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BASICS
INTERACTIVE DESIGN Dave Wood
INTERFACE
DESIGN
AN INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL COMMUNICATION IN
UI DESIGN
This ebook belongs to Gene Liberman (tolibgen@gmail.com), purchased on 19/10/2018

Fairchild Books
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

London New York
WC1B 3DP NY 10018
UK USA
www.bloomsbury.com
Bloomsbury is a registered trade mark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
First published 2014
© Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in
writing from the publishers.
Dave Wood has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act,
1988, to be identified as author of this work.
No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or

refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted
by Bloomsbury or the author.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN
PB: 978-2-9404-1199-3
ePDF: 978-2-9404-4757-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wood, David, 1963-
Interface design: an introduction to visual communication in UI design / David Wood
pages cm. — (Basics interactive design)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-2-940411-99-3 (alk. paper) – ISBN 978-2-940447-57-2
1. User interfaces (Computer systems)—Design—Case studies.
2. Computer programmers—interviews. I. Title.
QA76.9.U83W658 2014
005.4’437—dc23
2013038749
Printed and bound in China

4 Contents
Introduction 6
Chapter 1
Visual communication: 8
A standard in designing interaction
Communicating the UI 10
Designing for interactive flow 16
Users are king (you are not) 20
Interview: Steve Krug 28
Case study: We Print Paper website 32
Chapter 2
Finding the flow: Designing interaction 36
Graphical user interfaces 38

Information architecture 42
Global and contextual navigation in IA 46
Hierarchical structures 48
Testing, testing: Early design iterations 52
Interview: Greg Gibson 58
Case study: Testing of VedderPrice.com’s 60
visual hierarchy
Exercise: Finding the flow 64
Chapter 3
Graphic design for digital media 66
Gridding interactivity 68
Type as interface 74
Colouring the screen 80
Imagery and the pixel 86
Iconography and metaphor 90
Going with the motion 96
Interview: Mike Kus 100
Case study: Designing a Blu-ray UI 102
Exercise: Visually 106
communicating interactivity

5
Chapter 4
Designing the aesthetic 110

user experience
Design and the user 112

Content copy and the user 116
UI semiotics 118
Internationalization 122
Interview: Kristin Kramer 126
Case study: WorldSkills interactive kiosk 128
Exercise: Deconstructing UI semiotics 134
Chapter 5
Collaborating with the developer 138
The principles of designing modularity 140

The view from Mars and the 142
view from Venus
Modularizing the aesthetic 144
What the designer provides 148
Interview: Alan Bridge 150
Case study: Preparing a website design 152
for a developer
Exercise: Outlining modularity 156
Chapter 6
Augmenting human capabilities 158

through interfaces
QR codes – print meets interaction 160

Augmented interaction 164
The touch-screen world 168
Interview: Kate Ho 172
Case study: The Macallan Microsoft 174
Surface at Schiphol Airport
Exercise: Concept design for an AR 178
smartphone app
Glossary 182
Index 186
Picture credits 190
Acknowledgements 191

6 Introduction
An interface is the contact point The driver of a car doesn’t

between humans and machines. want to read a hefty manual,
A user interface (UI) on a or understand the complex
computer, smartphone, tablet or mechanical engineering that sits
game console consists of a ‘front- behind the sleek bodywork, or be
end’ visually interactive face that confused by an overcomplicated
communicates with a programmed dashboard. When they get in the
delivery system ‘back end’. These driver’s seat they want to turn the
‘front-end’ interfaces are known as ignition key and drive. Similarly,
graphical user interfaces (GUIs). anyone confronted with a new
UI for the first time wants the
A successful UI design blends outcome of their interaction to be
good usability, functionality quickly facilitated by good design.
and aesthetics to facilitate a This means that the aesthetic
successful outcome, based on and the functional features of the
the user’s requirements and interface must combine to produce
expectations. UI designs should a fantastic user experience.
therefore focus on a user’s needs
and expectations, not on what a
programmer or designer thinks is
logical or cool.
Online resources to accompany this title are

available at:
http://tinyurl.com/examplegrid.
Please type the URL into your web browser

and follow the instructions to access the
Companion Website. If you experience any
problems, please contact Bloomsbury at:
companionwebsites@bloomsbury.com

