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Ocean Engineering & Oceanography 7
Arthur Pecher
Jens Peter Kofoed Editors
Handbook of
Ocean Wave
Energy
Ocean Engineering & Oceanography
Volume 7
Series editors
Manhar R. Dhanak, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, USA
Nikolas I. Xiros, New Orleans, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10524
Arthur Pecher Jens Peter Kofoed
•
Editors
Handbook of
Ocean Wave Energy
Editors
Arthur Pecher Jens Peter Kofoed
Wave Energy Research Group, Department Wave Energy Research Group, Department
of Civil Engineering of Civil Engineering
Aalborg Universtiy Aalborg Universtiy
Aalborg Aalborg
Denmark Denmark
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017. This book is published open access.
Open Access This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial 2.5 License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.5/) which permits any non-
commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source
are credited.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the work’s Creative Commons
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This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publi-
cation does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
This Handbook for Ocean Wave Energy aims at providing a guide into the field of
ocean wave energy utilization. The handbook offers a concise yet comprehensive
overview of the main aspects and disciplines involved in the development of wave
energy converters (WECs). The idea for the book has been shaped by the devel-
opment, research, and teaching that we have carried out at the Wave Energy
Research Group at Aalborg University over the past decades. It is our belief and
experience that it would be useful writing and compiling such a handbook in order
to enhance the understanding of the sector for a wide variety of potential readers,
from investors and developers to students and academics.
At the Wave Energy Research Group, we have a wide range of wave energy
related activities ranging from teaching at master and Ph.D. level, undertaking
generic research projects and participating in specific research and development
projects together with WEC developers and other stakeholders. All these activities
have created a solid background in terms of theoretical knowledge, experimental
and numerical modeling skills as well as a scientific network, which is why we
found that the idea of putting this book together seemed realistic. With this as a
starting point, we gathered a group of authors, each an expert within their specific
research topic. It was clear from the beginning that the ambition was to make a
high-quality publication but still ensuring that it would have a high level of
accessibility. Therefore, we wanted the book to be freely available in digital form.
To make this happen, we sought and received funding from the Danish EUDP
program (project no. 64015-0013), for which we are extreme thankful.
The ten chapters of the handbook present a broad range of relevant rules of
thumb and topics, such as the technical and economic development of a WEC,
wave energy resource, wave energy economics, WEC hydrodynamics, power
take-off systems, mooring systems as well as the experimental and numerical
simulation of WECs. It covers the topic of wave energy conversion from different
perspectives, providing the readers, who are experts in one particular topic, with a
clear overview of the key aspects in other relevant topics in which they might be
less specialized.
v
vi Preface
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. 1
Arthur Pecher and Jens Peter Kofoed
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Successful Product Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Sketching WECs and Their Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Rules of Thumb for Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1 The Essential Features of a WEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Economic Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 WEC Design Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Power Take-Off Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.5 Environmental Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 The Wave Energy Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 17
Jens Peter Kofoed
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Potential of Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Wave Energy Converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Categorization of WEC’s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Examples of Various WEC Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 The Development of WECs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Test Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 The Wave Energy Resource . . . . . . . ...................... 43
Matt Folley
1 Introduction to Ocean Waves. . . . . ...................... 43
1.1 Origin of Ocean Waves. . . . . ...................... 43
1.2 Overview of the Global Wave Energy Resource . . . . . . . . . . 45
vii
viii Contents
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
xv
xvi Symbols
1 Introduction
The widespread usage of affordable electricity converted from ocean waves would
be a fabulous achievement. Besides that the wave energy converting
(WEC) technology would be particularly interesting, it also would have several
significant benefits to society, such as:
• It is another sustainable and endless energy source, which could significantly
contribute to the renewable energy mix. In general, increasing the amount and
diversity of the renewable energy mix is very beneficial as it increases the
availability and reduces the need for fossil fuels.
• Electricity from wave energy will make countries more self-sufficient in energy
and thereby less dependent on energy import from other countries (note: oil is
often imported from politically unstable countries).
• It will contribute to the creation of a new sector containing, innovation and
employment.
