality and minimizing the energy consumption. Thus, there is a need to study
and combine these issues to obtain the new generation of buildings. In commercial
or office buildings, these systems are already in an intermediate stage of imple-
mentation. However, in the residential sector, it still does not have a significant
implementation.
In mild climate regions, where the interactions of the occupants with the building
mechanisms are the primary way to meet their comfort and ventilation require-
ments, the importance of occupant behaviour studies and its incorporation in the
algorithms of the intelligent buildings become even more important.
The main benefit of the book is that it contains a state of the art of two areas that
have to be treated together in order to emerge a new concept of buildings, that are
more efficient, more comfortable and healthier.
v
Acknowledgements
vii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Intelligent Buildings Adapted to Their Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Concept of Intelligent Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 Intelligent Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Occupant Behaviour in Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Detection of the Actions of the Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.2 Assessment of the Drivers of the Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.3 Assessment of the Impacts of the Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.4 Modelling the Occupant Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
ix
Abbreviations
xi
xii Abbreviations
Energy consumption can be divided by sector of activity, but the building consump-
tion differs from country to country. It is close to 40% in the United States of America
(USA) and Europe (2010/31/EU 2010); however, it is about 30% in the countries
located in the south of Europe, including Portugal (Garrido-Soriano et al. 2012; INE
and DGEG 2011). In Portugal, according to the data collected by INE and DGEG
(2011), the largest energy consumption is in the kitchen with a percentage of 39.1%,
followed by heating food products with 23.5%, heating the environment with 21.5%
and household appliances with 10.9%.
By EU imposing, the member states will have to transpose into internal regulations
the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) transcribed in Directive
2010/31/EU (2010). This Directive stipules a set of targets to be met by 2020 that
entail a 20% reduction in energy consumption and CO2 emissions and a minimum
of 20% of renewable energy as source of energy. Among the suggestions presented
in Directive 2010/31/ EU (2010) is the increasing use of active control systems and
intelligent systems that enhance the energy efficiency of new buildings or the target of
major renovations. In particular, the new EPBD encourages the use of “automation,
control and monitoring systems that aim to save energy”.
According to the literature (Clements-Croome 2004; Wang 2010), “true” intel-
ligence in buildings is only achieved when the buildings respect the demands of
their occupants, using the least amount of energy possible. In order to respect the
requirements of the occupants, it is first necessary to know their behaviour and the
way in which it influences the interior space of a residential fraction. The study of
the occupant’s behaviour of residential buildings is therefore considered an area of
major importance, and the results will be the basis for possible modes of operation
of intelligent buildings (IBs). On the other hand, occupant behaviour is widely rec-
ognized as being a preponderant factor for the existence of uncertainty in the energy
performance of buildings (Yan et al. 2015). Several studies have analysed the effect
of occupant’s behaviour. The study developed by Sonderegger (1978) was one of the
first to be carried out, in which a value of 33% was presented for the contribution
of the occupants’ behaviour to the total energy consumption. More recently, stud-
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
P. F. Pereira et al., Intelligent Residential Buildings and the Behaviour of the
Occupants , SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00160-5_1
2 1 Introduction
ies on the subject point to a contributions in the order of 20% (Kleiminger et al.
2014; Luo et al. 2014; Gao and Whitehouse 2009), while other researchers such as
Guerra Santin et al. (2009) found contributions lower than 10% and the researches
of Gram-Hanssen (2010) and D’Oca et al. (2014) present contributions higher than
50%. Regarding the influence of the occupants on the building ventilation, Kvis-
gaard and Collet (1986) found that the actions of the occupants provide 63% of the
total air changes per hour (ACH) of the dwellings with natural ventilation. These
actions corresponded mainly to the handling of doors and windows. In a similar
study, Iwashita and Akasaka (1997) found a direct relationship between occupant
influence and housing ACH with contributions that reached 87%, due to different
occupant patterns in window and door handling. The work presented by Wallace
et al. (2002) demonstrated that the typical window aperture affects the ACH value
in 1 h−1 and Pereira et al. (2017) quantified the impact of some occupant actions
on a building, finding contributions of up to 4 h−1 . These values were obtained in
studies of different localities and different climates, not being able to be compared
among them, giving, however, an idea about the impact that the occupants can have
in a dwelling.
The investigation related to the occupants’ behaviour of residential buildings and
their impact on them has been worthy of study by several authors with an increase
in the number of studies by years (D’Oca et al. 2018). The main motivations for the
study of this theme are related to two distinct situations (Jia et al. 2017; Hong et al.
2017):
• The need to optimize building automated systems (BASs) | energy management
systems (EMSs) | building management systems (BMSs), adapting them to occu-
pants’ habits in terms of energy consumption, indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal
comfort and occupant habits;
• The need to reduce the mismatch between the results of the numerical simulation
programs and the actual performances of the buildings.
According to Hong et al. (2015), due to the growing interest of researchers in this
area of study, there was a need to organize it in subareas, which led to the creation of an
ontology to represent the behaviour of occupants in buildings. By this way, the authors
created a research framework divided into four subareas: drivers, needs, actions and
systems, giving rise to the acronym DNAS. In these four areas, motivations are
understood as the environmental factors perceived by the occupants in the outer
world that provoke a stimulus in their inner world to fulfil a physical, psychological,
or physiological need. Thus, needs are the requirements in the three dimensions
referred to the inner world of the occupant that need to be met in order to the occupant
feel satisfied in the environment in which he is inserted. The actions then emerge as
the way the occupant has to fulfil his needs, thereby bridging the inner and outer world
through interaction with the systems because of his need. The systems are therefore
the equipment or mechanisms belonging to the built environment of the building that
can be manipulated by the occupant to influence the interior environment.