7
Aims The chapters
This book aims to do three fresh things Chapter 1 focuses on establishing

for interface design: visual communication’s key importance
in interface design and the designer’s
Firstly, it will take you through the
responsibility to the user.
hows, the whys and the wherefores
of designing user interfaces – from a Chapter 2 delves into designing for
graphic design perspective. interaction across a range of different
graphical user interfaces, before
Secondly, it will be an express journey
examining information architecture.
through the importance of user
experience and how to design better Chapter 3 creates a useful
interactions for humans, not machines. framework of important key points
on graphic design for digital media –
Thirdly, this book explores design
layout, colour, iconography, imagery
principles and stresses the importance
and typography.
of usability and aesthetics working
together – and shows how this can Chapter 4 builds upon this
be done. It is not a technical UI framework and applies these visual
book; instead, it provides a visual communication basics to effectively
communication grounding and facilitate a successful interactive
champions graphic design as a valid user experience.
standard in interface design.
Chapter 5 provides practical
Most importantly, the book will help for designers to improve their
demonstrate that designing for communication with the developer by
dynamic user experience means exploring each other’s needs.
exciting opportunities for creative
Finally, in Chapter 6 the book will
facilitation of user-control. Designing
conclude by looking at designing for
better interactions for a user does not
interactivity within our senses and
mean the designer losing control of
our environment.
their aesthetic – far from it.
The terms ‘visual designer’ and

‘visual design’ are avoided in this
book, although they are often used
to describe roles and outputs within
interface design. The terms miss the
richness of visual communication that
a designer from such a background
brings to designing interfaces.

1
8

9
Visual communication:
A standard in designing
interaction
User interface (UI) design brings together
a team of specialists in order to create a
successful interactive experience for the
user. Jorge Frascara, an internationally
renowned professor of communication
design, explains visual communication
as emphasizing the method (design), the
objective (communication) and the medium
(visual) through the manipulation of text and
image into a graphical outcome. As such,
a graphic designer’s visual communication
skills are vital in ensuring a UI’s aesthetic
accessibility. This is done throughout the
entire UI design process.
This chapter looks at visual communication

as part of the design discipline and also
as a standard in designing interaction within
a collaborating UI design team.

10 Communicating the UI
Interface design is a complex Graphic designers in the UI team

process involving the UI design
There are often misunderstandings
team, the target users and the
about what a graphic designer can and
client. It is an iterative process,
will contribute to UI design, a common
with phases of user research,
idea being that graphic design simply
ideation, testing, building, and
involves creating graphics to ‘skin’ the
further testing, all contributing
UI code. This ‘visual design’ decorating
to the design of an interactive
phase is expected to come at the end
user experience. The graphic
of the project, once the rest of the team
designer is important to the design
has done the ‘real work’.
process, but is very much part
of a team of other specialists. This misconception of what a
Graphic designers must be graphic designer contributes to the
confident in their own specialist UI design, and at what point, stems
knowledge to successfully design from an unfortunate focus on the
the UI’s aesthetic, but also have word ‘graphic’. Graphic design is
a wider contextual knowledge not about designing a graphic; it
to communicate with the rest of is about designing effective visual
the team. This communication communication. This communication
begins at the ideation stage of the is crafted by the graphic designer,
project, well before any code or through manipulation of text and
designs have been developed. image, into an aesthetic that is suitable
for a particular audience.
Aesthetics is an integral part of the

users’ experience of any interface.
It guides them towards key interactions
in the UI, allowing them to achieve
their goals. It communicates action
and content, making connections
between the users’ hearts and heads in
facilitating their interactive outcomes.
Through the graphic designer, visual
communication becomes an important
standard in UI design, ultimately
‘A good designer sees the leading to the design of a better user
organic process where experience. The aesthetic of the UI
others are chained to engages and holds the attention of
the perceived technical the user before any link is clicked or
limitations or perceived any code is processed. Therefore the
possibilities of a system.’ graphic designer’s skills should be
– Anon utilized throughout the entire design
process, not just at the end.

