Intelligent Integrated Energy Systems:

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Peter Palensky
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Peter Palensky · Miloš Cvetković
Tamás Keviczky Editors

Intelligent
Integrated Energy
Systems
The PowerWeb Program at TU Delft
Intelligent Integrated Energy Systems
Peter Palensky Miloš Cvetković
•

Tamás Keviczky
Editors

Intelligent Integrated Energy

Systems
The PowerWeb Program at TU Delft

123
Editors
Peter Palensky Tamás Keviczky
Electrical Sustainable Energy (ESE) Delft Center for Systems and Control
Delft University of Technology (DCSC)
Delft, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands Delft University of Technology
Delft, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
Miloš Cvetković
Electrical Sustainable Energy (ESE)
Delft University of Technology
Delft, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands

ISBN 978-3-030-00056-1 ISBN 978-3-030-00057-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00057-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018953317

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface

PowerWeb is TU Delft’s consortium for interdisciplinary research on intelligent,

integrated energy systems. In operation since 2012, it acts as a host and information
platform for a growing number of projects and activities, ranging from single Ph.D.
student projects up to large integrated and international research programs.
PowerWeb acts in an interfaculty fashion and combines experts from electrical
engineering, computer science, mathematics, mechanical engineering, technology
and policy management, control engineering, civil engineering, architecture, aero-
space engineering, and industrial design. Many activities are organized with and for
students, such as lunch lectures of invited industrial speakers, or the annual
PowerWeb conference which features a large Ph.D. project poster session.
Within PowerWeb, project questions are typically associated to or sorted into
one of three problem domains:
• Grid technology: hardware, energy system, generation, transmission, distribu-
tion, use, conversion, pipes, storage, and more,
• Intelligence: for instance ICT, algorithms, data, operations, controls, manage-
ment, balancing, security and quality of supply, analytics, and planning,
• Society: socioeconomic mechanisms, users, environmental goals, institutions,
policies, markets, and so on.
PowerWeb is not limited to electricity. It bridges heat, gas, and other types of
energy with markets, industrial processes, transport, and the built environment.
PowerWeb serves as a singular entry point for industry to the University’s
knowledge. Via its Industry Advisory Board, a steady link to business owners,
manufacturers, and energy system operators is provided.
This book gives an overview on the theory of intelligent, integrated energy
systems, and reports on several PowerWeb projects and their role in markets and
institutions.
Part I covers a number of projects that were executed under the PowerWeb
umbrella during the recent years. They are featured with a short abstract and their
main publications for further details. Part II is devoted to the methods for analysis
of complex power systems, where advanced mathematics and measurement

v
vi Preface

techniques are used to tackle the complexity of future power grids. Simulation is the
focus of Part III, including fast numerical solvers and flexible co-simulation setups.
Managing flexibility and storage is covered in Part IV, both in the electric as well as
the thermal energy domain. The topic of vehicle-to-grid received a dedicated part in
Part V with a feature on fuel cell vehicles. Part VI, the last one, deals with planning
and scheduling under increased uncertainty, stemming from renewable generation.
The PowerWeb consortium will produce this kind of snapshot proceedings in a
periodic fashion. For immediate access to its resources, one may consult its web-
page http://www.powerweb.tudelft.nl.

Delft, The Netherlands Prof. Dr. Peter Palensky

June 2018 Chair of PowerWeb, and Head of Intelligent
Electrical Power Grids, TU Delft
Contents

Part I Vision and Projects

1 PowerWeb Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
PowerWeb Consortium

Part II Methods for Analysis of Future Power Grids

2 Topology-Driven Performance Analysis of Power Grids . . . . . . . . . 37
Hale Çetinay, Yakup Koç, Fernando A. Kuipers
and Piet Van Mieghem
3 Grid Awareness Under Normal Conditions
and Cyber-Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Matija Naglic, Arun Joseph, Kaikai Pan, Marjan Popov,
Mart van der Meijden and Peter Palensky

Part III Simulations of Future Power Systems

4 Globalized Newton–Krylov–Schwarz AC Load Flow
Methods for Future Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Domenico Lahaye and Kees Vuik
5 Co-simulation of Intelligent Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Claudio David López, Miloš Cvetković, Arjen van der Meer
and Peter Palensky

Part IV Coordination and Management of Storage

and Flexible Consumption
6 Fast Convergence in Electric Vehicle Smart Charging . . . . . . . . . . 123
Sergio Grammatico

vii
viii Contents

7 Distributed Stochastic Thermal Energy Management

in Smart Thermal Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Vahab Rostampour, Wicak Ananduta and Tamás Keviczky

Part V Vehicle to Grid Technologies and Institutional Arrangements

8 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle-to-Grid Feasibility: A Technical
Analysis of Aggregated Units Offering Frequency Reserves . . . . . . 167
C. B. Robledo, M. J. Poorte, H. H. M. Mathijssen,
R. A. C. van der Veen and A. J. M. van Wijk

Part VI Planning and Scheduling in Renewable-Enriched

Energy Grids
9 Multi-agent Planning Under Uncertainty for Capacity
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Frits de Nijs, Mathijs M. de Weerdt and Matthijs T. J. Spaan
10 Computationally Tractable Reserve Scheduling
for AC Power Systems with Wind Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Vahab Rostampour, Ole Ter Haar and Tamás Keviczky
 Part I
Vision and Projects
Chapter 1
PowerWeb Projects

PowerWeb Consortium

Abstract This chapter covers a number of projects that were executed under the
PowerWeb umbrella during the recent years.

