Handbook of Material Flow Analysis:

For Environmental, Resource, and

Waste Engineers, Second Edition Paul
H. Brunner
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-material-flow-analysis-for-environmental
-resource-and-waste-engineers-second-edition-paul-h-brunner/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Finite Element Analysis for Design Engineers Second

Edition Paul M. Kurowski

https://textbookfull.com/product/finite-element-analysis-for-
design-engineers-second-edition-paul-m-kurowski/

Environmental Materials and Waste Resource Recovery and

Pollution Prevention 1st Edition M.N.V Prasad

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-materials-and-
waste-resource-recovery-and-pollution-prevention-1st-edition-m-n-
v-prasad/

Multiphase Flow Handbook Second Edition Crowe

https://textbookfull.com/product/multiphase-flow-handbook-second-
edition-crowe/
Handbook of Linear Partial Differential Equations for
Engineers and Scientists Second Edition Andrei D.
Polyanin

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-linear-partial-
differential-equations-for-engineers-and-scientists-second-
edition-andrei-d-polyanin/

Computer Modeling Applications for Environmental

Engineers, Second Edition Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid
Ahmed

https://textbookfull.com/product/computer-modeling-applications-
for-environmental-engineers-second-edition-isam-mohammed-abdel-
magid-ahmed/

Environmental chemical analysis Second Edition Kebbekus

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-chemical-analysis-
second-edition-kebbekus/

Routledge Handbook of Global Environmental Politics 2nd

Edition Paul G Harris

https://textbookfull.com/product/routledge-handbook-of-global-
environmental-politics-2nd-edition-paul-g-harris/

Environmental Resource Management and the Nexus

Approach Managing Water Soil and Waste in the Context
of Global Change 1st Edition Hiroshan Hettiarachchi

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-resource-
management-and-the-nexus-approach-managing-water-soil-and-waste-
in-the-context-of-global-change-1st-edition-hiroshan-
 HANDBOOK OF
MATERIAL FLOW
ANALYSIS
For Environmental, Resource,
and Waste Engineers

Second Edition
 HANDBOOK OF
MATERIAL FLOW
ANALYSIS
For Environmental, Resource,
and Waste Engineers

Second Edition

Paul H. Brunner • Helmut Rechberger

MATLAB ® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant
the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB ® software or related
products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach
or particular use of the MATLAB ® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20161012

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-2134-9 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the
validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the
copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let
us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted,
or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, includ-
ing photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written
permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com
(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety
of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment
has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Brunner, Paul H., 1946- author. | Rechberger, Helmut, author.

Title: Handbook of material flow analysis : for environmental, resource, and
waste engineers / Paul H. Brunner and Helmut Rechberger.
Other titles: Practical handbook of material flow analysis
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017. | Revised
edition of: Practical handbook of material flow analysis. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016027254 | ISBN 9781498721349 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Materials management--Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Environmental engineering--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TS161 .B78 2017 | DDC 658.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016027254

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
To Sandra and Heidi
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition............................................................................. xiii

Preface to the First Edition....................................................................................xv
Authors................................................................................................................. xvii

1. Introduction......................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives and Scope.............................................................................1
1.2 What Are Material Flow Analysis and Substance Flow Analysis?....3
1.3 History of MFA.......................................................................................5
1.3.1 Santorio’s Analysis of the Human Metabolism....................6
1.3.2 Leontief’s Economic Input–Output Methodology...............9
1.3.3 Analysis of Urban Metabolism...............................................9
1.3.4 Regional Material Balances................................................... 11
1.3.5 Metabolism of the Anthroposphere..................................... 13
1.3.6 Recent Developments in the Field of MFA.......................... 15
1.4 Application of Material Flow Analysis............................................. 19
1.4.1 Environmental Management and Engineering..................22
1.4.2 Industrial Ecology................................................................... 23
1.4.3 Resource Management........................................................... 25
1.4.4 Waste Management................................................................ 28
1.4.5 Anthropogenic Metabolism..................................................30
1.4.5.1 Unprecedented Growth..........................................30
1.4.5.2 Anthropogenic Flows Surpass Geogenic Flows.... 33
1.4.5.3 Linear Urban Material Flows.................................34
1.4.5.4 Material Stocks Grow Fast..................................... 36
1.4.5.5 Consumption Emissions Surpass
Production Emissions............................................. 37
1.4.5.6 Changes in Amount and Composition
of Wastes................................................................... 40
1.4.6 Combination of MFA with Other Approaches................... 40
1.4.7 Policy Evaluations and Decisions.........................................43
1.5 Objectives of Material Flow Analysis............................................... 46

2. Methodology of Material Flow Analysis.................................................. 51

2.1 MFA Terms and Definitions............................................................... 51
2.1.1 Substance.................................................................................. 51
2.1.2 Good......................................................................................... 53
2.1.3 Material.................................................................................... 53
2.1.4 Process and Stock................................................................... 53
2.1.5 Flow and Flux.......................................................................... 56
2.1.6 Transfer Coefficient................................................................ 59

vii
viii Contents

2.1.7 System and System Boundaries............................................ 60

2.1.8 Activities.................................................................................. 62
2.1.8.1 To Nourish................................................................63
2.1.8.2 To Clean....................................................................63
2.1.8.3 To Reside and Work................................................63
2.1.8.4 To Transport and Communicate........................... 66
2.1.9 Anthroposphere and Metabolism........................................ 67
2.1.10 Material Flow Analysis.......................................................... 69
2.1.11 Materials Accounting............................................................. 70
2.2 MFA Procedures................................................................................... 73
2.2.1 Selection of Substances.......................................................... 74
2.2.2 System Definition in Space and Time.................................. 78
2.2.3 Identification of Relevant Flows, Stocks, and Processes..... 79
2.2.4 Determination of Mass Flows, Stocks,
and Concentrations.................................................................80
2.2.5 Assessment of Total Material Flows and Stocks................ 82
2.2.6 Calculation of Results: Static and Dynamic MFA..............84
2.2.7 Presentation of Results........................................................... 87
2.2.8 Materials Accounting............................................................. 89
2.2.8.1 Initial MFA............................................................... 89
2.2.8.2 Determination of Key Processes, Flows,
and Stocks................................................................90
2.2.8.3 Routine Assessment................................................ 91
2.3 Treatment of Data Uncertainties in MFA......................................... 94
Oliver Cencic
2.3.1 Data Collection........................................................................ 95
2.3.1.1 Direct Methods........................................................ 95
2.3.1.2 Indirect Methods................................................... 101
2.3.1.3 Combinations of Multiple Estimates.................. 103
2.3.2 Propagation of Uncertainties.............................................. 106
2.3.2.1 Gauss’s Law............................................................ 106
2.3.2.2 Monte Carlo Simulation....................................... 115
2.3.3 Data Reconciliation............................................................... 118
2.3.3.1 Introduction........................................................... 118
2.3.3.2 Mathematical Background................................... 126
2.3.3.3 Gross Error Detection........................................... 138
2.3.3.4 Nonnormally Distributed Data........................... 139
2.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis.............................................................. 141
2.3.5 Examples................................................................................ 145
2.4 MFA with Software STAN................................................................ 148
Oliver Cencic
2.4.1 Prerequisites for Using STAN............................................. 151
2.4.1.1 Registration............................................................ 152
2.4.1.2 Download the Freeware STAN........................... 152
Contents ix