References 3
References
85:493–505. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84908324413&partnerID=4
0&md5=0f0b58bc0a2619bac90bee0052d41410
Kvisgaard B, Collet PF (1986) Occupants’ influence on air change in dwellings. Comunicação
apresentada em 7th AIC Conference, em Stratford-upon-Avon, UK
Pereira PF, Ramos NMM, Almeida RMSF, Simões ML, Barreira E (2017) Occupant influence on res-
idential ventilation patterns in mild climate conditions. Energy Procedia 132(Suppl C):837–842.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217348166
Sonderegger RC (1978) Dynamic models of house heating based on equivalent thermal parameters.
Princeton University, Princeton
Wallace LA, Emmerich SJ, Howard-Reed C (2002) Continuous measurements of air change rates
in an occupied house for 1 year: the effect of temperature, wind, fans, and windows. J Expo Anal
Environ Epidemiol 12(4):296–306. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0036
068753&partnerID=40&md5=63e1c3a9fcb9ffa807a234b56bb935d0
Wang S (2010) Intelligent buildings and building automation. Taylor & Francis
Yan D, O’Brien W, Hong T, Feng X, Burak Gunay H, Tahmasebi F, Mahdavi A (2015) Occupant
behaviour modeling for building performance simulation: current state and future challenges.
Energy Build 107:264–278. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-849405132
01&partnerID=40&md5=3d626d60485cc9a7b34f92bca19b1a57
Chapter 2
State of the Art
2.1 Motivation
The present book was the result of an extensive bibliographical research in order to
collect information on the state of the art of intelligent buildings and the behaviour of
their occupants. The following subchapters present the state of the art in the following
areas:
• Intelligent buildings adapted to their occupants;
• Monitoring of occupants of buildings;
• Motivations for the actions of occupants of buildings;
• Impacts of occupant behaviour of buildings;
• Modelling the behaviour of occupants of buildings.
The form of interconnection of these areas can be observed in the scheme present in
Fig. 2.1.
The word “intelligence” has its etymological origin in the Latin term “intelligere”.
This is a word composed by two terms: inter (“between”) and legere (“to choose
or pick out”). Thus, due to the etymological origin of the word, there is intrinsic
to the concept of the capacity to choose between several options in function of the
objectives of the decision maker. As an object of philosophical study, the concept
of intelligence has undergone several changes due to its close connection with the
Fig. 2.1 Interconnection between the target areas of the state-of-the-art study
through its core. Several functions such as heating, ventilation, lighting, transporta-
tion, security, fire protection and, more important, telecommunications and electronic
office services would be integrated, providing relevant savings in the construction
and management of the building (So and Chan 1999).
On 13 May 1984, the same newspaper wrote an article describing the concept of a
new generation of buildings with the capacity to “think” for themselves. This article
described a house that controlled the temperature, the lighting and some constructive
elements of the building according to the occupation and the occupant’s requirements
(Sinopoli 2010).
Since the beginning of the researches in this area, the definition and field of
application have been altered, mainly due to the development of relevant technologies
and the needs of changing the built environment. In resume, the approach of the IB
can be described as follows:
• Until 1985: intelligent buildings are buildings controlled automatically for a func-
tion.
• From 1986 to 1991: intelligent buildings are buildings capable of responding to
the needs of change.
• From 1992 to present: intelligent buildings are buildings with characteristics that
effectively meet the changing needs.
In the above-mentioned summary chronology, it is referred to the change of scope,
and it should be noted that the concept and scope of IB are not yet fully stabilized
or parameterized. The discussion has been extended for decades, including new
technologies, new interface platforms, and expanded the area of influence of the
automation of buildings without being able to standardize the field of intelligence of
the building. It is difficult to achieve a stabilization of evolution since, as they are
buildings that incorporate technology and this is the most creative and innovative
areas of all, this does not seem plausible (Wang 2010).
The definition of IB is then considered to be vast and controversial, for example,
Wigginton and Harris (2002) found, in 2002, about 30 definitions of building-related
intelligence. In evolutionary terms, Wong et al. (2005a) consider that the first defi-
nitions of IB focused on the purely technological properties of buildings and did not
mention interaction with the occupants. This purely technological view has been crit-
icized by many researchers since the mid-1980s, with variants of this view supporting
IB to respond to occupant requirements.
At present, there are some large groups of intelligent buildings research, which
are described in the following paragraphs.
According to the Intelligent Building Institute (IBI), an IB should provide a pro-
ductive and economically efficient environment by optimizing four basic components
and their interconnection;
• Structure;
• Systems;
• Services;
• Management.
8 2 State of the Art
Thus, the interconnection of the four elements of an IB aims to satisfy the needs
of the occupants and owners of the buildings consuming the least possible resources.
Due to the close linking of an IB with the needs of occupants/owners, it is not credible
that the IB classification is attributed because they do not have a list of minimum
eligible characteristics. According to IBI, the only feature that intelligent buildings
have is a structure designed to accommodate changes at a controlled cost (So and
Chan 1999; Wang 2010).
According to the Intelligent Building Group (IBG), an IB is one that creates an
environment that maximizes the productivity of building occupants without simul-
taneously compromising the efficient management of resources and costs in their
lifetime. From the concept, it is deduced that an IB is one that incorporates the
best available concepts, materials, systems and integration technologies to achieve a
building that meets or exceeds the performance requirements of building stakehold-
ers, which include owners and occupants, as well as the local and global community
(So and Chan 1999; IBG 2014; Wang 2010).
According to the Japanese Intelligent Buildings (JIBI), an IB has convenient
communication and automation services for occupant use. The fundamental aspects
of JIBI are the following (Wang 2010):
• Ensuring the satisfaction and comfort of people working indoors;
• Rationalize the management of buildings to provide more attractive low-cost
administrative services;
• Rapid, flexible and economical capacity to change according to the sociological
changes in the environment, diversified and complex means of work and business
strategies;
• Serve as a place to receive and transmit information and support efficient manage-
ment.
According to the European Smart Accelerate project (Nikolaou et al. 2004), an
IB is one that provides an economically and technically efficient environment by
optimizing its four basic components: structure; systems; services and management
and having as a concern the interrelations between them in order to achieve:
• The benefit of the owners and their requirements for the interior comfort of the
building;
• Maximizing occupant efficiency;
• Effective management of resources with minimum life cycle costs;
• Facilitating building management and optimizing environmental and economic
impact due to changes in the interior environment.