1.1 Smart Urban Isle

Project Leader: Sabine Jansen

Urban areas are still far from energy neutral. Cities and metropolitan areas consume
energy in a number of different ways while producing high levels of CO2 emissions.
Such a large environmental footprint is unsustainable in the long run and solutions are
sought that increase local production of renewable energy, improve energy efficiency
and reduce CO2 emissions.
A smart urban isle (SUI) is an area around a bioclimatic building with a smart
energy network that creates synergy with other buildings and their energy networks
and makes use of the scale advantages for energy solutions. This project specifically
examines decentralized renewable energy generation in relation to storage and distri-
bution and electrical mobility, bioclimatological and responsive design of buildings
and energy management for controlling energy flows.
The solution is formed by three complementary and integrated energy focused
blocks: (1) bioclimatic design system, (2) management platform and (3) mini-
networks [1]. A bioclimatic design is achieved by an architectural design with maxi-
mum comfort inside the building at minimum energy cost. Since having a bioclimatic
public building is not sufficient for energy neutrality, a step forward is made by devel-
oping bioclimatic designs in urban areas (bioclimatic urban planning). The manage-
ment platform collects automatic active measures within the SUI and aims to control
and improve the energy efficiency and the energy flows. Finally, SUI mini-networks
facilitate the generation, storage and supply of energy within the SUI. Concepts for

PowerWeb Consortium (B)

Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
e-mail: P.Palensky@tudeft.nl
URL: http://www.powerweb.tudelft.nl

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

P. Palensky et al. (eds.), Intelligent Integrated Energy Systems,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00057-8_1
4 PowerWeb Consortium

flexible and smart networks integrate the energy demands, storage and renewable
energy production, both from buildings as well as from shared energy facilities in
the SUI. The aim is to locally balance the energy system as much as possible.

1.2 Optimizing Flexible Energy Use in Industry

Project Leader: Matthijs Spaan

A large portion of renewably generated power is intermittent, uncertain, and uncon-

trollable. Since a balance between consumption and generation is required at all
times, flexibility in electricity consumption is valuable in order to reduce the need
for controllable generation on standby (which is typically powered by fossil fuels).
A significant body of research has been developed, in addition to some pilot stud-
ies, to investigate flexibility of heating, cooling, and electrical vehicle charging in
households. However, industry in the Netherlands is using about three times more
energy than the residential sector while offering far more promising opportunities to
engage in providing flexibility.
The core of the problem to unleash the potential of energy flexibility in industry
is to optimize the daily operations at the technical and economic levels. For instance,
switching between energy carriers, using and sharing buffers for heat, steam, inter-
mediate products, and varying production can all be considered. In this project the
algorithmic techniques to support these decision problems under uncertainty are
developed, where the goal is to enable better utilization of existing infrastructure.
The stakeholders are operators and business analysts of large industrial plants, policy
makers, utility companies and port authorities.

1.3 Heat and Power Systems at Industrial Sites

and Harbors

Project Leaders: Han La Poutré, Peter Palensky

The energy systems are slowly transforming towards the goal of full sustainability.
Increasing penetration of renewables in our energy landscape, brings with it chal-
lenges such as system reliability in face of highly variable supply. To address such
challenges, synergies between energy domains need to be explored and exploited.
Among energy domains, heat and electricity sectors have high potential for innova-
tions, especially in times when the idea of electrification of heat sector is gaining
traction.
Important locations for the consumption and production of energy are industrial
sites (including harbors). In such locations, the different roles of electricity and heat
1 PowerWeb Projects 5

are recognized. Each actor in these environments is associated with higher intensity
of generation and consumption than in the domestic environments. Therefore it has
a higher impact on the intensity of the dynamics of the energy demand and supply.
While in domestic areas peak-shaving techniques is available (e.g. using incentive
mechanisms like dynamic pricing and by averaging over many actors), this only
holds true to a limited extent for industrial sites and harbors. Here, the actor size and
strict schedules of the industrial processes leave little room to adjust.
Despite this, optimizing energy flows to obtain even small efficiency gains still
imply significant savings in absolute terms. This makes industrial area an interesting
study case to analyse. This project aims at developing solutions for automated power
and heat management at industrial sites and harbors with a combination of multiple
actors, industrial processes, and external factors. The project is carried out by devel-
oping innovative models, simulation systems, agent-based market and coordination
mechanisms, and optimization techniques.

1.4 Dynamic Capacity Control and Balancing

in the Medium Voltage Grid

Project Leader: Mathijs de Weerdt

It is expected that the future will bring higher grid utilization and will put the electric-
ity grid under increased pressure. Increased deployment of large electric consumer
loads such as electric vehicles and electric heating and cooling systems threaten
to overload the distribution transformers beyond their rated values. In addition, the
volatility of the electricity supply is becoming more prominent due to distributed gen-
eration, namely consumer operated solar panels, industrially operated micro-CHP,
and medium-voltage wind turbines. Addressing these problems using traditional grid
reinforcement and back-up supply generators is considered too expensive and ineffi-
cient, and hence, the researchers in this project have looked into techniques to make
the electricity network intelligent and future-proof.
This research project aims to develop advanced algorithms for managing the
consumption of electricity within the available network capacity. The problem is
addressed using planning and control algorithms.
The most notable contribution of this project thus far has been a range of methods
to pro-actively control an aggregated fleet of Thermostatically Controlled Loads
to overcome temporary grid imbalance or overload [2]. The problem is posed as
a planning under uncertainty problem and the solution is sought using multi-agent
Markov decision process framework. Since the number of agents is large, the problem
is decomposed by decoupling the interactions through arbitrage. From evaluating
the adaptive decomposition on both large and small sets, it is found that the newly
developed methods are able to return near-optimal solution while remaining scalable.
These methods are explained in more detail in Chap. 9.
6 PowerWeb Consortium

1.5 Gaming Beyond the Copper Plate

Project Leader: Mathijs de Weerdt

The introduction of heat pumps and electric vehicles may lead to grid congestion,
especially during extreme weather conditions when heat pumps run at maximum
capacity. In addition, electricity prices will become more weather-dependent as the
share of renewable energy in the grid increases. On windy and sunny days when the
electricity is cheap, this also increases the danger of significant grid congestion at
the distribution level, because flexible loads will all aim to shift to the exact same
moment. Current regulations assume the network to be like a copper plate, obliging
network operators to facilitate any market transaction at any cost.
In this project, a novel approach to congestion management is proposed, which
significantly lowers the social costs when compared to the current solutions such as
reinforcing the infrastructure at every point of congestion. The approach relies on
a combination of algorithms that can efficiently schedule flexible loads of multiple
customers within the capacity constraints of the local energy networks, and new rules
for the use of the infrastructure under congestion.
Until now, this project has delivered a couple of major results. First, a method has
been developed to use information contained in past wind scenarios to plan loads
for upcoming time slots [3, 4]. Second, a new market design has been proposed
to allocate network capacity under uncertain conditions [5], and third, a robust and
stochastic optimization formulation for wind curtailment has been improved to allow
for faster computation and more reliable decisions on which power plants should be
running (unit commitment) [6].