2.4.1.3 Installation of STAN............................................. 152

2.4.1.4 Start STAN.............................................................. 153
2.4.2 Graphical User Interface...................................................... 153
2.4.3 Create a Graphical Model.................................................... 153
2.4.3.1 Graphical Aids....................................................... 155
2.4.3.2 Insert a Process...................................................... 155
2.4.3.3 Rename a Process/Flow....................................... 155
2.4.3.4 Change Process Type............................................ 156
2.4.3.5 Insert Internal Flow.............................................. 156
2.4.3.6 Change Flow Course............................................ 157
2.4.3.7 Insert Import or Export Flow.............................. 157
2.4.3.8 Edit Subsystem...................................................... 158
2.4.3.9 Insert/Refresh System Boundary....................... 159
2.4.3.10 Insert Text Field or Legend.................................. 159
2.4.3.11 Rename System...................................................... 160
2.4.3.12 Save the Model....................................................... 160
2.4.4 Enter Data.............................................................................. 160
2.4.4.1 Enter Flow Values and/or Concentrations........ 160
2.4.4.2 Enter Stock, Change in Stock
and/­or Concentration........................................... 162
2.4.4.3 Enter Transfer Coefficient.................................... 163
2.4.4.4 Enter Additional Linear Relation........................ 163
2.4.5 Perform Calculation............................................................. 164
2.4.6 Set Substance Layers............................................................ 167
2.4.6.1 Define Substances................................................. 167
2.4.6.2 Create New Layer.................................................. 168
2.4.6.3 Select Layer............................................................ 168
2.4.7 Set Periods.............................................................................. 170
2.4.7.1 Edit Period.............................................................. 170
2.4.7.2 Select Period........................................................... 171
2.4.8 Use of the Data Explorer...................................................... 171
2.4.8.1 Open Data Explorer.............................................. 172
2.4.8.2 Select Data Sets...................................................... 172
2.4.8.3 Copy STAN Data to Clipboard............................ 172
2.4.8.4 Insert Data from Clipboard into STAN Data
Table........................................................................ 172
2.4.8.5 Group Data Sets..................................................... 173
2.4.8.6 Sort Data Sets......................................................... 173
2.4.8.7 Import Data from Excel........................................ 174
2.5 Evaluation Methods for MFA Results............................................. 176
2.5.1 Introduction........................................................................... 176
2.5.2 Material Intensity per Service Unit.................................... 178
2.5.3 Sustainable Process Index................................................... 180
2.5.4 Life-Cycle Assessment......................................................... 183
2.5.5 Swiss Ecopoints..................................................................... 184
x Contents

2.5.6 Exergy..................................................................................... 185

2.5.7 Cost–Benefit Analysis........................................................... 189
2.5.8 Anthropogenic versus Geogenic Flows............................. 191
2.5.9 Statistical Entropy Analysis................................................ 194
2.5.9.1 Background............................................................ 194
2.5.9.2 Information Theory.............................................. 197
2.5.9.3 Transformation of Statistical Entropy
Function.................................................................. 198
2.5.9.4 SEA Applications in MFA.................................... 205

3. Case Studies.................................................................................................. 207

3.1 Environmental Management........................................................... 208
3.1.1 Case Study 1: Regional Lead Pollution.............................. 209
3.1.1.1 Procedures.............................................................. 210
3.1.1.2 Results.....................................................................222
3.1.1.3 Basic Data for Calculation of Lead Flows
and Stocks.............................................................. 226
3.1.2 Case Study 2: Regional Phosphorous Management........ 226
3.1.2.1 Procedures.............................................................. 227
3.1.2.2 Results.....................................................................234
3.1.3 Case Study 3: Nutrient Pollution in Large Watersheds..... 236
3.1.3.1 Procedures.............................................................. 237
3.1.3.2 Results..................................................................... 239
3.1.4 Case Study 4: Support Tool for EISs................................... 243
3.1.4.1 Description of the Power Plant and Its
Periphery................................................................ 245
3.1.4.2 System Definition.................................................. 246
3.1.4.3 Results of Mass Flows and Substance
Balances.................................................................. 247
3.1.4.4 Definition of Regions of Impact.......................... 250
3.1.4.5 Comprehensive Regional Significance............... 253
3.1.4.6 Conclusions............................................................ 256
3.2 Resource Conservation..................................................................... 259
3.2.1 Case Study 5: Nutrient Management................................. 259
3.2.1.1 Procedures.............................................................. 260
3.2.1.2 Results..................................................................... 261
3.2.2 Case Study 6: Copper Management................................... 263
3.2.2.1 Procedures.............................................................. 265
3.2.2.2 Results..................................................................... 272
3.2.2.3 Conclusions............................................................ 278
3.2.3 Case Study 7: Construction Waste Management............. 278
3.2.3.1 The “Hole” Problem.............................................. 279
3.2.3.2 MFA for Comparing Separation Technologies.... 282
Contents xi