The definition of IB in China and Singapore (So and Chan 1999) implies the
fulfilment of certain characteristics that should be taken into account:
• Automatic control systems to monitoring various installations;
• Data infrastructure for a good flow of information between floors;
• Adequate telecommunications facilities.
2.2 Intelligent Buildings Adapted to Their Occupants 9
Sinopoli (2010) also demonstrates that the traditional way of constructing causes
each system to be treated individually without any interconnection or integration of
the different systems, which is the main difference from an IB. The creation of an
IB begins in the project where the infrastructures of each of the several systems can
be reduced by their integration. An IB is also pointed out as essential for achieving
intelligent electricity grids.
Due to the different and sometimes contradictory ways of idealizing IB, Wang
(2010) presents an approach to defining an IB, grouping into three categories as
follows:
• Performance-based definitions;
• Service-based definitions;
• System-based definitions.
Performance-based definitions are those that define an IB by listing the require-
ments that each building must have. In this approach, it is easy to perceive the
importance that the occupants have in defining the requirements. This philosophy
gives more importance to the performance of the buildings and the requirements of
the occupants rather than the technologies or systems provided. In this approach, it
is important that owners and developers of buildings need to understand correctly
what kind of buildings they want and also how to satisfy continuously the increas-
ing demands of occupants. Energy and environmental performances of buildings are
certainly among the important issues of an IB. It is argued that this type of building
should have the ability to adapt itself quickly in response to internal and external
conditions and to meet the changing demands of occupants. The principles advocated
by IBG and IBI are included in this approach. However, Wong et al. (2005a) argue
that the definitions of each of these institutes about IB are different; i.e. the definition
in IBG focuses IB on occupant requirements, while the definition in IBI suggests
more equipment.
Service-based approaches define IB from the point of view of the services offered
and the quality with which these services are provided. The services are thus empha-
sized to the requirements of the occupants, and these are placed at their disposal,
even if the occupants at any given time do not feel the need or the advantage in their
use. JIBI shares this philosophy.
System-based approaches define IB according to the systems that comprise them.
The focus for this type of approach lies in the technology of the systems used. The
IB definitions in China and Singapore share this philosophy.
According to Clements-Croome (2004), an IB should be sustainable, healthy,
with current technology, responsive to the needs of the occupants and the business
it houses, and should be flexible and adaptable to deal with change. This definition
emphasizes the importance of design, construction and management of equipment
and facilities.
According to Wong et al. (2005a), IB research focused essentially on three inter-
related areas that provide insight into different phases of IB life. These areas are
essentially focused on the search for new technologies, ways to evaluate the perfor-
mance of IB and the evaluation of investments.
2.2 Intelligent Buildings Adapted to Their Occupants 11
Yang and Peng (2001) and Wigginton and Harris (2002) argue that the IB concept
has to be attached to the capacity of the building to learn and adapt in function of its
surroundings and occupancy.
Although it is considered important that an IB has the ability to automatically
adapt in an intelligent way, it is important that it “loses intelligence” so that it can
also adapt to the wishes of the occupants. In this way, it is considered essential that
an IB should suit the occupants, but in the most efficient way possible.
As is to be expected in an area in permanent and rapid evolution, the technologies
of the contemporary IB are very different from the one existing at the beginning of
the development of this area. The integration and interaction between IB subsystems
are increasingly used as a way of information sharing. This principle already begins
to extrapolate the building object so that the interaction extends to the city. Sys-
tems integration between IB may be based on safety, energy efficiency or city/block
management issues under the 2010/31/EU (2010) Directive.
An IB without the inclusion of technology could have been a possibility a few
years ago, and at present, it is expected that an IB includes technology. Thus, it is
considered that the concept of IB is intrinsic to the association of information and
communication technologies (ICTs). Although the inclusion of technology in an IB
is an inevitable way, it is not the amount of technology that gives the building a
greater or lesser degree of intelligence, but rather the help that this technology can
give the occupants in order to make the building more efficient and comfortable for
the occupants. In this way, building technology is expected to be a means, not an
end.
The bibliography previously exposed has focused essentially on the definition
of IB according to the active part of the building. Although, for Wang (2010), the
main focus of IB is the efficient use of technology in which ICTs stand out, there
are however other ways of contributing to the intelligence of buildings and these are
essential ways to achieve high performance in buildings. This requires, in addition
to technology, the design of an IB with efficient architecture and components. Thus,
it is understood that an IB should have an architecture, structure and materials that
optimize it and improve the performance of the building and its occupants. The
concept of intelligent architecture, according to Wang (2010), is subdivided into
three parts:
• Intelligent design—a building with intelligent architecture should be in harmony
with the surroundings using natural resources efficiently. It must also take into
account the cultural, political and economic contexts of the area in which it is
situated so as to be able to adapt to local requirements and occupants;
• Appropriate use of smart technology—the study of occupants’ habits and prefer-
ences will be paramount in choosing the best technology, but above all the one
that best fits the habits of the people. If this study is not done, there is a risk of
creating a building without intelligence because it does not adapt to its occupants;
• Smart use and maintenance of buildings—an IB should be thought of as a function
of the life cycle. Regardless of its complexity, it should be easy to use, maintain
and modify.
12 2 State of the Art
The definitions presented allow us to conclude that the definition of IB is not only
one and consensual, but there are common positions. One of the important points
in defining an IB lies in the fact that it can only be considered a smart building if it
performs better than an identical one without “intelligence”. There is also another
important point that will have to do with the interaction and satisfaction of the
requirements of the occupants. Thus, it is assumed that an IB does not contradict
the wills of the occupants, but that it achieves them as efficiently as possible.