1.6 Future-Proof Flexible Charging

Project leader: Mathijs de Weerdt

Electric vehicles (EVs) can significantly contribute to reducing air and noise pollution
in metropolitan regions. Charging EVs, however, can put significant strain on local
distribution grids. Fortunately, flexibility in the charging process can be exploited to
reduce this strain, or to help with balancing. However, optimising trading decisions
(in expectation) is a real challenge, because of the uncertainty in electricity prices
in the intra-day and balancing markets, whether provided reserve capacity will be
used, and the uncertainty in the behavior of the owners of EVs. Furthermore, the
complexity of the optimization problem increases significantly if physical limitations
of the distribution network also need to be taken into account. And what is the effect
of these advanced algorithms on congestion in distribution networks in practice?
In this project smart planning algorithms are developed to coordinate trading
flexible power consumption by EVs under such uncertain conditions, consider-
1 PowerWeb Projects 7

ing and comparing stochastic optimization as well as algorithms for sequential

decision-making under uncertainty that allow (i) scaling to many loads or gener-
ators while (ii) taking network congestion into account. Additionally, the effect of
a market for flexibility on the costs for distribution network companies is analyzed
through simulation.
We have provided a new stochastic optimization model to make optimal-
in-expectation bids for providing reserve power (R2) [7]. The unique contribution
is here that the bids include both price and quantity and consider also the prices in
the intraday and balancing market. Furthermore, we have shown under which condi-
tions adding a network constraint indeed increases the theoretical complexity of the
problem (making it NP-hard) [8]. In current work we are evaluating alternatives to a
market for flexibility, for example by introducing advanced tariffs.

1.7 Regional Energy Self-sufficiency

Project Leader: Kees Vuik

For the transition to a more sustainable and autonomous local energy supply system,
it is of utmost importance for the local communities to take an active role in the
energy supply using local energy sources like wind, solar and biomass. However,
due to intermittency and volatility of the wind and solar power, the sustainable
local energy supply is exposed to high fluctuations and uncertainty. To ensure high
reliability of the energy supply at minimal cost, various aspects such as increased
system integration, flexibility, local energy storage and retrieval, and multi-energy
systems are investigated and tested.
This project explores how an optimal local energy supply system can be designed
with minimal dependence on the national energy grid given the local infrastructure
of gas, power, heat and their typical local demand patterns. Alongside the technical
aspects of the problem, this research explores the question of adequate regulation
for these energy systems and the methods for their efficient operation. Hence, this
project aims to provide an optimal technical design along with an institutional design
of local energy systems including regulatory framework and governance.
To achieve the desired objective, models and methodologies have to be developed
along two directions. First, an optimal overall design of the energy supply system and
the corresponding required institutions is to be proposed. The proposed methodology
is based on distributed optimization that includes various investment decisions made
by different actors. Second, the advances are proposed in simulation and optimiza-
tion of gas, power and heat flow in their combined networks, for assessing solution
uncertainty, sensitivity, and reliability.
8 PowerWeb Consortium

1.8 Block Modeling Method

Project Leader: Domenico Lahaye

When a fault happens in an electricity grid, such as short circuit or a collapse of a

power grid tower, the voltages and currents in the power network change suddenly,
creating so-called transients in power systems. Existing algorithms require large
amounts of computational resources, which confines the state-of-the-art industry-
used solutions to small scale problems and limited topology considerations.
The aim of this project is to apply recent advances in computational methods for
numerical integration of differential equations to the problem of simulating transients
in power systems. The goal is to minimize and/or completely remove mathematical
operations which require large amount of instructions to complete, achieving high
performance as a result.
The main contribution of this project is a method for simulation of non-ideal
(lossy) switching in large power system networks [9]. The proposed block model-
ing method separates static from adjustable parts of the system Jacobian. The main
advantage of applying the block modeling method is that the computation of the ana-
lytical Jacobian matrix is possible and cheap for any number of arc models and very
large power networks. This method has shown significant reduction in computation
time when compared with the traditional approach.

1.9 Risk-Based Security Assessment

Project Leader: Domenico Lahaye

Secure grid operation in future electricity networks becomes increasingly complex

due to the adoption of new technologies, market deregulation and the gradual increase
in consumption. One of the main operational challenges is to improve the security
assessment process in order to cope with higher infeed of intermittent generation,
lower grid inertia, and novel consumption patterns.
This project studies the risk-based system security concepts in order to develop a
dedicated and innovative toolbox to support and improve operational security assess-
ment of transmission system operators.
A major result of this project, reported in [10, 11], is on the inclusion of uncertainty
in power system operational security assessment. The proposed model, based on
Monte-Carlo framework, captures the stochasticity of the system inputs using the
copula theory for the sampling of the system infeeds. Moreover, the model computes
the probability of cascading events, while pointing out necessary remedial actions
for ensuring security and the incurred associated amount of lost load. The results
show that applying simplifications such as assumptions of active-reactive power
independence or other approaches that rely on DC power flow approximations could
lead to an underestimation of the system risk.
1 PowerWeb Projects 9