3.2.3.3 Procedures.............................................................. 283

3.2.3.4 Results..................................................................... 285
3.2.3.5 Conclusions............................................................ 292
3.2.4 Case Study 8: Plastic Waste Management......................... 295
3.2.4.1 Plastic as Significant Fraction of MSW............... 295
3.2.4.2 Plastic Management from a Holistic View
Point........................................................................ 297
3.2.5 Case Study 9: Aluminum Management............................ 299
3.2.5.1 Static Al Balance.................................................... 299
3.2.5.2 Dynamic Al Flow Model...................................... 301
3.2.5.3 Potential of Anthropogenic Stock to Satisfy
Demand.................................................................. 303
3.3 Waste Management............................................................................ 307
3.3.1 Use of MFA for Waste Analysis..........................................309
3.3.1.1 Direct Analysis...................................................... 311
3.3.1.2 Indirect Analysis: Case Studies 11 and 12......... 313
3.3.2 MFA to Support Decisions in Waste Management.......... 321
3.3.2.1 Case Study 12: ASTRA......................................... 321
3.3.2.2 Case Study 13: PRIZMA....................................... 331
3.3.2.3 Case Study 14: Recycling of Cadmium
by WTE...................................................................340
3.3.2.4 Case Study 15: Cycles and Sinks—The Case
of PBDEs.................................................................343
3.4 Industrial Applications..................................................................... 359
3.4.1 Case Study 16: MFA as a Tool to Optimize
Manufacturing...................................................................... 361
3.4.1.1 Objectives............................................................... 361
3.4.1.2 Procedures.............................................................. 362
3.4.1.3 Results..................................................................... 365
3.4.1.4 Conclusions............................................................ 371
3.5 Regional Materials Management..................................................... 375
3.5.1 Case Study 17: Regional Lead Management..................... 376
3.5.1.1 Overall Flows and Stocks..................................... 376
3.5.1.2 Lead Stock and Implications............................... 377
3.5.1.3 Lead Flows and Implications............................... 377
3.5.1.4 Regional Lead Management................................ 378
3.5.2 Case Study 18: Accounting of Phosphorus as a Tool
for Decision Making............................................................. 380

4. Outlook: Where to Go?............................................................................... 389

4.1 Vision of MFA..................................................................................... 389
4.2 Standardization.................................................................................. 392
4.3 MFA and Legislation......................................................................... 393
xii Contents

4.4 Industrial Ecology and Metabolism of the Anthroposphere...... 395

4.4.1 MFA and IE............................................................................ 396
4.4.2 MFA as a Tool for the Design of Products
and Processes........................................................................ 397
4.4.3 MFA as a Tool to Design Systems....................................... 397
4.4.4 MFA as a Tool to Design the Anthropogenic
Metabolism............................................................................ 398

References............................................................................................................ 401
Index......................................................................................................................425
Preface to the Second Edition

A dozen years after the first edition was put on the market, the question of
whether a second edition of the Handbook of Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is
justified seems appropriate. From a pure numerical standpoint, the increase
from a few hundred papers per year in 1975 to more than 5000 publica­
tions in 2015 proves that MFA is of growing interest to a rising number of
researchers, readers, and writers. And from a content point of view, the
range of important fields where MFA is applied and further developed is
still expanding. More recently, MFA methodology has been extended and
refined, particularly with respect to including dynamic MFA, uncertainty
considerations, and supporting software. Hence, we hope that this second
edition serves an even larger readership of engineers and natural scientists
than the first one.
Originally, MFA was developed to describe and analyze single processes,
e.g., in chemical production or in waste management. However, during the
last two decades, there was rapid progress toward assessment of complex
systems such as regional material balances, substance flows through large
watersheds, and material flows and stocks in national and global economies.
Today, the greatest challenge is to analyze the entire interaction of anthro­
pogenic and natural systems, covering several scales and comprising many
subsystems. Thus, MFA has become one of the core methodologies of sci­
entific fields such as industrial ecology, resource management, and waste
management. The second edition of the handbook takes into account all
these new developments. In particular, newly added citations point to recent
and relevant literature, additional case studies demonstrate the potential of
MFA to solve industrial ecology challenges, and the new chapter on STAN
software allows a uniform, standardized approach to establishing MFA.
Compared to the first edition, the discussion of a few methods that are usu­
ally subsumed under MFA methodology such as materials accounting and
input–output analysis has not been expanded. The reason is that, first, the
MFA field, as mentioned previously, expanded rapidly, making it impossi­
ble to include all developments comprehensively in one handbook. Second,
there are excellent books that cover materials accounting and input–output
analysis that we recommend in the corresponding chapters. And third, the
particular feature of this book is to combine the levels of material flow and
substance flow analysis, to include uncertainties, and to present powerful
software that is capable of combining goods, substances, and energy. In addi­
tion, we provide electronic materials to support readers, such as the home­
page of the handbook containing the solutions to the problems at http://
www​.MFA-handbook.info and the STAN website that comprises additional
case studies (http://www.stan2web.net/).

xiii
xiv Preface to the Second Edition

In spite of these changes, the book is still written for a general audience,
guiding inexperienced as well as experienced engineers and scientists toward
mastering the fine art of MFA from the very beginning to an advanced state
of material balances of complex systems. The main purpose of the book is
unchanged: to offer and promote a transparent and reproducible methodol­
ogy as a basis for analysis, assessment, and improvement of anthropogenic
systems. We hope that the methodology presented here will be widely applied,
generating new knowledge, understanding, and data that can be used by the
growing MFA community. After all, the task ahead of us, to utilize materi­
als in a way that neither jeopardizes future generations nor puts at risk the
environment and the availability of resources, requires a huge global effort.
We are particularly grateful for the support of our colleagues from
Technische Universität Wien who dedicated their time and enthusiasm to
the handbook: Oliver Cencic authored Sections 2.3 and 2.4, and David Laner
contributed substantially to Chapters 2 and 3. The valuable backing of
Rudolf Frühwirt in the statistical part of Chapter 2 is also acknowledged. We
are thankful for contributions to the case studies by Dana Vyzinkarova. We
appreciate the work on tables, graphs, bibliography, and copyright by Inge
Hengl and Maria Gunesch. The initiative for this second edition came from
Taylor & Francis senior editor Irma Shagla Britton, and we acknowledge her
great support.

Paul H. Brunner and Helmut Rechberger

Andermatt and Vienna

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Preface to the First Edition