Due to the links between IB and technology and automation in Portugal, the con-
cept of IB is associated with the concept of domotics when it comes to residential
buildings. Etymologically, home automation comes from two words domus (from
Latin for home) and robotics (from robotic Czech). Domotics is commonly known
as the application of information technology, electronics and robotics/automation to
buildings in order to facilitate the interaction of occupants with them. Globally, this
term is known as building automation systems (BAS), energy management system
(EMS), building management system (BMS) or simply home automation, referring
to the automation of buildings that can be residential or commercial/industrial.
The control system of an IB consists of technological equipment, terminals that
communicate with control devices or servers. Communication between the equip-
ment takes place through communication protocols. The equipment connected to the
network can be of three types: sensors, actuators and controllers, which are inter-
connected through a network. The sensors are electronic or mechanical components
responsible for converting a physical variable into an electrical signal capable of
being acquired by the system. Actuators are components capable of operating in the
environment, controlled by an electrical signal. The control network is implemented
so that there is communication between all components of the system, allowing
access to the data acquired by the sensors and allowing the control components to
send commands to the actuators. Communication is done through physical means
such as cables of various types or through wireless transmitters and receivers. There is
usually a network administrator system that manages the network and interacts with
the user. Existing IB systems are based on standardized communication networks
allowing the following (Sinopoli 2010):
• Communication between applications;
• More efficiency and monetary savings in materials, labour and equipment;
• Functionality of systems with equipment from different manufacturers.
Something quite important in a home automation system is its interaction with
the occupants. At this level, there has been a great evolution, and at present, the
provision of software for smartphones is becoming widespread so that the user can
interact with the house when it is far from it.
2.2 Intelligent Buildings Adapted to Their Occupants 13
devices that automatically open to close the windows. These systems typically oper-
ate in a reduced section of the window for security-related intrusion issues. Promoted
ventilation usually occurs at night in order to take advantage of the temperature gra-
dient to cool the house (Ochoa and Capeluto 2009).
It is now possible to place an electromagnetic system on the windows. This type
of technology allows a change in the solar reflection of the glass. The great advantage
of this technology is to be able to automatically control the amount of energy and
lighting that goes through the window (Clear et al. 2006; Jelle 2013). The system
controlling these variables can be programmed according to parameters of the exter-
nal environment such as temperature and solar radiation or internal illuminance, for
example. In the work done by Lee et al. (2012), the author studied the application of
this technology having found an energy saving of 48%.
The double skin facades (DSF) system is a solution that can contribute to improv-
ing the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of buildings. However, this is only
possible with the conjugation of shading devices within the air cavity and ventila-
tion thereof. In this work, the ventilation system and the shading devices are usually
associated with this constructive solution (Marques da Silva et al. 2015; Zhou and
Chen 2010; Gratia and De Herde 2004; Manz 2003).
As detailed in Sect. 2.2, IB can be completely automated and has a purely informative
system that suggests occupants the most “intelligent” actions to take or combine a
set of automatic actions and alerts. Regardless of the type of functioning of an EI, the
literature is consensual in stating that only true intelligence is achieved in buildings
when they respect the requirements of their occupants, using the least amount of
energy possible. In order for the requirements of the occupants to be respected, it is
first necessary to know them. The study of the occupant’s behaviour of residential
buildings is therefore considered as an area of great importance, and the results will
be the basis of possible modes of operation of an EI. It should be noted that there are
parameters that any IB must respect and that they are not a conscious necessity of the
occupants but are part of a set of requirements that contribute to the improvement of
their health (indoor air quality).
On the other hand, as reported in ZeroCarbonHub (2015) and Delzendeh et al.
(2017), there is a gap between the performance simulated in the design phase and the
post-occupation phase. This incongruence is due to different motifs, and two stages
can be identified that are at their origin (Fig. 2.2). There is a gap between what the
designers thought and what was actually constructed. This is due to several types
of conscious and unconscious changes to the initial project (Sinnott and Dyer 2011,
Calì et al. 2016b). Considering the conditions of the actual construction, there is still
another gap for the conditions of use, due, among others, to the impact of occupant
behaviour (Nguyen and Aiello 2013; Delzendeh et al. 2017).
2.3 Occupant Behaviour in Residential Buildings 15
Fig. 2.2 Gaps from the design phase to the post-occupation, adapted from Delzendeh et al. (2017)
produce non-negligible errors, which may be accurate or long lasting, but rarely
both at the same time. In this sense, most of the authors defined the existence of
monitoring campaigns as the most effective way of identifying the main actions
of the occupants, and the surveys can be used in coordination with the monitoring
system used (Jia et al. 2017).
• Laboratory studies—in the area of thermal comfort, this kind of studies has been
carried out in the past (Fanger 1970). Currently, its use is limited.
The measurement performed according to the first process is non-intrusive, allow-
ing monitoring of undistorted or conditioned behaviours. The rest may already suffer
some deviations from the natural behaviour of the occupants.
There have been several studies in the area of occupant behaviour based on mon-
itoring studies and surveys, and the following are the most relevant aspects of this
chapter.
The E3SoHo project (Messerve et al. 2010), which aimed to reduce the consump-
tion of social housing, summarizes the main sensors used in residential monitoring.
In the scope of the project, the sensors available in the market were evaluated and
some of its characteristics were analysed and compared:
• Temperature—different sensors were evaluated: thermocouples, resistive sensors
and thermistors. From this group, the resistive sensors were considered the most
adequate because they were the most stable, accurate and with good measurement
range, despite having a relatively high response time and the highest cost.
• Relative humidity—the resistive and capacitive sensors were analysed in detail.
The most suitable sensors are the capacitors because they have a wider measuring
range and a higher temperature range, but also have a lower response time and
better accuracy.
• Carbon dioxide concentration—can be based on the use of infrared light or elec-
trochemical sensors. Due to the difficult maintenance, electrochemical sensors are
not usually used.
• Lighting—there are two types, the photocell and the photodiode. The big difference
between them is that the former is more sensitive, but slower.
• Occupation—there are infrared, pressure, ultrasonic, cameras and other sensors
combined. The various sensors can be compared essentially to the ability to detect
movement, number of occupants, location of persons, detection of physical activity
and price. The sensors capable of responding to all previous requirements are
infrared cameras, video cameras and PIRs with 360° reading. Of these three types,
the 360° PIRs are those that present better price, being therefore the most advisable.