1.10 DC Distribution Smart Grids (DCSMART)

Project Leader: Pavol Bauer

High penetration of distributed energy resources imparts complex behaviors such as

stochasticity into the electric power system, which is traditionally being operated
with alternating current (AC). Nowadays most devices operate with direct current
(DC) internally, and most distributed renewable resources generate power in DC.
Moreover, storage components as batteries and supercapacitors have a DC character.
DC distribution grids have the potential to facilitate smart grid applications in
a more straightforward way. With DC distribution grids, DC sources and DC loads
could be directly connected to a DC bus, eliminating DC/AC and AC/DC conversions.
The advantages of such an approach include reduced number of conversion steps
which lowers the conversion losses, and elimination of the technologies and markets
supporting frequency synchronization. This approach can be facilitated by power
electronic converters which provide improved flexibility to the system. In the DC
distribution systems the participation of power converter devices is more pronounced
than in the AC distribution systems. By deploying appropriate control logic at the
power converters, the implementation of ICT- based smart grid concepts, such as
active demand side management, can be simplified in the DC distribution grids.
DCSMART is an interdisciplinary project that aims at enabling a straightforward
integration of smart grid system technologies, creation of market opportunities and
stakeholders adoption through the development and implementation of DC distri-
bution smart grids. The DC distribution smart grids will be based on modular and
scalable concepts and will be validated in two demonstration sites, one in the Nether-
lands and one in Switzerland. Innovative smart markets and smart grid applications
such as active demand side management will be implemented.

1.11 Symphony - A Distributed Smart Grid Experiment

Platform

Project Leader: Frances Brazier

Integration of renewable energy resources, managing peak demands, increased secu-

rity and environmental concerns are some of the challenges that electricity networks
face in many countries over the world. To answer these challenges, the concept of
multi-agent systems that provide means for distributed monitoring, processing and
planning has gained momentum. For example, local software agents that act on behalf
of a customer in their best interest can be used to rearrange future energy consump-
tion according to pre-defined constraints. Testing of such agent-based solutions prior
to on-site deployment is still a challenge since current centralized simulation envi-
ronments may not capture all the aspects of distributed, large-scale, complex system
in which the agents are to operate.
10 PowerWeb Consortium

Symphony is a multi-agent distributed experiment and testing platform that

supports real-world smart grid experiments with the participation of both simulated
and real-world actors [12, 13]. The actors in different physical locations can safely
join the experiments while Symphony takes care of interconnection and security
concerns for them. The flexible infrastructure provided by Symphony connects par-
ticipants to distributed services. The participants can then use the platform to experi-
ment with pricing and load balancing for example. Symphony is being developed and
deployed in the context of two European Institutes for Innovation and Technology
projects across Europe: SES European Virtual Smart Grid Lab and Open SES.

1.12 CIVIS - Cities as Drivers of Social Change

Project Leader: Frances Brazier

By deploying distributed energy resources, citizens are no longer solely energy users
but also energy producers. Uncoordinated production of this energy at the community
level creates multitude opportunities for improvement and more efficient production,
distribution and consumption of energy.
The CIVIS project explores the potential of social networks and communities to
significantly reduce energy use and carbon emissions. The role of the project is to
enable the opportunities by developing business models for the resulting energy value
system and support it with the necessary ICT. More specifically, CIVIS implements a
distributed ICT system to (1) manage communities’ energy needs, (2) negotiate indi-
vidual and collective energy service agreements and contracts, (3) raise awareness
about the environmental impacts of collective energy use, and (4) allocate energy pro-
duction resources more efficiently. The project focuses on two pilot neighborhoods
located in Trento and Stockholm in close collaboration with energy companies, cit-
izen groups and local administrations.
The project has resulted in several important outcomes thus far. In [14] the role
of context in residential energy interventions is reviewed and analyzed. The catego-
rization of all major types of residential energy interventions is performed and used
to study their effectiveness in specific contexts: physical (environmental); socioeco-
nomic; cultural; and political and governmental contexts. The analysis resulted in
a framework for practitioners and researchers that explicitly includes context when
designing successful energy interventions.
This project also made significant contribution in the area of social networking
for sustainable energy world. In [15] it was shown that online social networks can be
used to form virtual energy communities with shared values such as sustainability
and social cohesion. Using an agent-based simulation model it was shown that a large
community with occasionally active members form a better predictor for successful
energy communities than a smaller community of very active users. This work was
extended in [16] by proposing an open source platform for community-oriented user
engagement. The community-oriented design is composed of parts that link energy
1 PowerWeb Projects 11

data to energy actions, provide comparisons at different levels, generate dynamic

time-of-use signals, offer energy conservation suggestions, and support social shar-
ing.

1.13 ADREM - Adaptive Clustering for Decentralized

Resilient Energy Management

Project Leaders: Frances Brazier, Han La Poutré

Distributed energy resources (DER) have seen high incline in deployment of the past
couple of decades. They are typically deployed as decentralized, with little or no
coordination with other DERs. Hence, addressing the system level objectives in a
coordinated fashion using DERs is still an open challenge.
This project focuses on the design of a framework for DER management based on
self-optimizing and self-healing clusters of consumers and producers. The participa-
tion of the producers and consumers in the clusters is arranged using the negotiated
service level agreements (SLA). Clusters are (approximately) autarkic and adaptive.
The system is setup in such manner that the cluster membership and SLAs can be
(re-)negotiated in response to changes in the environment, the overall energy market,
the (forecasted) availability of energy resources, but also participants’ forecasts of
their own needs and possibilities. This feature results in local, decentralised supply
and demand management based on SLAs, reducing complexity at scale while provid-
ing the basis for balancing of supply and demand using reconfiguration. In addition,
load shedding and system restoration/re-configuration schedules for times of critical
need can also be setup using this framework.
The first outcome of this project is a review of the multi-agent-based decentralized
energy management issues [17]. This paper also proposes a method for DER manage-
ment based on dynamic clustering of energy resources for more efficient balancing of
supply and demand using SLAs. An extension to this work is reported in [18]. In this
paper, static and dynamic virtual clusters are compared. Dynamic reconfiguration
is accomplished by changing the time periods of clustering duration. The proposed
clustering mechanisms show that decentralized operation of large-scale centralized
energy systems is possible if only local information is available.