• Electricity from ocean wave can be produced offshore, which thereby does not
require land nor has a significant visual impact.
As the world energy needs will keep on increasing while the fossil fuel reserves
are depleting, wave energy will become of significant importance. The demand for
it will start when its price of electricity will be right and will then only increase with
time.
In general, there are three key elements to a successful product innovation. It has to
be technically feasible, economically viable and desirable/useable by an end-user.
In other words, it requires a new functional technology that has a positive business
case and that is of use for society. These key elements do not necessarily require
being developed at the same time since a developer needs to start somewhere.
However, they need to be present in some kind of harmony before an innovation
can successfully be launched on the market (Fig. 1).
TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS
(feasibility) (viability)
DESIGN
INNOVATION
HUMAN VALUES
(usability, desirability)
Fig. 1 The three key elements of successful product design innovation. Inspired by [25–27]
There is a great demand for renewable energy and a need to diversify the
renewable energy mix. This can easily be seen on the significant annual increase in
global investment in renewable energy, such as wind and solar. Wave energy has
even been additionally stimulated in some countries as they recognise its benefits and
great potential. The technology push came mainly in the form of public grants and
capital investment in technology development, while the market pull through public
market incentives, such as revenue support (the feed-in tariffs) [1, 2]. This indicates
that the usability and desirability (or human value) are currently very positive.
An impressive amount of wave energy technologies have been developed over
the last 25 years. To give an indication hereof, the list of current wave energy
developers at EMEC counts 256 developers [3]. The working principles of most of
these technologies can be grouped into a handful of main categories. This just
indicates how great the effort has been from the developers (see more in Chap. 2).
The last missing factor for production innovation success is the business
potential or economic viability of the wave energy technologies within the frames
1 Introduction 3
of the market (with or without incentives). The business case is made based on cost
(CapEx and OpEx) and power production calculations (read more in Chaps. 4 and 5).
To be able to demonstrate a positive business case, a significant amount of proof
(for the calculation) and thereby experience with the WEC is expected to be
gathered before. Although some investors can be convinced on the way in the great
business potential of a WEC, it will probably still require a decent track record of an
offshore full-scale WEC before it will convince a larger market. This is particularly
difficult to realise with WECs since the development cost is particularly high (e.g.
compared to wind energy) and the development process long. This is especially due
to the harsh offshore environment, which requires special equipment and vessels
and which is not easily accessible. So, the development process requires a careful
balance between technology optimisation and physical progress. The best advice is,
therefore, to keep on investigating the economic potential along the development
progress as there is no reason to progress if it is absent.
WECs are machines that are able to exploit the power from ocean waves and to
convert it into a useable form of energy, such as electricity.
Ocean waves are theoretically relatively well understood and extensively descri-
bed in literature. However, in practice, it is very difficult to accurately describe,
reproduce and predict the exact environmental conditions at a certain offshore loca-
tion. This is due to its complexity and the large amount of environmental parameters
that can have a significant influence on it (read more about this in Chap. 3).
In Fig. 2, the different metocean parameters affecting the marine environment
are sketchily presented, together with the primary sub-systems of a (floating) WEC.
Wave
Temperature
motion
Density
Salinity Tidal
current Distance to shore
Depth
Bathymetry
Fig. 2 Metocean parameters applicable to marine energy converts, and their primary sub-systems.
Adapted from [4]
4 A. Pecher and J.P. Kofoed
Most WECs, even the ones with different working principles (see Chap. 2) are
very similar from a generic point of view. Most of them consist of the same primary
sub-systems, which is due to their common environment and goal (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 WEC system design breakdown following Equimar (top) [5] and DNV (bottom) [6].
Courtesy of Equimar and DNV GL
1 Introduction 5
The main sub-systems that are present in (all) WECs have also been introduced
widely in literature [4–6] and consist of:
• The hydrodynamic subsystem is the primary wave absorption system that
exploits the wave power (see Chap. 6). It can be of different types depending on
the technology, e.g. oscillating body, oscillating water column and overtopping
principle, and it is connected to both the reaction and PTO subsystems against
which it will actively transfer forces and motions.