• Elements opening—three types were evaluated: the contact sensors (used to know
the opening state of the spans), the pressure sensors (used to detect openings of
gaps at a global level, but not at an individual level) and the reed switch sensors.
• Consumption—can be used per fraction and therefore be located in the counters
or the use of point sensors. In the case of point-of-use electricity sensors, they can
measure intensity and voltage. The most recommended water and gas sensors are
low-cost, low-maintenance ultrasonic flow metres.
18 2 State of the Art
The work carried out by the authors Ahmed et al. (2013) aimed at the recognition
and standardization of occupant actions in residential buildings. For this, two cameras
were used in each room, these being connected to a computer for data acquisition.
Through the local binary pattern (LBP) method, it is possible to recognize facets and
activities of building occupants through video images.
The study by Bao et al. (2011) aimed to increase the available knowledge about the
energy consumption of the occupants of the buildings in order to equal the balance
between required energy and generated energy. The study focused on the use that
the inhabitants give the equipment installed inside the dwellings. In this study, the
“on” and “off” states of each machine were recorded as well as the particularities of
the used operation program.
According to the authors project Barbato et al. (2009), temperature, lighting and
presence sensors were placed in each division. They used low-cost PIR sensors to
detect presence. Wirelessly connected sensors were generally used. Due to the fact
that each dwelling is relatively small, the ideal would have been to use only one net-
worked system. However, due to economic and commercial issues, heterogeneous
wireless networks were used and integrated into the information management pro-
gram.
The “CASAS-Sustain System” project (Chen et al. 2013) analysed two apartments
on the campus of the Washington State University campus. Several sensors were used
for monitoring. In order to evaluate the presence of the occupants, motion sensors
were placed on the ceilings, with the installation of seven motion sensors in a room
with a minimum of four. Temperature sensors, illuminance, hot water and cold water
metres were also installed such as oven detection sensors.
The work of the authors D’Oca et al. (2014b) monitored 15 dwellings in Copen-
hagen with natural ventilation. The values of indoor temperature, CO2 concentration
and illuminance of living rooms and bedrooms were recorded for each dwelling.
Regarding the external climate, outdoor temperature, relative humidity, global solar
radiation, wind speed and number of hours of sun per day were collected from the
closest meteorological stations. The opening or closing of the windows and the values
placed in the programming of the heating system were also registered.
The study developed by Kleiminger et al. (2014) used an algorithm based on the
occupants’ smartphones to build occupancy profiles. The purpose of the algorithm
was to infer when each user was at home. Thus, the algorithm calculates the occu-
pancy schedule of each user. To do this, the algorithm uses the Wi-fi visible access
point’s registers. Mobile phones have been programmed to cyclically scan the Wi-fi
networks visible as such in the vicinity of the user. The input data for the algorithm
consist of a list of these records, from which only the dates and the identifier (MAC
address) of the mobile devices are used by the algorithm. The data collection for the
development of occupancy profiles was developed over 18 months.
The study developed by Iwashita and Akasaka (1997) was based on questionnaires
to predict the operation of windows and doors and temperature conditioning equip-
ment as well as their presence in the dwellings. The ventilation of the spaces was
obtained by means of the tracer gas method and temperature and relative humidity
through sensors in eight fractions of a housing complex in Japan.
2.3 Occupant Behaviour in Residential Buildings 19
According to the study by Bonte et al. (2014), the occupants were monitored in
order to obtain eight different characteristics. There studied were the type of activity;
its duration; the day of week it occurs; if it occurs in a weekday or on weekend; the
time of the day; number of times each motion sensor is triggered during an activity;
number of motion sensors that are activated in all rooms; number of sensors that
were triggered.
Bekö et al. (2010) monitored 500 Danish rooms using temperature, relative humid-
ity and carbon dioxide sensors. Exterior weather data from a weather station within
20 km of the monitored dwellings were also used. The occupants were also requested
to complete an inquiry related to the windows and doors conditions of the monitored
rooms, as well as the night occupants of those rooms. Each house was monitored for
a minimum of 48 h.
Lu et al. (2010) used passive infrared (PIR) X10 wireless sensors, such as motion
sensors and the detection of sleeping occupants, and magnetic contact readers (reed
sensors) at the entrance door of the dwellings. The temperature and relative humidity
of the monitored spaces were also evaluated. The choice of these sensors to detect the
occupation of the occupants instead of others, such as the recording of the electrical
consumption of all divisions, the use of portable sensors in the occupants or the
use of video cameras, was taken for economic reasons and to avoid being intrusive
in the house. The cost of the sensors used was around $5 each. In the eight houses
monitored, a sensor was placed in each room, using a total of nine movement sensors
plus one door sensor at the entrance, for a total cost of about $50 per house. The
authors also say that the sensors used are very simple and therefore with less precision
and reliability compared to more evolved ones. Despite these limitations, the authors
considered that the sensors used were suitable for residential monitoring. In another
work by some of the same authors (Whitehouse et al. 2012), as a future challenge the
authors propose to improve the monitoring of occupancy by housing rooms, which
will serve as a basis for the objective of individual climatic zoning of housing.
According to the study developed by Möllers et al. (2014), wireless communica-
tion used in residential building monitoring systems is a potential source of insecurity
and privacy breach. According to the authors, many available systems provide little
or no security. In the two facilities that served as a case study, safety faults were
detected with the possibility of all the information collected by the installed sen-
sors to be accessible by third parties, among which the habits of the occupants and
their presence were highlighted. In general, systems without any type of encryption
provide a great deal of information to any experienced computer programmer. No
prior knowledge about the installation or victim is required to perform this type of
attack. The authors suggest that steps have to be taken to make these monitoring
systems safer. Although encryption schemes are available and can be easily applied,
it is considered that protection against traffic analysis attacks on wireless monitoring
systems has yet to be further developed. The authors consider that the generation of
fictitious traffic would be an effective and efficient way to increase the security of
these systems. In order not to decrease the battery of the sensors distributed through-
out the house, the authors suggest that the base station produces fictitious traffic since
it is usually connected to electricity.