1.14 Stable and Scalable Decentralized Power Balancing

using Adaptive Clustering

Project Leaders: Frances Brazier, Han La Poutré

The energy supply has traditionally followed the variations in the demand. In the
future, the demand will have to follow the supply. Having time varying prices is
one means to this end. In such approach, markets adapt to the change in operating
12 PowerWeb Consortium

conditions allowing flexibility on both demand and generation side. Implementing

such markets, however, has its challenges. An important challenge is that markets
are sometimes highly dynamic, exhibiting even disruptive and chaotic behavior. In
addition, the current centralized markets are not designed to adopt to unpredicted
events in the grid, such as equipment failures. These factors influence the stability
and predictability of the energy system and associated markets. Therefore, there is
a need for decentralized and scalable approaches to balance supply and demand of
energy.
This project focuses on the design of distributed coordination and market mech-
anisms for this purpose. Distributed dynamic clusters of synergetic consumers and
producers are in the center of the approach. The clusters are designed to coordinate
local load balancing for varying periods of time amongst consumers and producers.
These time periods are typically substantially longer than the periods considered in
the current markets. Local load balancing in clusters thus allows for novel, more
reliable solutions for global load balancing and can be used in conjunction with (cur-
rent or novel) external market mechanisms. In addition, the cluster configuration is
dynamic and capable of adapting to changing situations, including network failures.
The most recent results of this project are reported in [19, 20]. On a represen-
tative mixed residential and commercial neighborhood in Amsterdam the study of
storage coordination is performed. The influence of storage coordination and peak-
shaving operation on the neighborhood’s energy autonomy and on the peakiness of
the power exchanged with the main grid are addressed. Results show that, compared
to individual storage operation, coordinated storage operation increases renewable
energy utilization by 39% while decreasing the excess energy transferred to the grid
by almost threefold and increasing the neighborhood self-sufficiency by 21%. The
peak-shaving mode of operation reduces the highest power peak of the year by 55%.

1.15 Solar Powered Bidirectional EV Charger with Smart

Charging

Project Leader: Pavol Bauer

Electric vehicles (EV) are considered to be the future mode of transportation. The
key drivers for EVs are their higher efficiency and zero tail-pipe emissions. However,
EVs are only sustainable if the electricity used to charge them comes from renewable
sources and not from fossil fuel-based power plants. The goal of this project is to
“Develop a highly efficient, V2G-enabled smart charging system for electric vehicles
at workplaces, that is powered by solar energy”.
System Design - The system design of the solar EV charging station investigates
the best design for the PV system in order to meet the EV charging demands [21, 22].
In spite of the lower solar insolation in the Netherlands, an average of 30 kWh/day is
generated by a 10 kWp photovoltaic (PV) system. There is up to five times difference
in energy yield between summer and winter. The use of a local storage was found to
1 PowerWeb Projects 13

help in managing the diurnal solar variations but had a negligible effect in overcoming
seasonal solar variation.
Power Converter - In this project, a single integrated converter has been built that
charges the EV from PV on DC and requires only a single, common inverter for
both EV and PV [23]. The charger is bidirectional and can implement vehicle to grid
(V2G) where the EV can feed power back to the AC grid. The converter can realize
four power flows: PV → EV, EV → Grid, Grid → EV and PV → Grid. Interleaving,
silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs, SiC Schottky diodes and powdered alloy inductors
are used in the converter to achieve both high power density and high efficiency. The
EV charger is modularly designed and several 10 kW power modules can be operated
in parallel to scale up to higher powers of up to 100 kW easily.
Smart Charging Algorithms - Smart charging refers to the technique of controlling
the magnitude and direction of the EV charging power for different applications. In
this project, new charging algorithms are proposed that integrate several applications
together for charging the EV [24]: PV forecast, EV user preferences, multiplexing
of EVs, V2G demand, energy prices, regulation prices and distribution network
constraints. For two specific case studies simulated for Netherlands and Texas, the
proposed algorithms reduced the net costs in the range of 32–651% when compared
to uncontrolled and average rate charging, respectively.
EV-PV Charging Station - The developed EV-PV converter has a much higher
peak (95.2% for PV → EV, 95.4% for Grid → EV, 96.4% for PV → Grid) and partial-
load efficiency than existing solutions. The power density of the converter is 396W/l,
which is three times that of existing solutions based on Si IGBT technology. The
charger is compatible with the CHAdeMO and CCS EV standard. Successfully tests
have been carried out with a CHAdeMO compatible Nissan Leaf EV by charging it
from PV and feeding power back to the grid via V2G.

1.16 Integration Strategies of Plug-in Electric Vehicles

(PEVs): Participation in Ancillary Services

Project Leader: Pavol Bauer

PEVs have a great potential to provide different types of power system ancillary
services. The capability of storing energy over long periods of time and the fine-
grained instantaneous active power control of the fast-switching converters of PEVs
are two attractive features that enable PEVs to be engaged in ancillary services,
primary frequency control and voltage support just being some of them.
In the past, the frequency stability analysis of power systems with PEVs has
been typically analyzed in the transmission side following a major disturbance. This
approach leaves the distribution network neglected and the PEVs invisible to the
analysis. This project aims to incorporate the distribution network characteristics
including the PEVs behavior and capabilities in the studies of the grid frequency
stability.
14 PowerWeb Consortium

The major result of this research is reported in [25]. This reference proposes a
new model for PEVs based on the participation factor. The proposed model facilitates
inclusion of several PEV fleet characteristics such as the minimum desired state of
charge, drive train power limitations, constant current and constant voltage charging
mode specifications.