• The power take-off subsystem converts the captured wave energy (by the
hydrodynamic subsystem) into electricity (see Chap. 8). The PTO systems can
be based on different principles, of which some of the most common are
hydraulic PTO, direct drive mechanical PTO, linear generators, air turbine and
low head water turbine.
• The reaction subsystem maintains the WEC into position relative to the seabed
(e.g. mooring system) and provides a reaction point for the PTO and/or support
for the hydrodynamic subsystem(s) (e.g. fixed reference or support structure)
(see Chap. 7).
• The control (and instrumentation) subsystem is the intelligent part of the system
as it takes care of the control of the WEC and its measurements. It mainly
consists of the processors for the automation and electromechanical processes,
the sensors and their data acquisition, the communication and data transfer, and
the human interface.
These different sub-systems and their interconnections can be presented in dif-
ferent manners, of which two are presented in Fig. 3.
The following list of “rules of thumb”—covering the essential features, the eco-
nomics, the design, the PTO systems and the environment of WECS—contains a
series of condensed and critical indications which are considered valuable in the
assessment of a WEC technology and project. All of them will be addressed in more
details in the following chapters.
The following features are the essential aspects in which a WEC should excel in
order to show long-term economic potential [7]:
• Survivability: The WEC requires a reliable mooring system and preferably a
passive safety system that can effectively reduce extreme loads. With passive
meaning that the safety mechanism can be activated (automatically) without
requiring external interaction, such as electricity or other.
6 A. Pecher and J.P. Kofoed
• Reliability and maintainability: Easy access and inspection of the most essential
parts of the WEC. In addition, it would be very beneficial if most (or all)
maintenance could be done on the WEC itself at location, without having to
bring it back to a harbour.
• Overall power performance: The WEC must consist of an efficient wave energy
absorbing technology and PTO. It has to produce a sufficiently smooth electrical
power and have a high capacity factor. Otherwise, too much energy will be lost
over the whole wave-to-wire power conversion chain.
• Scalability: At full scale, a WEC needs to be a multi-MW device in order to be
economically viable. In order to be able to continue significantly improving its
LCoE, it needs to be scalable, meaning that it should be capable of further
enlarging its dimensions (like offshore wind turbines do). Many WECs unfor-
tunately reach their optimal dimensions at too low dimensions, making it not
possible for them to become multi-MW WECs (>5 MW). This does not include
the multiplication of WECs as this will not have a significant influence on the
average infrastructural and technology costs and thereby will not significantly
improve the LCoE of the WEC or project.
• Environmental benefit: WECs are expected to be sustainable energy systems and
are thereby expected to have a great environmental benefit and a minimal
environmental footprint.
2. A fast, but reasonably accurate (±50 %), estimation of the annual energy
production (AEP) of a WEC can be obtained by multiplying the mean wave
power level (Pwave) with the width of the absorber, the overall wave-to-wire
efficiency (ηw2w, which is the weighted average over all the wave conditions),
the availability and the yearly production hours:
1. The ability for a body to absorb the energy in the waves depends upon its
hydrodynamic design (for more details refer to Chap. 6). In general, it can be
said that [11]:
“A good wave absorber must be a good wave-maker.”
This means that when a body moves in the water, it will create a wave depending
on its shape and motion = radiated wave, e.g. a point absorber will make a circular
wave equal in all directions when oscillating vertically. The better that this radiated
wave corresponds to the incoming ocean wave, the more efficient this body is in
absorbing an incoming ocean wave (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Illustration of the radiated wave by the motion in one direction by three wave-absorbing
bodies, from left to right: heaving point absorber, pitching flap and pitching Salter’s duck
The theoretical limit in wave energy absorption by a body that creates an (anti-)
symmetrical radiated wave (e.g. heaving point absorber and pitching flap) is of
50 %. However, for a non-symmetric body (such as a Salter’s duck), it may have
the ability to absorb almost 100 % incoming wave energy [12].