11
1.1
1.1
Innovative navigation
The synthesis of strong visual
communication and engaging
coding can create a fantastic
user experience. Canadian
design company GRIP knows
it works. Their website is
innovative in its navigation and
content delivery, and the strong
visual communication attracts
and separates the content.
www.griplimited.com

Neither Mars nor Venus It takes effort to see a project from

each other’s viewpoint, but effective
Each specialist in a UI design team
collaboration is a crucial part of
has a different contribution to make.
designing a successful UI.
Information architects create the
interactive structure. User experience A great designer will work within the
(UX) designers create the experience. constraints of the brief – such as
Developers create clean UI code. budget, accessibility, target user, and
Graphic designers communicate the available technology – shaping the
UI’s visual hierarchy, functionality visual elements of text and image
and interaction. to communicate the content and
navigation. Constraints fuel designers
In any team, tension between
to create successful UI design
specialists can exist. Within a UI
solutions through collaboration with the
design team, this often comes down
rest of the UI design team.
to cost implications, different specialist
languages and varying perspectives The combined work of both designer
on how to design an interface. If and developer will be a UI that is
many online forum debates are to be coded well and has an aesthetic that
believed, there is particular tension attracts, retains attention and is usable.
between UI designers and developers. The UI will undergo some form of user
So much that designers could be from testing throughout the design process
Mars and developers from Venus. to ensure this. Usability expert Steve
Krug suggests a variety of methods
to do this (see his interview on
pages 28–31).
The UI design team
A UI design team will ideally include at least:
— An information architect defining the

interactive structure 1.2
Mars and Venus
— A user experience designer making the UI Not all design teams succumb
usable for both the client and user to the conflicted view of
— A graphic designer shaping the UI’s designers vs developers.
aesthetic accessibility Companies such as Athlon
Productions believe in close
— A developer writing the front-end mark-up collaboration to achieve
and the back-end code successful designs.
www.athlonproduction.com
1.3
User experience
German developer Martin Gauer
uses great coding and quality
visual communication to create
innovative and successful
user experiences.
http://attackemart.in

13
1.2
www.athlonproduction.com
1.3
www.attackemart.in

1.4
www.designs-on.com
T-shaped designers But deep specialist knowledge is not

the end of a T-shaped designer’s skill
A useful metaphor to describe great
set. They also develop a secondary
designers used by the international
contextual knowledge of how other
design consultancy IDEO is ‘T-shaped’
disciplines work, and a broader tertiary
designers. T-shaped designers have
understanding of socio-cultural,
deep specialist knowledge of their own
political, ethical, ecological, economic
discipline. This enables them to be
and technological contexts. After all,
confident in explaining what they do to
design doesn’t exist in a vacuum.
different specialist team members. The
In the T metaphor, these secondary
vertical body of a capital ‘T’ represents
and tertiary levels of non-specialist
this specialist knowledge.
knowledge form the top bar of the
capital T.

15
1.5
Breadth of knowledge
Depth of
‘We are what we call
expertise
‘T-shaped’ people. You
need a deep knowledge of
your expertise area, like 1.4
interactive design, but also IDEO T-shaped
designers at work
a broad understanding of
IDEO’s work in designing
many different disciplines. for interaction covers more
And you need to be humble than just interfaces and they
to be able to collaborate actively engage in teams of
T-shaped designers working
with people with different
with developers, psychologists
kinds of knowledge.’ and engineers to create great
– Juho Parviainen, interactive user experiences.
IDEO designer www.ideo.com
1.5
T-shaped design
The idea of ‘T-shaped’ design
knowledge emphasizes the
importance of deep specialist
knowledge alongside a broad
awareness of contextual factors.

16 Designing for interactive flow
The scope of the graphic This flow is immersive as the user

designer’s contribution to the team doesn’t always consciously realize
throughout the design process is they are in it. If the UI is well designed,
broad before it becomes specific. the user’s experience is a positive
Designing for interaction is really and subconscious enjoyment of the
designing the ‘flow’ through the interaction. But if the UI’s design
interactive process in a way causes problems, the flow is disturbed
that creates an enjoyable and and the user is jolted out of that
aesthetic experience for the immersion. So to design a successful
user. Interaction itself is a loop of flow the following questions must be
cause/effect/feedback, and the kept in mind:
user experiences a flow through
these steps. The UI is the visible — Does the user KNOW what to
control of that flow, and usability do in the UI?
is the outcome of a flow designed
with the user in mind. — Can they DO what they want
to do?
— Do they FEEL they have achieved

something when an action
is completed?
‘Interaction designers
answer three questions:
How do you do? How
do you feel? How do
you know?’
– Bill Verplank, designer
and researcher