Another random document with
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Mᵐᵉ Carmin retrouva la parole:
—Tu te trompes, Jacques. Ils ne porteront pas plainte...
Clémentine, restée à la porte avec sa figure bandée, hocha lentement la
tête. Il y eut un échange éloquent et rapide de tous les regards. Celui de
Laurent, pendant une seconde, jeta des éclairs. Tous avaient compris.
—Monsieur le curé, poursuit Mᵐᵉ de Bonnevie, veuillez me préciser
l’adresse de ces Pères Jésuites dont vous m’avez parlé. Vous, mes enfants,
vous pouvez vous retirer. Vous, Clémentine, dites à Maria de vous aider à
sortir du grenier la malle de Laurent et ma valise. Et toi, Laurent, déjeune.
Nous partirons par le train de quatre heures.
VII
Le premier soir que son frère vint s’installer au château, elle crut, en se
mettant à table, qu’elle allait pouvoir parler de l’enfant. Mais, dès les
premières paroles, l’oncle Jacques se répandit en propos pleins de colère,
puis la félicita, tout en se frottant les mains, de l’heureuse décision qu’elle
avait prise. Alors le silence, entre eux, tomba. Mᵐᵉ de Bonnevie n’osa pas
défendre son fils: le petit Benjamin Quesnot était très mal. Elle venait
même de faire, à l’autel de la Vierge, un vœu pour sa guérison.
Dès la seconde soirée, après dîner:
—Veux-tu que je te lise quelques pages de mes essais, Alice?... Ça te
changera les idées, et moi ça me fera plaisir.
Elle préférait encore cette corvée aux conversations pénibles. Elle
accepta. L’oncle Jacques, heureux de satisfaire sa passion, empressé,
candide, vint s’asseoir près d’elle qui cousait pour les pauvres, dans le petit
salon.
Il lisait. Il y avait de grands extraits traduits par lui des vieilles
chroniques italiennes. Il y avait des aperçus sur l’origine de la guerre des
Guelfes et des Gibelins, des tirades sur les Noirs et les Blancs, l’aristocratie
et le peuple. Il y avait des étymologies:
«Condottiere vient du latin conducere. Les condottieri étaient bien, en
effet, des conducteurs, des chefs de mercenaires, alliés tantôt à un parti,
tantôt à un autre, pourvu qu’ils eussent l’occasion de se battre, d’assouvir
des vengeances et de commettre des rapines de toutes sortes, sans scrupules
ni remords, n’obéissant qu’à leur violence, comme tous ceux de cette
époque ensanglantée...»
Il y avait des pages entières sur John Hawkwood, sur Raymond de
Cordoue...
Elle entendait, sans les écouter, passer ces noms. En quoi tout cela
pouvait lui importer? Que venaient faire, au milieu de son angoisse
maternelle, ces rengaines de vieux maniaque?
Absorbée sur sa couture, absente: «Laurent!... Laurent!...» se répétait-
elle. Et rien d’autre ne pouvait occuper son cerveau supplicié.
Le cinquième soir, l’oncle Jacques s’assit dans le fauteuil de tapisserie
avec plus de solennité que de coutume.
Sur un bout de la table à ouvrage, ses papiers étaient étalés, voisinant les
étoffes de sa sœur, les bobines, la corbeille, les petites boîtes, les ciseaux.
L’unique lampe qui les éclairait, basse, abattait sur leurs mains un rond de
lumière verte. Leurs têtes restaient dans l’ombre, et aussi tout le reste du
salon, avec ses meubles et ses bibelots jetant quelques lueurs. Et le silence
était immense autour d’eux, immense comme la campagne normande qui
les entourait, endormie. Les servantes étaient couchées. Rien ne semblait
vivre dans ce château trop grand, humide, où tant de pièces inutiles restaient
vides depuis des années.
—Ce soir, commença Jacques de Bonnevie, nous abordons le point
culminant de mon histoire, celui qui m’intéresse le plus. Je t’ai souvent dit
que je croyais avoir trouvé, dans mes documents, l’origine même de notre
nom...
Elle ne releva même pas sa tête lasse, courbée sur la couture.
—Oui... oui... dit-elle d’une voix morne.
Il y avait quinze ans qu’elle lui répondait cela sur le même ton: «Oui...
Oui...» C’est ce qu’on dit aux enfants godiches ou bien aux fous.
Et Jacques de Bonnevie, à la fois têtu, naïf et désolé, se mit à lire, tout
soupirant.
Puis, peu à peu, repris par son dada, la voix vibrante:
«Or, poursuivit-il, celui qu’on surnommait Carmine, parce qu’il avait été
d’abord moine au couvent des Carmes...»
Il s’interrompit, presque suppliant:
—Tu m’écoutes, Alice?...
A son tour, elle soupira:
—Mais oui, Jacques....
—C’est que... Tu vas voir! Un peu plus tard, il va être question aussi
d’un Buonavita, presque aussi fameux qu’Albéric de Barbiano, fondateur de
la Compagnie de Saint-Georges, et qu’Attalendo Sforza lui-même... Et... je
t’ai déjà dit, n’est-ce pas?... Oui, il y a longtemps que je te dis que, pour
moi, Carmine, l’ancien moine, et Buonavita, le condottiere, ne sont qu’un
seul et même personnage, notre ancêtre, le premier du nom...
Monotone répétition des mêmes mots entendus depuis quinze ans!
—Enfin!... pensa-t-elle, j’aime encore mieux ça que d’être toute seule
ici, que d’aller me coucher pour ne pas dormir...