About 40 years ago, Abel Wolman coined the term “metabolism of cities” in
an article for the Scientific American. His pioneering view of a city as a liv-
ing organism with inputs, stocks, and outputs of materials and energy has
since inspired many others. Today, studies describing metabolic processes of
companies, regions, cities, and nations are becoming more abundant. While
the phenomenology of the anthroposphere is described in books and papers,
the methodology lags behind. It is the purpose of this handbook to contrib-
ute to the establishment and dissemination of a rigid, transparent, and use-
ful methodology to investigate the material metabolism of anthropogenic
systems.
Both authors have been using and developing material flow analysis (MFA)
for many years. We experienced the great value of this method in various
fields such as environmental management, resources management, waste
management, and water quality management. And we decided to fill the
gap and to produce a book to share our experience with engineering stu-
dents, professionals, and a wider audience. The aim is to promote MFA and
to facilitate the use of MFA in a uniform way so that future engineers have
a common method in their toolbox for solving resource-oriented problems.
The hidden agenda behind the handbook comprises two objectives:
resource conservation and environmental protection, or “sustainable materi-
als management.” We believe that man-made activities should not destroy
or damage natural resources and systems. Future generations must be able
to enjoy resources and the environment as we do. We also believe that this
goal can be achieved if technology and social sciences are developed further.
The case studies presented in this book exemplify the potential of MFA to
contribute to sustainable materials management.
This is a handbook. It is directed toward the practitioner. The 14 case stud-
ies demonstrate how to apply MFA in practice. The “Problems” sections
following each chapter serve to exercise and deepen comprehension and
expertise. The tool MFA is not perfect yet: it is still subject to further refine-
ment. If the reader finds the handbook useful for better understanding and
for designing anthropogenic systems, we have accomplished our goals. Since
this book is not the endpoint yet, we appreciate any comments and sugges-
tions you may have. We hope that the handbook encourages application of
and discussion about MFA, and we are looking forward to your comments
on the website http://iwr.tuwien.ac.at/ressourcen/mfa-handbook/home.
You will also find the solutions to the problems on this site.
We are grateful to Oliver Cencic, who wrote Sections 2.3 and 2.4 about data
uncertainty and MFA software. The support of the members of the Waste
and Resources Management Group at the Vienna University of Technology

xv
xvi Preface to the First Edition

in editing the final manuscript is greatly acknowledged. Demet Seyhan

was instrumental in preparing the case studies on phosphorous. Bob Ayres
and Michael Ritthoff supplied important comments on Section 2.5. We are
indebted to Inge Hengl, who did all the artwork and managed the genesis
and finalization of the manuscript in an excellent way. Helmut Rechberger
thanks Peter Baccini for conceding the time to contribute to this handbook.
Finally, we are particularly grateful for critical reviews by Bob Dean, Ulrik
Lohm, Stephen Moore, and Jakov Vaisman, who evaluated a first draft of this
handbook.

Paul H. Brunner and Helmut Rechberger

Vienna
Authors

Paul H. Brunner, recognized for his groundbreaking research work in

the fields of waste and resource management, is professor emeritus at
the Technische Universität Wien in Vienna, Austria. Together with Peter
Baccini from ETH Zurich, he published the landmark book Metabolism of
the Anthroposphere, presenting a new view of the interactions among human
activities, resources, and the environment. His work focuses on advanced
methods for waste treatment and on concepts to assess, evaluate, and design
metabolic systems. For more than 40 years, Dr. Brunner has been engaged
in research and teaching in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. As a mem-
ber of many boards of journals and conferences, he successfully promoted
the application of material flow analysis for improving decision making in
resource and waste management.

Helmut Rechberger has been a professor for resource management since

2003 and heads the Research Center of Waste and Resource Management
at Technische Universität Wien. He received his professional education in
Vienna with Paul H. Brunner, at ETH Zurich with Peter Baccini, and at Yale
with Tom Graedel. Since then, he has been engaged in research and teaching
and has become internationally acknowledged for his research work in the
fields of resource and waste management. Under his lead, the material flow
analysis (MFA) software STAN has been developed. His current research
interests are focused on the further development of methods to advance sus-
tainable regional and urban resource management.

xvii
1
Introduction

1.1 Objectives and Scope

The meeting was long and intense. After all, more than $50 million had been
invested in this waste treatment plant, and still, the objective of the treat-
ment, namely, to produce recycling materials with a certain quality, could
not be reached. Engineers, plant operators, waste management experts,
financiers, and representatives from government were discussing means to
improve the plant to reach the goals set. A chemical engineer took a piece
of paper and asked about the content of mercury, cadmium, polybromi-
nated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and some other hazardous substances in the
incoming waste. The waste experts had no problem indicating a range of
concentrations. The engineer then asked about the existing standards for the
products, namely, cellulose fibers, plastic fraction, and compost. Again, he
got the information needed. After a few calculations, he said, “If the plant is
to produce a significant amount of recycling material at the desired specifica-
tions, it must be able to divert more than 80% of the hazardous substances
from the waste received to the fraction that is incinerated. Does anybody
know of a mechanical treatment process capable of such partitioning?” Since
none of the experts present was aware of a technology to solve the problem
at affordable costs, the financiers and government representatives started to
question why such an expensive and state-of-the-art plant could not reach
the objective. It was the old mayor of the local community, who experienced
most problems with the plant because of citizens complaining about odors
and product quality, who said, “It seems obvious: garbage in, garbage out;
what else can you expect?”
The purpose of this book is to prevent such debacles. The methods pre-
sented here enable the reader to design processes and systems in view of
careful resource management. Resources in this context stands for materi-
als, energy, the environment, and wastes. Emphasis is laid on the link-
age between sources, pathways, and sinks of materials, observing the law
of conservation of matter. The book is a practical handbook; it is directed
toward the practitioner. Hence, many case studies, examples, and problems
are included. If the readers take advantage of these means for exercise, they

1
2 Handbook of Material Flow Analysis

will soon become well acquainted with the techniques needed for successful
application of material flow analysis (MFA).
In addition to serving as a practical handbook, this volume also contains
directions for those readers who are looking for sustainable resource man-
agement. The authors share the opinion that economic and technologi-
cal progress will be most beneficial to mankind if long-term protection of
the environment is assured, and if resources are used in a careful, little­-
dissipative way. In this book, we give evidence that current management
of the anthroposphere may result in serious long-term burdens and that
changes are needed to improve opportunities of today’s and future genera-
tions. Such changes are already taking place, they are feasible, and they will
eventually improve the quality of life. The authors are convinced that if deci-
sions for changes are based, among others, on MFA, they will yield better
results. They see the need for balance not only for technical systems but also
for social and economic systems. However, this book has been written for a
technical readership. Since the authors are engineers and chemists, social
and economic science issues are sometimes mentioned in this volume but
are never discussed to the necessary depth.
This book is directed toward engineers in the fields of resource manage-
ment, environmental management, and waste management. Professionals
active in the design of new goods, processes and systems will profit from
MFA-based approaches because they facilitate incorporating environmen-
tal and resource consideration into the design process. The potential audi-
ence comprises private companies and consulting engineers operating in the
aforementioned fields, government authorities, and educational institutions
at the graduate and postgraduate level. In particular, the book is designed
as a textbook for engineering students who are looking for a comprehensive
and in-depth education in the field of MFA. It is strongly recommended to
focus on the case studies and problems: they show best how MFA is applied
in practice and how to interpret and use the results. At the end of each chap-
ter, a problem section allows readers to exercise the newly acquired knowl-
edge, to learn application of MFA, to gain experience, and to check one’s
ability to solve MFA problems.
The book is structured into four chapters: In the introductory chapter, a
short overview of MFA is given in order to facilitate understanding of the
main body of this chapter, the history, objectives, and application range of
MFA. From a methodological point of view, Chapter 2 is the most impor-
tant: it explains comprehensively the terms, definitions, and procedures of
MFA, and discusses the software STAN best suited for MFA. Case studies
are given in Chapter 3. They are essential in enabling the reader to expe-
rience the application range of MFA (STAN, 2016; Cencic, Rechberger, and
Kovacs, 2006). The case studies make clear that the concept of MFA goes
beyond simple input and output balances of single processes, and that ana-
lyzing flows and stocks of a complex real-world system is a challenging and
often interdisciplinary task. The book ends in Chapter 4 with an outlook to
Introduction 3