17
1.6
...feel?
...know? Tactile
Aural
Visual
?
map
control
path
...DO?
1.6
Interaction loop
If a user knows what to do
then they also need to feel
they’ve achieved it. That means
a mental map, control and
feedback – a loop of interaction
(the illustration is based on a
diagram by Bill Verplank).

18 Designing for interactive flow
The graphic designer in the flow information architecture, wireframing

and paper prototypes of the UI. They
The UI design process follows a
can shape the hierarchy, navigation
common path, whether the project
and content, helping to identify
has a short or long deadline. In the
and address visual communication
existing conceptual framework of the
problems that affect usability at an
UI design process, there is a tendency
early stage, before they become too
to place the graphic designer at the
costly to correct.
end of the flow under a title of ‘visual
design’. However, the graphic designer
can make valuable contributions to
the look and feel of the UI right from
the beginning of a UI project. This
can be in the production of personas,
1.7
UI Objectives
UI Objectives UI Specifications
UI Specifications Information
Information
Architecture
Architectu
Client Objectives
Client Objectives ContentContent
(ROI) (ROI) Personas
Personas
User Needs
User Needs Functionality
Functionality Wireframes
Wireframes
& Paper& Paper
and Goals
and Goals Prototyping
Prototyping
CONCEPTION
CONCEPTION
VISUALVISUAL
COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION
UI FRONT-
UI FRONT- & BACK-END
& BACK-END CODINGCODING
INFORMATION
INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
USER EXPERIENCE
USER EXPERIENCE

19
1.7
Graphic design positioned
In this diagram, the height of the
coloured circles reflects which
design specialism takes the
lead for that part of the process,
and which are in support. This
diagram demonstrates where
graphic designers’ visual
communication roles should be
utilized. As can be seen, it is not
at the very end of the UI
design process.
UI Design
ure UI Design UI Design
UI Design UI Design
UI Design
Front-end
Front-end Back-end
Back-end Final Design
Final Design
COMPLETION
COMPLETION
(main responsibility
of the graphic
of the graphic
designer)
designer)
of the developer)
of the developer)
of the information
of the information
architect)
architect)
of the UX
of the
designer)
UX designer)

20 Users are king (you are not)
We are all users. We all know

the frustration we feel when
an interface gives us a terrible
experience, but a member of the
design team is not a typical user
– they know too much, preventing
objectivity in UI design projects.
User frustration is blamed on
either themselves and/or the UI.
But when the UI performs well and
a user can achieve their goals with
ease, the delight that ensues is
attributed to the user experience.
In short, a good UI is an
‘invisible’ UI.
The user, whether male or female,

young or old, has certain personal
goals when engaging with a UI. These
may be to play the movie (Blu-ray
UI), select a character (game UI), buy
a book (eCommerce UI), or find out
tomorrow’s weather (app UI). These
goals are not necessarily the same as
those of the developer, the designer
or even the client. The user may be
the client’s paying customer, but their
interest is in achieving a satisfying
outcome to their own interaction. It is
this that the design team must
make happen.
‘Making the simple

complicated is
commonplace. Making
the complicated simple,
awesomely simple,
that’s creativity.’
– Charles Mingus

21
1.8
1.8
Overloading the user
The user may not be as
interactive savvy as the design
team. Don’t overstress them
with feature overload. Find out
what their flow is and design
for them. This ensures that the
user is a constant focus in the
design of the UI. In this example
from Baldur’s Gate, the use of
contextual ‘greyed out’ calls
to action indicates unavailable
options at that point in
the interaction.