Le ronron de la lecture avait repris. Mᵐᵉ Carmin tirait l’aiguille, puis
l’enfonçait de nouveau dans l’étoffe. Chaque point était comme un coup de
poignard dans son cœur. «Qu’est-ce qu’il fait en ce moment?... Il est dix
heures à peu près, il est couché, certainement. Est-ce qu’il dort? Peut-être
qu’il a les yeux ouverts, grands ouverts sur le dortoir, et qu’il souffre. Il doit
penser à son petit lit d’ici, son petit lit, là-haut, où je suis venue l’embrasser
pendant qu’il dormait... Pendant qu’il dormait....»
Elle serra ses lèvres, retenant des larmes. Ses mains tremblaient. Sa
couture allait tomber sur ses genoux. Elle fit un grand effort pour ne plus
penser, essaya d’écouter, tout en cousant, ce que lisait son frère.
... Et lorsqu’il fut entré à cheval dans la chapelle, il ordonna au
chapelain de lui verser dans le calice le vin qu’on réservait pour la messe,
et de lui donner à boire. Et il était si terrible que le chapelain eut peur et lui
donna ce qu’il demandait. Mais, tandis qu’il buvait: «J’en appelle à Dieu,
dit le prêtre, et lui demande de punir ton forfait!» Mais il ne le répéta pas
deux fois, car, ayant achevé de vider le calice, Carmine, s’en servant
comme d’une arme, en frappa la tête du chapelain, qui, le crâne brisé,
tomba sur les dalles. Et Carmine, mettant son cheval au galop, disparut
comme il était venu, sans se retourner pour regarder sa victime.
La couture, cette fois, était tombée sur les genoux. Mᵐᵉ Carmin, le cou
tendu, s’était tournée vers son frère. Comme il continuait à lire, le nez dans
ses pages:
—Veux-tu me recommencer ce passage, Jacques?... demanda-t-elle
d’une voix singulière.
De stupeur il faillit jeter ses papiers à terre. Elle l’écoutait donc? Elle
s’intéressait donc à sa lecture?
Il se mit à trembler, car sa joie était trop forte. Ses yeux myopes
cherchèrent sur les pages dérangées. Enfin, il trouva, recommença, d’une
voix qu’altérait son innocent triomphe:
... Et lorsqu’il fut entré à cheval dans la chapelle...
Penché tout contre ses pages, sous l’abat-jour vert, il ne sentait pas le
frisson qui passait, il ne voyait pas quels yeux étaient dardés sur lui, quel
visage pétrifié, visionnaire, se tendait vers le sien, dans l’ombre.
VIII
UNE LETTRE
MATER DOLOROSA
Superstitieuse, elle ne voulait plus, maintenant, que son frère lui fît la
lecture.
Jacques de Bonnevie n’insista point. Il était habitué depuis trop
longtemps à l’incrédulité des siens, à leur indifférence, à leur lassitude. Sans
comprendre, tristement, il referma ses livres, et n’en parla plus.
Les soirées s’écourtèrent. Dans la chambre qu’on lui avait donnée au
château, le rêveur s’enferma, travaillant tard dans la nuit, seul, comme
toujours, avec ses idées. Humble, il n’allait pas jusqu’à se croire un
incompris. Ses certitudes généalogiques n’étaient pas solides. Sans vouloir
se l’avouer à lui-même, il s’amusait plutôt avec des hypothèses, comme un
grand collégien studieux, peut-être aussi comme un poète. Il y mettait assez
d’excitation, néanmoins, et de curiosité, pour en faire le but de sa vie
effacée, inutile. C’était un vieil original qui ne croyait pas tout à fait à ses
théories, bien qu’il les mît consciencieusement en pratique. C’était un
illusionné volontaire qui se faisait éternuer trois fois par jour parce que cela
combat l’arthritisme, mais qui n’eût pas été très étonné de se réveiller un
matin avec des douleurs.
Cependant, Mᵐᵉ Carmin, peu à peu, s’apaisait. Le sentiment du devoir
accompli venait remplacer dans son esprit les fantasmagories du chagrin. Le
départ de Laurent pour la maison d’amélioration, somme toute, n’était
vraiment affreux que pour elle. Certes, son égoïsme maternel souffrait; mais
l’enfant, lui, s’habituerait, comme tous les enfants. Et, plus tard, il la
remercierait de ce qu’elle avait fait.
Un tel sacrifice de tendresse et aussi d’argent ne peut être qu’une bonne
action. Une chose qui coûte, à tous les points de vue, si cher, est une chose
louable.
Soutenue par de telles méditations, et aussi par les paroles de l’abbé
Lost, plus que jamais adonnée à la dévotion, elle arrivait, à force de
chapelets, de lectures édifiantes, de neuvaines et autres pratiques pieuses, à
passer, sans mourir de désespoir, les longs jours d’automne, qui conseillent
aux âmes de courir au désespoir.
Et les dépenses considérables qu’elle ne cessait de calculer l’engageant à
veiller plus que jamais sur son bien, elle employait le reste de ses loisirs à
vérifier les comptes de ses fermiers et à surveiller de plus près son
personnel. Le livre de cuisine lui prenait autant de temps qu’un rosaire. Elle
enfermait le sucre et comptait les bouts de bougie; même elle entrait à
l’improviste dans la serre pour prendre note des grappes de raisin qui
restaient, et pénétrait dans la remise pour mesurer l’avoine des chevaux.
Tous les huit jours, une brève lettre lui venait de l’institution, laboratoire
moral, où Laurent était en train de se transformer. Aucun détail, sinon sur sa
santé, qui restait bonne. «Quelle discipline!...» songeait-elle, en tâchant de
retenir un frisson. Et, de toutes ses forces, elle essayait de s’en féliciter, elle
essayait de ne pas trouver monstrueuse, sinistre, une telle réclusion.
Quand vint l’hiver avec ses brefs jours gris et ses longues nuits noires,
elle s’efforça de commencer à compter les jours.
«Au printemps, j’irai le voir!»
Jamais, à aucune époque de sa vie, elle n’avait attendu la fin des froids,
le tout premier tressaillement de mars, avec cet espoir, cet espoir presque
végétal. On lui avait promis qu’elle serait là pour la première communion
de son fils en mai...