2. Although there is no clear convergence in technologies yet, there are different
main WEC categories. For some of these main categories, an indicative cap-
ture width ratio on the absorbed power from the waves can be given, based on
a collection of published results [13] (Table 1).
These numbers present a rough indication of the ability of these WEC types to
absorb wave energy. This energy still needs to be converted into electricity
afterwards. Note that these values need to be taken with care as they can be
based on different specifications and assumptions. Some of the most influential
parameters are the wave conditions and the relative size (scaling ratio) of the
WEC to the waves.
10 A. Pecher and J.P. Kofoed
3. The optimal dimension of the wave absorbing body and structure of a WEC
is usually most strongly linked to the wave period (from all the wave parame-
ters), besides other potentially interfering economic parameters. The peak wave
period with the highest annual wave energy contribution (corresponding to the
wave energy x probability of occurrence) should be taken into account for this.
Table 2 gives a rough indication of these dimensions for a full-scale WEC in an
average suitable offshore location [13–17].
These values can indicate the scaling possibilities of a full-scale WEC type and,
thereby, indicate the limit in power absorption by a WEC as well.
4. The power fluctuations of a single WEC decrease significantly with its
amount of wave energy absorbers. The absorbed power from waves fluctuates
due to the nature of the waves (time scale of a few seconds), but also due to the
fact that waves travel in groups (time scale of a few minutes). These fluctuations
are not desirable as they increase the need for oversizing mechanical and
electrical equipment and are one of the main barriers to achieve a reliable and
cost-efficient technology [18]. Typical max-to-mean ratios in absorbed power
are (over 1000 waves period, without physical limitations) [19–22] as follows
(Table 3).
Table 3 Indication of the max-to-mean ratio on the absorbed power by a WEC with different
configurations
WEC type Max-to-mean
ratio
Single wave-activated body with one-way PTO 15–30
Single wave activated body with two-way PTO 10–12
OWC with two way PTO 10–15
10 side-by-side located wave-activated bodies (in the wave direction) with 3–7
two-way PTO
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Tutto ciò che acquistava lo schiavo, l’acquistava per il padrone; ma
come già narrai nel capitolo delle Tabernæ, essendo la gran parte
della popolazione industriale schiava, i padroni trovavano di loro
convenienza di interessare i loro schiavi nei profitti delle loro
industrie e di lasciar loro la libera disposizione d’un peculio, il qual
valeva ad alimentare il lavoro loro. Se lo schiavo agiva in suo proprio
nome, in caso di frode veniva perseguitato coll’actio tributoria; ma se
agiva come mandatario del suo padrone, era obbligato come
qualunque altro mandatario.
Gli schiavi si compravano sul mercato, ivi portati dagli speculatori e
dai pirati e, se provenienti da nazione indipendente, godevano di
miglior favore. Gli schiavi spagnuoli e côrsi costavano poco, perchè
facili al suicidio per sottrarsi alla schiavitù; ma i Frigi lascivi e le
gentili Milesie erano in comparazione carissimi. Fu stabilita in
seguito una tariffa secondo l’età e la professione; sessanta soldi
d’oro per un medico, cinquanta per un notaio, trenta per un eunuco
minore de’ dieci anni, cinquanta se maggiore.
Ho detto più sopra che anche speculatori recavano gli schiavi al
mercato; ne recherò due esempj di reputati uomini: Catone li
comperava gracili ed ignoranti e fatti gagliardi ed abili, li rivendeva;
Pomponio Attico, l’amico di Cicerone, faceva altrettanto, per
rivenderli letterati.