Balancing the needs of client This can be achieved by conducting

and user deeper user research, involving the
user at each stage of the design
A smooth interactive flow is the result
process in one way or another.
of thorough research, implemented
Focusing on designing the user’s
into clear information architecture.
experience places design decisions
The client is not the actual end user.
within a context that forces everyone to
If research is based only on the client’s
be empathic to another human being
marketing research, the resulting flow
– the user. This empathy encourages
will reflect only what they would like
the design team and client to create
to feature in the UI. The desires of the
a UI that helps the users achieve their
client and the needs of the user must
individual goals.
be balanced so that the client gets a
return on their investment (ROI), and
the user is provided with a
satisfying interface.
1.9
UI Objectives UI Specifications Information Architecture U
Client Objectives (ROI) Content Personas F
User Needs Functionality Wireframes & Paper

and Goals Prototyping
CONCEPTION
Research Data Testing

UI FRONT- & BACK-END CODING (ma
THE USER
INFORMATION ARCHITECTURE (main res

23
1.9
Users are king
Building upon the diagram on
page 19, which demonstrated
the repositioning of the graphic
designer in the UI design
process, this diagram focuses
on where the user fits into the
design process. Visualized in a
white overlay, it is clear where
the user ‘is’. The user needs
to be a constant focus in the
design of a UI.
eUI Design
UI Design UI Design
UI Design UI Design
UI Design
Front-end
Front-end Back-end
Back-end Final Design
Final Design
COMPLETION
COMPLETION
ing TestingTesting TestingTesting TestingTesting

NG
ain responsibility
of the developer)
of the developer)
sponsibility
ain responsibility
of the information
of the information
architect)
architect)

Defining the user So, who is a user, in terms of UIs?

They all differ in experience levels in
The term ‘user’ is very generic and
different parts of their lives. They each
abstract. Marketing people have long
have differing needs and expectations
tried to define which demographic
of the modes of interaction they
categories consumers fit into.
encounter on a daily basis. Product
What age, gender, religion, sexual
designer Philippe Starck has a method
orientation, height, weight are we?
of re-humanizing the people that his
Where do we live, shop, exercise, or
team designs for. He insists that his
work? What is our income level? These
designers refer to them not as ‘users’,
sterile facts help clients effectively
but with terms such as ‘my friend’, ‘my
target their products and services at
partner’, ‘my mother’ or ‘my father’.
the most relevant demographic groups,
By personalizing the user in this way,
but as humans, we are more than this.
Starck forces his designers to instil in
the otherwise abstract user a human
persona. In this way, designing for their
goals will be easier, as their personality
can be catered for. A user persona
embodies this.
1.10

25
1.10
Anatomy of a profile
Ciaran Duffy, in his profiling of
different types of Twitter users,
creates personality archetypes
featuring (1) an image, (2) name,
(3) background information, (4)
goals, and (5) challenges faced.
These fun profiles are similar to
the user information used within
a persona.
1.11
Game profiles
Players of computer games will
be familiar with game character
profiles. To enrich the playing
experience, each character has
a detailed profile and backstory.
It may help to think of a user
persona profile like a playable
game character.
1.11

Designing personas Persona components
A user persona is an important tool in Personas contain a narrative based on the

the designer’s toolkit. It is an archetype user research:
(not a stereotype) created to represent A photo to personalize the persona

the target user(s) in a form that will Name and descriptive title
inspire the design team. It takes the
Background information
form of a profile with a name, an image
and various amounts of information Goals
on each type of user. The creation of Quote to summarize expectations

personas for a project really requires Breakdown of challenges faced
a graphic designer’s involvement to
make it valuable.
Personas are essentially a character

sheet created from information
gathered during research into the UI’s
typical users. They can be thought of
as an interface between the designer
and a much deeper understanding
of each type of user. This approach
humanizes an abstract part of the
design process, helping designers
to generate realistic ideas in order to
drive a user to a valuable goal and
understand how the UI should fulfil
them. When in doubt, the design team
should ask, ‘What would persona A or
B want at this point?’.
‘The design team should

ask, “What would persona 1.12
A or B want at this point?”.’ User persona
The use of personas at the
ideation stage helps the design
team identify their target
audience, summarizing user
motivations, expectations,
experience, knowledge
and desires.