potential future developments. Literature references are given at the end of

the book. Problem sections accompany subchapters where appropriate.

1.2 What Are Material Flow Analysis

and Substance Flow Analysis?
Material flow analysis (MFA), sometimes referred to as substance flow analy-
sis (SFA) if a specific substance is the focus, is a systematic assessment of the
state and changes of flows and stocks of materials within a system defined in
space and time. MFA connects the sources, the pathways, and the intermedi-
ate and final sinks of a material. Because of the law of conservation of matter,
the results of an MFA can be controlled by a simple mass balance comparing
all inputs, stocks, and outputs of a process. It is this distinct characteristic of
MFA that makes the method attractive as a decision-support tool in resource
management, waste management, environmental management, and policy
assessment.
An MFA delivers a complete and consistent set of information about all flows
and stocks of a particular material over time within a spatially defined system.
Through balancing inputs and outputs, the flows of wastes and environmental
loadings become visible, and their sources can be identified. The depletion
or accumulation of material stocks is recognized early enough, either to take
countermeasures or to promote further buildup and future utilization (such as
for urban mining). Moreover, if MFAs are performed for longer time periods,
minor changes that are too small to be measured in short time scales but that
could slowly lead to long-term damage also become evident.
Anthropogenic systems consist of more than material flows and stocks
(Figure 1.1). Energy, space, information, and socioeconomic issues must also
be included if the anthroposphere is to be managed in a responsible way.
MFA can be performed without considering these aspects, but in most cases,

M, E, LO, I
Anthroposphere Environment
driven by man driven by nature

FIGURE 1.1
The two systems anthroposphere and environment exchange flows of materials (M), energy (E),
living organisms (LO), and information (I).
4 Handbook of Material Flow Analysis

these other factors are needed to interpret and make use of the MFA results.
Thus, MFA is frequently coupled with the analysis of energy, economy, urban
planning, and the like.
A common language is needed for the investigation into anthropogenic
systems. Such commonality facilitates comparison of results from differ-
ent MFAs in a transparent and reproducible way. In this handbook, terms
and procedures to analyze, describe, and model material flow systems are
defined, enabling a comprehensive, reproducible, and transparent account
of all flows and stocks of materials within a system. The methodology, pre-
sented in greater detail in Chapter 2, is completely employed in the software
STAN (see Chapter 2, Section 2.4).
The term material stands for both substances and goods. In chemistry, a
substance is defined as a single type of matter consisting of uniform units
(Atkins and Beran, 1992). If the units are atoms, the substance is called an
element, such as carbon or iron; if they are molecules, it is called a chemical
compound, such as carbon dioxide or iron chloride. Goods are substances or
mixtures of substances that have economic values assigned by markets. The
value can be positive (car, fuel, wood) or negative (municipal solid waste,
sewage sludge). In economic terms, the word goods is more broadly defined
to include immaterial goods such as energy (e.g., electricity), services, or
information. In MFA terminology, however, the term goods stands for mate-
rial goods only. Nevertheless, the link between goods as defined by MFA and
other goods as used by economists can be important when MFA is applied,
for example, for decisions regarding resource conservation.
A process is defined as a transport, transformation, or storage of materials.
The transport process can be a natural process, such as the movement of
dissolved phosphorous in a river, or it can be man-made, such as the flow
of gas in a pipeline or waste collection. The same applies to transformations
(e.g., oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide by natural forest fires versus man-
made heating systems) and storages (e.g., natural sedimentation versus man-
made landfilling).
Stocks are defined as material reservoirs (mass) within the analyzed sys-
tem, and they have the physical unit of kilograms. A stock is part of a process
comprising the mass that is stored within the process. Stocks are essential
characteristics of a system’s metabolism. For steady-state conditions (input
equals output), the mean residence time of a material in the stock can be cal-
culated by dividing the material mass in the stock by the material flow in or
out of the stock. Stocks can stay constant, or they can increase (accumulation
of materials) or decrease (depletion of materials) in size.
Processes are linked by flows (mass per time) or fluxes (mass per time and
cross section) of materials. Flows/fluxes across system boundaries are called
imports or exports. Flows/fluxes of materials entering a process are named
inputs, while those exiting are called outputs.
A system comprises a set of material flows, stocks, and processes within
a defined boundary. The smallest possible system consists of just a single
Introduction 5

process. Examples of common systems for investigations by MFA are a

region, a municipal incinerator, a private household, a factory, a farm, etc.
The system boundary is defined in space and time. It can consist of geographi-
cal borders (region) or virtual limits (e.g., private households, including
processes serving the private household such as transportation, waste col-
lection, and sewer systems). When the system boundary in time is chosen,
criteria such as objectives, data availability, appropriate balancing period,
residence time of materials within stocks, and others have to be taken into
account. This is discussed further in Chapter 2, Section 2.1.7.
If only one substance is the focus of an MFA study, such as phosphorus in
Chapter 3, Section 3.5.2, such a study might be designated as SFA: SFA can be
considered a special type of MFA with n = 1 (with n as the number of inves-
tigated substances). However, goods (e.g., mineral fertilizer) containing the
substance (e.g., phosphorus) are instrumental for calculating flows. In most
cases, the purpose of system design is to optimize substance flows, but this is
usually done by changing flows of goods, because the substance is contained
in a good. When focusing on the substance level with an SFA, one should
keep in mind that both goods and substances (i.e., materials) are an integral
part of MFA and SFA. MFA is the more universal term compared to SFA.
In addition to the basic terms necessary to analyze material flows and
stocks, the notion of activity is useful when evaluating and designing new
anthropogenic processes and systems. An activity comprises a set of systems
consisting of flows, stocks, and processes of the many materials that are nec-
essary to fulfill a particular basic human need, such as to nourish, to reside,
or to transport and communicate (Baccini and Brunner, 2012). Analyzing
material flows associated with a certain activity allows early recognition of
problems such as future environmental loadings and resource depletions.
One of the main questions for the future development of mankind will be,
“Which sets of processes, flows, and stocks of goods, substances, and energy
will enable long-term, efficient, and sustainable feeding of the increasing
global population?” Equally important is the question, “How can the trans-
portation needs of an advanced global population be satisfied without com-
promising the future resources of mankind?” When alternative scenarios are
developed for an activity, MFA can help to identify major changes in mate-
rial flows. Thus, MFA is a tool to evaluate existing systems for food produc-
tion, transportation, and other basic human needs, as well as to support the
design of new, more effective systems.