1.17 PMU Supported Frequency-Based Corrective Control

of Future Power Systems

Project Leader: Marjan Popov

It is anticipated that the increase in renewable generation will drive the power system
closer to its stability limits. Particularly, the replacement of conventional power plants
with distributed generation will reduce overall inertia of the power system. A power
system with small inertia will be more sensitive to disturbances, and if not controlled
properly, will be more prone to blackouts.
This project seeks to create a wide-area intelligent system that will improve grid
capability to deal with disturbances. The proposed intelligent system provides exten-
sive synchronized information in real-time by using PMU measurements. In addi-
tion, it quickly assess the system vulnerability and performs timely corrective control
actions. The particular focus of this project is on the design of a new closed-loop
corrective control scheme that can be used for elimination of system frequency insta-
bility, cascading outages and catastrophic blackouts in existing and future electricity
networks.
The main contribution of the project, as of today, has been a computationally
efficient and robust algorithm for synchronized measurement technology (SMT)
supported online disturbance detection [26]. The novel algorithm is based on the
robust median absolute deviation SMT dispersion measure to locate outlier dataset
samples. It can be utilized as a pre-step in alternating current (AC) and high voltage
direct current (HVDC) protection schemes. It has been shown that a single PMU
disturbance-affected measurement is sufficient for accurate detection. In addition,
the simulations performed on a personal computer (PC), show that the disturbance
detection algorithm is executed in average 0.11 ms per sample dataset window,
while the typical stationary wavelet transform disturbance detection technique used
for comparison requires 1.18 ms.

1.18 Car as Power Plant

Project Leaders: Zofia Lukszo, Ad van Wijk, Bart de Schutter

Energy and transport systems are more and more interwoven. Both sectors have
not only similar environmental goals but they do need each other to achieve these
1 PowerWeb Projects 15

goals. Electric vehicles (EVs), including plugin EVs and fuel-cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs), have a huge potential to play an important role in future energy systems.
They can be used, when parked, to discharge electricity to the grid. When aggregating
the power of a large number of vehicles, they can function as dispatchable power
plants. EVs can adapt their charging behaviour to the needs of the power system
operator. Similarly, they can act as storage, for example by charging their batteries
when there is a surplus of renewable energy.
In 2014 a project “Car as Power Plant” (CaPP) has been started at the Delft
University of Technology, where the fuel cell cars are proposed to be used as power
plants in a paradigm changing concept, defined by prof. Ad van Wijk [27]. Such fuel
cell cars have the potential to create an integrated, efficient, reliable, flexible, clean
and smart energy and transport system. The concept is that fuel cell cars do not only
contribute to a more efficient and cleaner transportation, but that when parked they
can produce electricity more efficiently than the present electricity system and with
useful ’waste’ products heat and fresh water.
In terms of technology, the energy production system can be envisaged as a fleet of
fuel cell vehicles, where cars while parked (over 90% of the time) can produce with
the fuel cell electricity, heat and fresh water, which will be feed into the respective
grids. From a social perspective the stakeholders directly and indirectly involved
in the design, building and operation of such a system, are car park operators, the
local power, heat and water distribution companies, gas suppliers, H2 producers, the
equipment, system and software manufacturers but also municipalities, regulators,
policy makers and not to forget the car owners/users.
The concept is based on the potential of using FCEVs to replace centralized power
plants, and this can be achieved in different ways [28]:
• Using several FCEVs to become part of an energy community system
• Using a parking garage to physically aggregate large numbers of FCEVs
• Using aggregated vehicles to act as back-up power in hospitals.
To facilitate the introduction of such innovative systems as the CaPP combining
technical, economic, operational, and social aspects is necessary to obtain a com-
plete understanding of the system. Oldenbroek et al. have shown that realizing a fully
renewable energy system based on the CaPP principle is realistic [29, 30]. Alavi et
al. have shown with optimal scheduling that it is possible to minimize the electricity
import from an external network in a microgrid [31]. Not only insights into the pos-
sible consequences of design choices and operational modes provided by advanced
modelling and optimisation techniques are important, but at the same time alternative
governance structures and institutional considerations, as described in [32], should
be taken into consideration, see Fig. 1.1.
To investigate the CaPP system a 100% renewable integrated energy and transport
system for a smart city area with 2000 households is described in [33] as an illustrative
case study. The operation of this smart city is based on wind, solar, hydrogen, and fuel
cell electric vehicles and is inspired by the city of Hamburg in Germany. In this case
hydrogen is produced within the urban areas from local surplus solar energy and from
shared large scale wind energy, and next hydrogen is transported via tube trailers from
16 PowerWeb Consortium

Fig. 1.1 Analysis

framework for the design of
the CaPP system

the urban areas to hydrogen fuelling stations, to other hydrogen hubs/consumers, or

to the large scale and shared underground seasonal hydrogen storage.
The whole system has the following major elements, see Fig. 1.2:
• Local Solar Electricity and Hydrogen Production
• Building Electricity Consumption and Smart Electric Grid Control
• Hydrogen Tube Trailer Transport
• Hydrogen Fuelling Stations
• Road Transport with a fleet of road transport FCEVs being passenger cars, vans,
buses, lorries and trucks
• Large-Scale and Shared Wind Hydrogen Production
• Large-Scale and Shared Seasonal Hydrogen Storage.
Using techno-economic analysis it is shown that such design is technically fea-
sible. To guarantee technical feasibility also the controllability of the system aimed
at maintaining the supply-demand balance as well as minimizing the operational
costs of the FCEVs is taken into consideration. It is also stressed that operation of
such an innovative concept should be accompanied by an institutional analysis and
designing an organizational system structure. To this end, the impact of regulations
and incentives on car drivers’ behaviour and CaPP microgrid performance is inves-
tigated by means of agent-based modelling. This included an analysis of how the
design of contracts between aggregators and drivers can stimulate drivers to make
their car available for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation.
In the transition toward sustainable energy systems, hydrogen may play broader
role than only being used as fuel for FCEVs. Hydrogen is clean and safe energy carrier
that can be used as a fuel in transportation and electricity production or in industry
as feedstock. When renewable electricity is used for hydrogen production we can
talk about solar (or green) hydrogen, which, moreover, produces zero emissions at
1 PowerWeb Projects 17

Fig. 1.2 The smart city area of the illustrative case study [33]

point of use. Hydrogen’s unique properties make it a potential enabler for the energy
transition as it can be used to [34]:
• Enable large-scale, efficient renewable energy integration
• Distribute energy across sectors and regions
• Act as a buffer to increase system resilience
• Decarbonize transport
• Decarbonize industry energy use
• Serve as feedstock using captured carbon
• Help decarbonize building heat and power.
Being convinced that hydrogen will play a key role in the energy transition coor-
dination and incentive policies are needed to encourage deployment of hydrogen
solutions and investments.