Nella casa gli schiavi compivano tutti gli uffizii dai più elevati agli
umili; sed tamen servi, come diceva ne’ paradossi Cicerone,
parlando di quelli che erano applicati a’ più nobili servigi; epperò ve
n’erano varie classi. Vernæ chiamavansi gli schiavi nati nella casa
del padrone; ascrittitii quelli che per lo spazio di 30 anni stavano in
un campo e non potevano vendersi che col fondo; consuales quelli
che servivano al Senato; ordinarii quei dell’alta servitù, e avevan
sotto di essi altri schiavi; vicarii, mediastini, quelli che esercitavano
opere vili nella casa. Ciascun uffizio dava il nome allo schiavo:
nomenclator era quello che ricordava ed annunziava i nomi di coloro
che giungevano, ed alla cena il nome e i pregi delle vivande;
ostiarius e janitor il portinajo, atriensis quello che stava a cura
dell’atrio ed aveva la sorveglianza degli altri schiavi; tricliniarchas il
servo principale a cui spettava la cura di ordinare le mense e la
stanza da pranzo, archimagirus il maestro de’ cuochi o
sovrintendente alla cucina, dispensator il credenziere, pronus il
cantiniere, viridarius e topiarius lo schiavo il cui officio particolare
consisteva nell’occuparsi dell’opus topiarium, che comprendeva la
coltura e conservazione delle piante e degli arboscelli, la
decorazione dei pergolati e de’ boschetti, anagnostæ erano i lettori,
notarii o librarii gli schiavi segretari del padrone, silentiarius quel che
manteneva il silenzio e impediva i rumori: per servigio poi delle
dame, la jatromæa era la schiava levatrice; le cosmetæ e le psecæ
le schiave il cui ufficio era attendere alla toaletta delle signore ed
ajutarle a vestirsi ed ornarsi, come sarebbero le nostre cameriere;
sandaligerulæ quelle che portavano le pantofole delle loro padrone,
seguendole quando uscivan di casa; vestispicæ quelle che curavano
e rimendavano gli abiti della padrona; vestisplicæ quelle che le
custodivano, o come diremmo noi, guardarobiere; ornatrices le
schiave che attendevano all’acconciatura del capo della padrona,
focaria la guattera, ecc.
V’erano poi i pædagogiari, giovani schiavi scelti per la bellezza della
persona ed allevati nella casa dei grandi signori a’ tempi dell’impero
per servir da compagni e pedissequi dei figliuoli de’ loro padroni,
come anteriormente v’erano i pædagogi, che vegliavan alla cura ed
agli studj de’ medesimi, i flabelliferi, giovinetti d’ambo i sessi, che
portavano il ventaglio della padrona, i salutigeruli che recavano i
saluti e i complimenti agli amici e famigliari del padrone; i nani e
nanæ, pigmei cui si insegnavano musica ed altre arti per diletto de’
padroni; fatui, fatuæ e moriones erano quelli idioti deformi che si
tenevano per ispasso, i quali
. . . nunc Saliaribus
Ornare pulvinar Deorum
Tempus erat dapibus, sodales [107].
2 3
V. Turinio Porcio
1 2
Fundanio Nasidieno
3 1
Vario Nomentano
Lec. Lectus
3 1 2
summus imus
S.
Mecenate Vibidio
Batatrone
Medius Lectus.
Da ciò si vede, come non sedessero, ma giacessero a tavola, e per
istare alquanto sollevati si appoggiavano col gomito sinistro al
guanciale. Solo le donne stavano prima assise, ma poi imitarono
presto gli uomini: i figli e le figlie pigliavano posto a piè del letto; ma
sino all’epoca in cui ricevevano la toga virile restavano assisi.
Queste mense erano spesso di preziosa materia e di ingente lavoro.
Così le descrive Filone nel Trattato della vita contemplativa, citato
dall’Averani: «Hanno i letti di tartaruga o di avorio, o d’altra più
preziosa materia, ingemmati per lo più, coperti con ricchi cuscini
broccati d’oro e mescolati di porpora o tramezzati con altri vaghi e
diversi colori per allettamento dell’occhio.» — Che ve ne fossero
anche d’oro lo attesta Marziale nel libro III de’ suoi Epigrammi, epigr.
31:
. . . . Cereremque, canistris
Expediunt, tonsisque ferunt mantilia villis [116],
Acria circum
Rapula, lactucæ, radices, qualia lassum
Pervellunt stomachum, siser, alec, fæcula coa [117].