1.3 History of MFA
Long before MFA became a tool for the management of resources, wastes,
and the environment, the mass-balance principle has been applied in such
6 Handbook of Material Flow Analysis

diverse fields as medicine, chemistry, economics, engineering, and life sci-

ences. The basic principle of any MFA, the conservation of matter, or “input
equals output,” had already been postulated by Greek philosophers more
than 2000 years ago. It was the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)
who provided experimental evidence that the total mass of matter cannot be
changed by chemical processes: “neither man made experiments nor natural
changes can create matter, thus it is a principle, that in every process the
amount of matter does not change” (Vidal, 1985).
In the twentieth century, the field of MFA emerged in various areas at
different times. Although the name of MFA had not been invented and a
comprehensive methodology had not been established yet, many authors
used the principle stated by the law of conservation of matter to balance
processes. In process and chemical engineering, it was common prac-
tice to analyze and balance inputs and outputs of chemical reactions. In
the economic field, Leontief introduced input–output tables in the 1930s
(Leontief, 1977, 1966) and thus laid the basis for widespread application of
input–output methods to solve economic problems. In the field of resource
conservation and environmental management, the first studies appeared
in the 1970s. Two areas of application were originally in the foreground:
metabolism of cities and investigations into pollutants in regions such as
watersheds or urban areas. In the following decades, MFA became a wide-
spread tool in many fields, such as process control, waste and wastewater
treatment, agricultural nutrient management, water quality management,
resource conservation and recovery, product design, life cycle assessment
(LCA), and others.

1.3.1 Santorio’s Analysis of the Human Metabolism

One of the first reports about an analysis of material flows was prepared by
Santorio Santorio (1561–1636), also called S. Sanctuarius, in the seventeenth
century. The similarity of the conclusions regarding the analysis of the
anthropogenic metabolism between Santorio and modern authors is aston-
ishing. Santorio was a doctor of medicine practicing in Padua and President
of the Venetian College of Physicians in Venice. His main interest was to
understand the human metabolism. He developed a first method to balance
inputs and outputs of a person (Figure 1.2a through c). Santorio measured
the weight of the person, of the food and beverages he/she ate, and of the
excretions he/she gave off. The result of his investigation was disappoint-
ing and surprising at the same time: he could not close the mass balance.
However, he found that the visible material output of a person was less than
half what the person actually takes in. He suspected that some yet-unknown
insensible perspiration left the body at night. Thus, he wrapped the person
in a hide during the night’s sleep. But the little amount of sweat he collected
by this procedure did not account for the large missing fraction. It was not
known yet in the sixteenth century that the volume of air a person breathes
Introduction 7

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 1.2
The experimental setup of Santorio Santorio (1561–1636) to analyze the material metabolism of
a person. (a) The person is sitting on a chair attached to a scale. The weight of the food and the
person are measured. (b) Despite the fact that all human excreta were collected and weighed,
input A and output B do not balance. What is missing? (Continued)
8 Handbook of Material Flow Analysis

(c)

FIGURE 1.2 (CONTINUED)

The experimental setup of Santorio Santorio (1561–1636) to analyze the material metabolism of
a person. (c) Santorio’s measurements could not confirm his hypothesis that an unknown flu-
idum leaves the body during the night, but they proved that more than half of the input mass
leaves the body by an unknown pathway.

has a certain mass. It should be remembered that Santorio lived a century

before Lavoisier investigated oxidation processes and proved the existence of
oxygen. Hence, Santorio did not account for the air a person was breathing,
neither the intake of fresh air nor the emission of spent air. In 1614, Santorio
published a book about his metabolic studies, De Medicina Statica Aphorismi,
which made him well known as the “father of the science of human metabo-
lism.” He concluded that “a doctor, who carries the responsibility for the
health of his patients, and who considers only the visible processes of eating
and excreting, and not the invisible processes resulting in the loss of insen-
sible perspiration, will only mislead his patients and never cure them from
their disease.” Considering that Santorio was certainly the first and probably
the only one who performed such metabolic studies at that time, this state-
ment may have secured him a visit from many patients.
The experiments of Santorio allow conclusions similar to recent MFA
studies: First, it still is impossible to evaluate and optimize anthropogenic
systems, i.e., to cure the patient, without knowing the material flows and
stocks, that is, the metabolism of the system. Second, it is difficult to balance
a process or system if basic information about this process or system such as
major input and output goods is missing. Third, it happens quite often that
inputs and outputs of a process or system do not balance, pointing to new
Introduction 9

research questions. And fourth, analytical tools are often not appropriate or
precise enough to measure changes in material balances with the necessary
accuracy.

1.3.2 Leontief’s Economic Input–Output Methodology

Wassily W. Leontief (1906–1999) was an American economist of Russian ori-
gin. His research was focused on the interdependence of anthropogenic pro-
duction systems. He searched for analytical tools to investigate the economic
transactions between the various sectors of an economy. One of his major
achievements, for which he was awarded the 1973 Nobel Prize in Economic
Sciences, was the development of the input–output method in the 1930s
(Major, 1938; Leontief, 1977). At the core of the method are so-called input–
output tables: These tables allow systematic quantifying of the mutual inter-
relationship among the various sectors of a complex economic system. They
connect goods, production processes, deliveries, and demand in a stationary
as well as in a dynamic way. The production system is described as a net-
work of flows of goods (provisions) between the various production sectors.
Input–output analysis of economic sectors has become a widespread tool in
economic policy making. It proved to be highly useful for forecasting and
planning in market economies as well as in centrally planned economies,
and was often applied to analyze the sudden and large changes in economies
due to restructuring.
In order to investigate the effect of production systems on the environ-
ment, the original method was later expanded to include production
emissions and wastes. More recently, the input–output method has been
incorporated into LCAs to establish the Economic Input–Output LCA
method (Hendrickson, Horvath, Joshi, and Lave, 1998). This expansion
allows assessment of the relative emissions and resource consumption of
different types of goods, services, and industries. The advantage of using
input–­output methodology for LCA is the vast amount of available informa-
tion in the form of input–output tables for many economies. This informa-
tion can be used for LCA as well.