1.19 CaPP+: Modelling and Design of

“Car-as-Power-Plant” Systems in a Real-Life
Environment at Shell Technology Centre Amsterdam

Project Leaders: Zofia Lukszo, Ad van Wijk, Samira Farahani

Objective of this project is to model and design real-life systems for the ‘Car as
Power Plant’ (CaPP) concept. The challenging CaPP-concept, initiated by prof. Ad
18 PowerWeb Consortium

van Wijk, is researched at TU Delft through the URSES project Car as Power Plant to
investigate utilization of automotive fuel cell systems as stationary power production
units during non-driving hours (typically at home or in a car park during office hours).
When the car is parked, the fuel cell unit delivers power back to the grid, to balance
the electricity grid, decrease peak demands or serve as base load power generator.
It converts hydrogen (produced from renewable sources such as wind or solar) into
electricity. Hydrogen is used as a storage means to decouple (in time and distance)
renewable power supply and demand.
Using the fuel cell system of the car as power production unit has specific advan-
tages. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), with hydrogen as fuel, can be used to
support the operation of power systems with a large participation of RES (Renewable
Energy Sources) be offering the needed flexibility. Moreover, the fuel cell system can
be used more efficiently as a decentralized energy system (available precisely where
the power consumer is) without the need for extra space or systems, and without
centralized power production units. CaPP has the potential to replace electricity pro-
duction power plants worldwide, creating an integrated, efficient, reliable, flexible,
clean and smart energy and transport system.
We now extend this research with modelling and designing the system in real-life
environments, where a limited number of cars are operated as power production units
when the cars are parked. To this end, we will utilize a well-controlled environment
at Shell Technology Centre Amsterdam (STCA). Here, we focus on how to integrate
the CaPP-system into life buildings and the energy micro-grids of the STCA location.
For this purpose, we will study three scenarios: (1) all electric; (2) hydro-electric; (3)
combining scenario one and two. In the first two scenarios, we study extreme cases
of having connection to only the electricity grid (scenario I) and only the hydrogen
grid (scenario II); in the last scenario, we study the best combination of these two
scenarios, both from the energy efficiency and from the cost efficiency points of view.

1.20 Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage Smart Grids

(ATES-SG)

Project Leaders: Tamás Keviczky, Jan Kwakkel, Theo Olsthoorn

Approximately 2000 Aquifer Thermal Energy Systems (ATES) are installed all over
the Netherlands. It is expected that this number will increase to 20.000 within 10
years leading to a reduction of 11% in CO2 emissions, along with estimated savings
of 4 billion euros in the coming 30 years. The energy saving potential of ATES at a
global scale is even bigger. However, the current performance of ATES is still under
expectations and the projected efficiency remains yet to be reached.
The disappointing current contribution of ATES to energy efficiency is mainly due
to the present operation and regulation practices that cannot cope with uncertainties
in aquifer characteristics, insufficient interaction of neighboring systems, and vari-
ability in weather conditions. ATES interact via the groundwater aquifer in a way
1 PowerWeb Projects 19

comparable to how distributed sources and sinks of electricity are interacting via the
electricity grid. In ATES, however, the links are time-varying by nature and plagued
by uncertainty in connection due to the absence of models and lack of cooperation
with the nearby systems.
Distributed Model-based Predictive Controllers (D-MPC) promise significant
benefits in operation of ATES by ensuring near-optimal control policies in ATES
grids while enforcing critical operating constraints. However, stochastic uncertain-
ties with probabilistic time-varying constraints have never been incorporated in the
design of such a distributed control network. This research sets out to deliver a
proof-of-concept for the potential of D-MPC in the development of ATES systems
into ATES Smart Grids under uncertainty, as a part of the NWO-sponsored URSES
program.
The first results of this research are reported in [35, 36]. In these references,
we develop a novel large-scale stochastic hybrid dynamical model to predict the
dynamics of thermal energy imbalance in smart thermal grids consisting of building
climate comfort systems with hourly-based operation and ATES as a seasonal energy
storage system. We formulate a finite-horizon mixed-integer quadratic optimization
problem with multiple chance constraints at each sampling time, and develop a
computationally tractable framework to approximate its solution. The results show
efficient use of ATES and point towards a general trade-off between individual and
collective ATES performance.
In our most recent work, we provide a technique to decompose the large-scale
scenario program underlying the decision-making problem into distributed scenario
programs that exchange a certain number of scenarios with each other in order to
make local decisions. We show that such a decomposition technique can be applied to
large-scale linear systems with both private (local)and common uncertainty sources.
This yields a flexible and practical plug-and-play distributed scenario MPC frame-
work. These results are currently being applied in Amsterdam as part of a pilot
implementation project supported by the NWO URSES+ program.

1.21 Jouw Energie Moment

Project Leader: Charlotte Kobus

Demand response has been widely accepted as the means for obtaining greater energy
efficiency and adopting higher levels of renewable generation. However, a significant
practical challenge lies in engaging energy consumers to participate in providing
flexibility to the grid. The main aspect of this challenge is to bring the users to relate
to the energy needs of our society and to empower them to become proactive in
ensuring sustainable energy future.
In this project, we aim to understand whether and when residential consumers are
able and willing to change their electricity demand to match scarce supply conditions.
Specifically, we are interested in what design (e.g. interface design, smart appliances)
20 PowerWeb Consortium

can do to contribute to habit formation so that the behavioral changes will last over
time.
Thus far, the project has completed a qualitative study on a small set of households
who were asked to ‘wash when the sun is shining’ [37, 38]. The researchers are
currently analyzing the results of this field study amongst 250 households in Breda
and Zwolle, who received solar panels, an EMS, a dynamic pricing tariff, and a smart
washing machine to shift the electricity demand of their washing machine over time.
The point of interest is to understand if these households are changing electricity
demand to match supply conditions and why. In addition, the interaction of the
participants with the provided technology is observed so that new design guidelines
can be proposed to enhance this interaction.