Oh! longues heures dans le petit salon de tapisserie criarde, près d’un feu
avare, tandis que, derrière la vitre, grelotte sur fond blanchâtre le grand parc
transi! Oh! pluies fines dans l’ombre tombante de trois heures de l’après-
midi, neiges qui ne fondront jamais, branches mortes qui ne refleuriront
pas! Oh! vent glacé sous les portes, hurlement dans la cheminée, tandis que
les étroites épaules se voûtent sous le châle, et que, derrière le front penché
sur la couture, l’idée fixe est là, ramassée, entêtée, terrible!
LORENZO
Quand la voiture prit, dans la nuit, l’allée du parc menant au perron, Mᵐᵉ
Carmin réprima le nouveau sanglot qui travaillait sa poitrine. Rentrer seule
après avoir si bien cru ramener l’enfant!
En vain avait-elle été trouver les directeurs de l’institution.
«Encore dix-sept mois, Madame, ou bien le remède sera pire que le mal.
Nous calculons deux ans pour mater les plus difficiles. Et nous en avons
rarement vu de pires que votre fils. Nous ne vous mettrons pas au courant
de nos luttes. Vous savez assez de quoi il est capable. Mais depuis un mois
environ, il a pris une autre attitude. Voyant que rien ne le ferait renvoyer, il
s’est renfermé dans son orgueil, et, maintenant, il affecte la passivité. Nous
avions escompté cela. C’est ainsi que nous sommes arrivés à lui faire faire
sa première communion. Il fallait bien qu’il la fît, à la fin. Que son état de
grâce ait été sincère, c’est un secret entre Dieu et lui. Du moins a-t-il
accompli tout ce qui est nécessaire pour qu’il n’y ait pas sacrilège. Mais
Dieu saura, plus tard, prendre sa revanche. Laurent, présentement, met son
point d’honneur à ne motiver aucune des punitions dont il a goûté, qui l’ont
humilié, brisé, qui lui ont fait sentir qu’il était le plus faible. Votre enfant,
Madame, a une volonté de fer. Ayant compris qu’il serait toujours le vaincu
de ces joutes, il ne veut plus être ce vaincu. Nous n’avons rien à dire de sa
conduite actuelle. Mais nous savons fort bien qu’il joue la comédie, une
comédie qui lui coûte des efforts surhumains. Tant de puissance intérieure,
s’il l’employait au bien, en ferait un homme comme on n’en a pas vu
souvent. Mais quelle révolte derrière sa parfaite correction! Nous allons
vous en donner un exemple. Ayant constaté que le changement, opéré du
jour au lendemain comme par miracle, se maintenait sans aucun revirement,
nous avons pu croire que l’enfant s’était amendé dans son cœur. Nous avons
alors voulu faire sentir notre satisfaction par des récompenses. Nous avons
proposé, d’abord, une belle promenade dans la campagne. Pour ce garçon
pétulant qui, depuis six mois, vivait dans sa chambre ou plutôt sa cellule
quand il n’était pas au cachot, sans jamais sortir, sinon une heure le matin et
une heure le soir, seul avec un surveillant dans la cour que vous avez vue, il
semblait que notre proposition dût être aussi tentante que possible. Votre
fils, Madame, a eu la force de la refuser catégoriquement, du reste avec une
extrême politesse, selon sa manière nouvelle. Comprenant le sentiment de
rébellion presque satanique qui le guidait, nous avons tenté d’amollir son
cœur par des marques répétées de bienveillance. Nous l’avons fait venir
dans notre cabinet pour causer avec lui, nous avons été le voir dans sa
chambre, nous lui avons permis nos jardins, nous lui avons présenté des
garçons de son âge d’entre nos pupilles corrigés.
A toutes ces avances, il n’a répondu que par un silence littéralement de
glace, sans toutefois se départir de cette politesse vraiment effrayante chez
un garçonnet de son tempérament. Il y a plus, Madame. Nous savions, par
vos renseignements, que cet enfant avait un goût très vif pour le chant
liturgique. Nous lui avons proposé de chanter à la chapelle, lui offrant la
place prépondérante, celle qui devait le plus flatter sa vanité, son goût de
domination. Et il a refusé! Enfin, tout dernièrement, pour le tenter jusqu’au
bout, sonder à fond son cœur, pour voir si quelque émotion enfin, si quelque
attendrissement viendrait le tirer de son aridité, nous lui avons dit que, pour
reconnaître sa bonne tenue inespérée, nous ferions une infraction à notre
méthode, et le laisserions, après sa première communion, retourner pour un
mois chez lui. Or, Madame, c’est sa réponse qui nous a dicté la lettre que
vous avez reçue de nous, vous priant de ne pas signaler votre présence
avant la fin du premier office du matin; car alors seulement, quelque chose
de ses passions désormais si bien cachées s’est fait jour, et l’exaltation avec
laquelle il a refusé notre proposition nous a fait voir toute l’ampleur de son
ressentiment contre vous. Vous pleurez, Madame. Vous voyez bien que,
même si nous faisons l’erreur de vous rendre dès aujourd’hui votre fils,
c’est lui qui s’opposerait à ce retour prématuré. Laissez-nous-le, Madame.
Tous nos efforts, maintenant, vont tendre à nous rendre maîtres de son cœur.
Et si nous ne parvenons pas à vaincre cet orgueil dans lequel il se crispe, du
moins aurons-nous réussi dans la tâche de lui inculquer cette discipline dont
tout l’éloignait jusqu’à son entrée chez nous. D’autre part, il travaille, bien
que le cœur soit totalement absent de ces études, qu’il fait volontairement
en automate, sans y vouloir rien mettre de personnel. Mais ce qu’il apprend
par cœur, mécaniquement, il l’apprend quand même. Et si ses compositions
ne font que répéter mot à mot les lectures que nous lui faisons faire, il n’en
reste pas moins vrai, malgré la sourde et savante taquinerie qu’il y met, que
sa mémoire s’exerce, et que son esprit s’enrichit malgré lui. Qu’en feriez-