1.3.3 Analysis of Urban Metabolism

Santorio has analyzed the physiological, “inner” metabolism of men. This
is only a minor part of the modern anthropogenic turnover of materials.
The “outer” metabolism, consisting of the use and consumption of goods
not necessary from a physiological point of view, has grown much larger
than the inner metabolism. Hence, in places with a high concentration of
population­and wealth such as modern urban areas, large amounts of mate-
rials, energy, and space are consumed. Today, most cities grow fast in popu-
lation and size, and they comprise a large and growing stock of materials.
10 Handbook of Material Flow Analysis

The first author to use the term metabolism of cities was Abel Wolman in
1965 (Wolman, 1965). He used available US data on consumption and pro-
duction of goods to establish per capita input and output flows for a hypo-
thetical American city of 1 million inhabitants. He linked the large amounts
of wastes that are generated in a city to its inputs. Other authors have been
fascinated, too, by the complex urban metabolism. They developed more spe-
cific methods to quantify the urban turnover of energy and materials, and
investigated the effects of the large flows on resource depletion and the envi-
ronment. Two prominent examples are the study of Brussels by Duvigneaud
and Denayeyer-De Smet (1975) and of Hong Kong by Newcombe, Kalma, and
Aston (1978).
In 1975, Duvigneaud and Denayeyer-De Smet analyzed the city of Brussels
using natural ecosystems as an analogy (Duvigneaud and Denayeyer-De
Smet, 1975). They assessed the total imports and exports of goods such as
fuel, construction materials, food, water, wastes, sewage, emissions, etc.,
in and out of the city, and established an energy balance. The authors con-
cluded that Brussels was highly dependent on its hinterland, the global
economy surrounding the city of Brussels: all energy is imported. Since
solar energy theoretically available within the city equaled all of Brussels’s
energy demand, this dependency could be reduced by shifting from fossil
fuels to solar energy supply. Water produced within the city by precipitation
is not utilized; all drinking water is imported. Materials such as construc-
tion materials and food are not recycled after their use; they are exported
as wastes. The linear flows of energy and materials result in high pollution
loads that deteriorate the quality of water, air, and soil of the city and its sur-
roundings. The authors point out the necessity to change the structures of
cities in a way that improves the utilization of energy and materials, creates
material cycles, and reduces losses to the environment. As does Santorio, for
the health of a person, they conclude that for continual welfare of a city, it is
necessary to know the metabolism of the city. They recognize that only an
interdisciplinary approach will succeed in analyzing, defining, and imple-
menting the necessary measures of change.
Around the same time in the beginning of the 1970s, Newcombe and col-
leagues started their investigation into the metabolism of Hong Kong. This
Asian city was experiencing a rapid transition period of high population
growth and intense economic development due to its privileged position
at the interface between Western trade and Eastern production and man-
ufacturing. Hong Kong was an ideal case for metabolic studies, since city
limits coincide more or less with state boundaries. Thus, in contrast to the
Brussels case, economic data from state statistics were available for an
accurate assessment of the import and export goods of Hong Kong. Also,
Hong Kong differs from Brussels in its high population density, and lower
per capita income and material throughput. The authors found that the
material and energy used for Hong Kong’s infrastructure was about one
order of magnitude smaller than in more developed cities. They conclude
Introduction 11

that a worldwide increase in material consumption to the level of mod-

ern cities would require very large amounts of materials and energy and
would have negative impacts on global resources and the environment.
They also state that in order to find sustainable solutions for the future
development of cities, it is necessary to know the urban metabolism, and
hence, it is important to be able to measure the flows of goods, materials,
and energy through urban systems. In 1997, König (1997) revisited the
metabolism of Hong Kong, showing the impact of the large increase in
material turnover on the city and its surroundings.

1.3.4 Regional Material Balances

At the end of the 1960s, the first studies on heavy metal accumulation in
regions were initiated. In order to identify and quantify the sources of met-
als, methods such as pathway analysis and material balancing were devel-
oped and applied in regional studies. One of the groundbreaking regional
material flow studies has been reported by Huntzicker, Friedlander, and
Davidson (1975). In 1972, these authors established a balance for automobile-­
emitted lead in the Los Angeles basin, which was revisited by Lankey,
Davidson, and McMichael (1998). The authors developed a material bal-
ance method that was based on the measurements of atmospheric particle
size distributions, atmospheric lead concentrations, and surface deposition
fluxes. The results of the studies show the important sources, pathways,
and sinks for lead in the Los Angeles basin, and point to potential envi-
ronmental problems and solutions. The authors state that their method
did not allow them to elucidate every detail of substance dispersion in the
environment. Yet the mass-balance approach brought forth all important
pathways, their identification and quantification. They conclude that the
“material balance-flow pathway approach” was, in general, a powerful
tool for assessing the environmental impact of a pollutant. The tool is also
well suited to evaluate environmental management decisions such as the
reduction of lead in automobile fuels: the authors show that lead inputs and
outputs were roughly in agreement, and that the reduction of lead in auto-
mobile fuel decreased the overall input of lead in the Los Angeles basin
significantly. Their MFA method allowed identification of resuspended
road dust as an important “secondary” source of lead that is expected to
decrease slowly over time.
Another pioneering study was undertaken by Ayres et al. in the early 1980s
(Ayres et al., 1989). These authors analyzed the sources, pathways, and sinks
of major pollutants in the Hudson–Raritan basin for a period of 100 years
from 1885 to 1985. They chose heavy metals (Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and
Zn); pesticides (DDT, TDE, aldrin, BHC/lindane, chlordane, and others); and
“other critical pollutants” [PCB, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), N,
P, total organic carbon (TOC), etc.] as objects of their investigation. One of
the major motivations for this project was to explore the long-term effects of
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Stephenson, George, 221
Stern, height of, 153, 172, 201
Stern-wheel boats, invention by Robert Stevens of, 63, 258
Stettin Vulcan Co., 174
Stevens, John, stern-wheel steamer of, 63;
proposal from Fulton to, 64;
the Phœnix, 76, 118
Stevens, Robert, invention of tubular boilers by: first screw-
steamer of, 63
Stone-Lloyd water-tight doors, 191
Strain, 98, 99, 126;
minimised by length, 139;
effect of iron and wood in, 146–7
Submarine signalling, 172;
on Great Eastern boats, 229;
methods of, 305
Subsidy, Cunard Co.’s first, 106;
Royal Mail Steam Packet Co.’s first, 112;
reduction of, 113;
for Mauretania and Lusitania, 198
“Suction” dredger, 239, 240
Suevic, the, 295
Suez Canal, 115, 116, 117;
limitations imposed by, 215
“Sun-and-planet” gear, 37, 47
Sunbeam, the, 270
Sutcliffe, Mrs., on Fulton, 50, 61
Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, 212
Symington, William, engine for Miller’s boat by, 43;
the Charlotte Dundas, 46