1.22 Platform Wars for Socially Responsible Smart Grids

Project Leader: Geerten van de Kaa

Complex systems such as the smart grid are technically possible to realize but they
are not implemented on a large scale. One of the underlying reasons is that generally
accepted compatible interfaces (or standards) are lacking with which the components
of such systems can be interconnected. The problem is not that there are no interfaces.
In fact, there are many interfaces which are competing in ‘standards battles’. My
research focuses amongst others on factors that affect the outcome of standards
battles.
I have developed a framework consisting of 29 factors for standard dominance
which I have applied to various cases of standards battles for complex systems.
Factors include firm’s resources and strategies as well as a standard’s technical char-
acteristics such as the compatibility that it enables. Also, market mechanisms such
as network effects are taken into account. I have tested the completeness and rel-
evance of the framework and I have explored the extent to which weights can be
assigned to factors. It appears that the inter-organizational network of stakeholders
that are supporting the standard is essential for achieving success. In some papers I
have explored several elements of the inter-organizational network of stakeholders
on standard success.
To fully understand standards battles, a broader approach is needed than just
focusing on a firm in its economic environment. Functional and ethical consumer
values also need to be considered and may lead to increased standard acceptabil-
ity and thus to standard selection. This novel notion is and was explored in two
NWO-MVI projects and the Horizon2020 project IAMRRI.
1 PowerWeb Projects 21

1.23 Integrated Community Energy Systems (ICES)

Project Leader: Paulien Herder

The local energy landscape is radically transforming in front of our eyes. More
and more individuals and organizations that have historically been identified as con-
sumers of energy are becoming prosumers by generating their own electricity locally
thanks to the adoption of suitable policies at the national level, cost reduction of
renewables, and technology developments in ICT and energy domains. More energy
balancing options are feasible when the prosumers cooperate. However, increasing
distributed generation due to advent of renewable energy technologies as well as
increasing electricity demand due to electrification of new sectors (e.g. electric vehi-
cles, heat pumps) provide additional challenges to maintain integrity of the electricity
grid.
As a part of the solution, innovative ways for local matching of demand and
supply in the form of ICES are emerging in the energy systems. They refer to
multiple approaches for supplying local communities with required energy from
high-efficiency co-generation or tri-generation as well as from renewable energy
technologies coupled with innovative energy storage solutions including electric
vehicles and energy efficiency demand-side measures. Significant benefits associ-
ated with integrating these technologies among others flexibility and robustness could
assist further advancements in the smart grids.
This research aims at investigating the value of ICES and at providing the rec-
ommendations for institutional design to clearly define the role and responsibilities
of different actors involved as well as to institutionally embed these systems in the
existing energy systems. In [39] issues and trends shaping the ICES are reviewed.
In [40] a model-based framework is presented that assesses the value of ICES for
the local communities. A distributed energy resources-consumer adoption model
(DER-CAM) is used to assess the value of an ICES in the Netherlands.

1.24 Reliability Evaluation of Power Systems with

Integrated Large-Scale Offshore Wind Energy

Project Leaders: José Rueda Torres, Mart van der Meijden

In order to transport offshore wind energy to the main load centers in the Netherlands
and the other European countries, the Extra-High Voltage (EHV) transmission net-
work needs to be reinforced. Since the society prefers to apply underground cables
rather than overhead lines, EHV cable systems are currently installed in the Dutch
transmission network in the Randstad380 project. These new grid developments like
Extra-High Voltage (EHV) underground cable systems and networks for offshore
wind energy can significantly influence the reliability of the power system. It is
22 PowerWeb Consortium

therefore of interest to study the impact of these developments on the reliability of

the grid in order to secure the electricity supply in the future.
In this research, the reliability of the Dutch EHV transmission network is stud-
ied using an approach that can be applied to other systems as well. Probabilistic
approaches are compared with deterministic criteria in order to find the best method
to assess the reliability of transmission networks.
The results of the research are reported in several references. The tradeoff between
network redundancy and generation reserve for combined onshore-offshore trans-
mission networks is analyzed in [41]. In [42], an analysis of reliability of transmis-
sion links consisting of overhead lines and underground cables is investigated. The
tradeoff between net present value and reliability for offshore transmission links is
investigated in [43], while reliability of EHV and underground cables in the case of
the Netherlands is considered in [44]. The results of this research are published in a
Ph.D. dissertation [45].

1.25 PowerParking: Integration of Solar Photovoltaics

with Aggregated Electric Vehicles at Large Parking
Facilities

Project Leader: Ad van Wijk

For locations where large numbers of electric vehicles (EVs) are parked, many of
which need to be simultaneously charged, there can be both extremely high electric-
ity consumption as well as high peak demand. However, the large battery capacity
provided by the aggregation of these parked vehicles, if managed optimally, can also
be used for reducing the imbalance caused due to the intermittency and variability
of solar photovoltaics within the same microgrid.
Ideally, the energy management system designed for such a microgrid would
reduce the overall and peak energy demand from the vehicles, enable the increased
use of lower cost local photovoltaic (PV) energy and still deliver electricity to the
vehicles at an adequately high state of charge when they are needed by the user.
The PowerParking project aims to investigate the technical feasibility and poten-
tial business cases for such an integrated solar powered electric vehicle charging
system for large parking facilities. Systems for both long term parking, such as those
in airports, and workplace parking, such as those in employment centres, will be
analysed for suitable infrastructure and energy management. Given that EVs and
solar PV are both technologies that work with direct current (DC), this project aims
at enabling their integration through a DC microgrid. This will be done in order
to avoid unnecessary inversion-rectification electricity conversions and increase the
overall efficiency of energy flow within the system.
The PowerParking project involves cooperation between multiple industrial
partners together with local government, real estate developers and academia.
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