Talbot, the, 221

Taylor, James, 42
Taylor, Naval Constructor D. W., experiments in resistance by,
67
Telegraph ships, 242–3
Telephone, use of on Balmoral Castle, 219;
installation on liners of, 305
Teutonic, the, 168, 179
Teviot, the, 110
Thames, first steamship on the, 83
Thames, the, 84, 111
Thompson, George, & Co., 216
“Three-island” type, 283
Titanic, the, 207, 211, 289
Tonnage, of “turret-ships,” 247;
measurements of, 312;
Royal Commission on, 313;
anomalies of, 313–4
“Tonnage-deck,” 312
Tonquin, the (ex City of Paris), 149
“Topgallant” forecastle, 284
Torricelli, Evangelista, discovery of weight of atmosphere, 20
Towing, feats of, 236–7
Train-ferries, 251
Tramp steamer, the, 250
Trawlers, steam, 252
Trent, the, Slidell and Mason incident, 113
Triad, the, 270, 278, 279
Trial trip, how carried out, 292, 293
Triple-expansion engines, principle of, 117, 166
“Trunk-deck” steamer, 248
Tubular boiler, 133
Tugs, variety of, 234;
“Cock” type, 235;
Dutch, 236;
 salvage, 237;
New York Harbour, 237;
as passenger tenders, 238;
paddle-wheel, 239;
as trawlers, 252
Turbine, Giovanni Branca and, 20;
importance of, 183;
invention of, 184;
Parsons system of, 186;
the Carmania’s, 187;
faults of, 188;
the Vespasian experiment, 189;
of Virginian and Victorian, 190;
of Carmania, 192;
of Mauretania and Lusitania, 197, 201;
low-pressure of Laurentic, 210;
on cross-channel boats, 226;
on Great Eastern Railway Co.’s boats, 230;
on Isle of Man boats, 230;
reliability of, 230;
on yachts, 274
Turbinia, the, 187
Turret-ships, 245;
comparison with “whale-back,” 265
Turtle decks of Oceanic, 153;
of Umbria, 158;
of Victoria, 163;
of Majestic, 168
Twain, Mark, on Mississippi steamers, 259, 260
Twin-screw, evolution of, 163;
introduction of “overlapping,” 169;
of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, 175;
of Adriatic, 207;
influence of on steering capacity, 318
Twin-ships, 225
Types of steamships, 283–7
Umbria, the, 158–9, 161, 162, 163, 165, 212
Union-Castle Line, 216;
ships of, 219
Union Line, 216

Vanadis, the, 280

Ventilation, methods of, 327
Veranda café of Lusitania, 301
Vertical trunk engine, 134
Vespasian, the, 189
Victoria, the, 131
Victoria, the (P. & O.), 163
Victoria and Albert, the, 277
Victorian, the, 190
Vigilant, the, 241
Virginian, the, 190, 191
Vulcan Yards, Hamburg, 212

Waesland (ex Russia), 150

Wakiva, the, 280–1
Waratah, the, 182
Water-ballast, tanks of cantilever-framed ships, 249;
for yachts, 274;
tanks for, 315
Water-tight doors of Oceanic, 153;
Stone-Lloyd system, 191
Watson, G. L., 270
Watt, James, 33;
early engine of, 34;
association with Boulton, 35;
beam engine, 36;
“sun-and-planet” gear, 37;
rotary engine, 37;
 invention of fly-wheel, 38;
“horse-power” calculations of, 39;
anecdote of, 82;
invention of condenser, 135, 136
Watt, James, & Co., 140
Watt, James, Junr., and steamships, 84
Wave-line theory, 131, 133
Waves, action of, 98
“Well-deck” type, 284–5
West Indies, inauguration of mail service to, 110
Weymouth and Channel Islands Steam Packet Co., 228
“Whale-back” steamer, 265
White, Sir William H., 197, 203
White Star Line, first steamships of, 151;
Atlantic competition, 151–5, 168;
“intermediate” ships of, 178;
recent ships, 193–4, 206–7, 209, 211;
sailing ships of, 215;
freight and live-stock steamers, 219
Wigram and Green, 93
William Facwett, the, 114
Williams and Guion, 155, 212
Williamson, Capt. J.: “The Clyde Passenger Steamer: Its Rise
and Progress during the Nineteenth Century,” 78
Williamson’s “Memorials of James Watt,” 83
Wilson, Thomas, & Sons, 216
Wireless telegraphy on Campania and Lucania, 171;
on P. & O. ships, 218;
on cross-channel boats, 226;
usefulness of, 229;
on yachts, 271;
on liners, 306;
instances of utility of, 307–8
Wittekind, the, 295
 Wood, John, & Co., and the Comet, 78
Worcester, Marquis of, 9, 10, 18, 20

Yacht, the steam, Royal Yacht Squadron and, 266–8;

Northern Yacht Club and, 267;
Robert Napier and, 267;
development of, 269;
the Sunbeam, 270;
lines of, 270;
decks of, 272;
fittings of, 273;
engines and ballast, 274;
Royal, 277–8;
the Sagitta, 278;
the Triad, 278–9;
noted yachts, 280–1
Ymuiden Tug Company, 237

Zwarte Zee, the, 236

Printed by Cassell & Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, London, E.C.

 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent
when a predominant preference was found in the original book;
otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious,
and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that
support hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations
lead to the corresponding illustrations.
In the original book, a few credits referred to more than one
illustration on the page. In this ebook, those credits have been
duplicated so that each illustration has its own copy.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or
correct page references.
Several incorrect page references to illustrations have been
silently corrected.
Page 160: “to sail eastward” was printed that way; may be a
typo for “westward”.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STEAMSHIPS
AND THEIR STORY ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
 copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.