27
1.12
Berenice Morella
UX Convert
Country: Italy
Age: 26
About Berenice
Berenice shares an apartment with two
friends in Milan. She is a first year
postgraduate student studying interaction
design at the Domus Academy. She had
worked previously as a junior graphic
designer in Rome before returning to
university to study user experience.
Berenice’s Goals
Wants to reposition Visual Communication
as a stronger influence on the design of
interactions away from the misconception
“I’d like to think that that she can only do the ‘aesthetic bit’ at
my design skills will the end of the project.
help people to have
more enjoyable user Challenges
It can be tedious to analyse the results
experiences” from research on the target user and she
feels that there must be some tool or
technique that will streamline the process.

28 Interview: Steve Krug Role
Web Usability
Consultant,
You have said that there You mentioned that Boston, USA
is a common sense element sophisticated designers still
to usability. Can you get UI design wrong. In your Experience
Author of Don’t
explain that? book you say, ‘There’s not a
Make Me Think:
right or wrong way of doing
Jakob Nielsen said that usability A Common Sense
it, but what works or Approach to
is based on human nature.
doesn’t work.’ Can you Web Usability
Technology changes really fast,
expand on that?
but human nature changes
Web
really slowly. So the things that I believe in being very pragmatic
www.sensible.com
confused us ten years ago still that way. You can implement
confuse us now. almost any design notion. You
can implement it well, or you
I do think that designers
can implement it badly.
have become much more
sophisticated about usability. That’s the thing with
Ten years ago it was very interface design. Not every
uneven, and a lot of people user is the same user. Not
were still transitioning from every interface you design
print and hadn’t gotten over it. is exactly the same as the
They’d never seen a usability last one that you’ve done.
test. They’d never worked with So this pragmatic stance
anybody who had worked with is something that I think a
user experience. There was designer needs to take on
nobody in the loop who was the board, because you can’t
user advocate. But since then, design the right thing all the
I think graphic designers have time, can you?
come a long way.
Right, and what you have to
So I think, overall, the level of keep you from having disasters
awareness that you have to is usability testing. I think you
have the user in mind when go in and you do your best shot
designing has increased fairly based on your instincts. But
dramatically. It’s rare that you then you’ve got to watch some
see somebody who’s just kind people try and use it. That’s
of completely blissfully ignorant when you find out if you’ve got
of it. They still make all kinds it right or not. Other than that,
of mistakes, because it is very you don’t know.
hard to get it all right. Even
sophisticated designers who
have a lot of experience still
make mistakes. Which is why
I’m such a big advocate for
doing some usability testing, no
matter who you are, because
there are things you’re not going
to be aware of until you actually
watch somebody try and use it.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
each name mentioned has a story of its own. Two publishers at the outset
attract our regard; except for them, much would have been lost to English
and American children.
As early as Elizabeth’s time, Rafe Newberie, Master of Stationer’s
Company, published Hakluyt’s “Voyages.” From him, John Newbery
(1713–1767) was descended. Given an ordinary schooling, he was
apprenticed to the printer, William Carnan, who, dying in 1737, divided his
worldly goods between his brother Charles, and his assistant John. The
latter, in order to cement his claim still further, married his employer’s
widow, by whom he had three children, Francis, his successor in the
publishing business, being born on July 6, 1743.
Newbery was endowed with much common sense. He travelled
somewhat extensively before settling in London, and, during his
wanderings, he jotted down rough notes, relating especially to his future
book trade; the remarks are worthy of a keen critic. During this time it is
hard to keep Newbery, the publisher, quite free from the picturesque career
of Newbery, the druggist; on the one hand Goldsmith might call him “the
philanthropic publisher of St. Paul’s Churchyard,” as he did in the “Vicar of
Wakefield,” which was first printed by Newbery and Benjamin Collins, of
Salisbury; on the other hand, in 1743, one might just as well have praised
him for the efficacy of the pills and powders he bartered. Now we find him
a shopkeeper, catering to the captains of ships from his warehouse, and
adding every new concoction to his stock of homeopathic deceptions. Even
Goldsmith could not refrain from having a slap at his friend in “Quacks
Ridiculed.”
He made money, however, and he associated with a literary set among
whom gold was much coveted and universally scarce. The portly Dr.
Johnson ofttimes borrowed a much-needed guinea, an unfortunate privilege,
for he had a habit of never working so long as he could feel money in his
pocket. This generosity on the part of Newbery did not deter Johnson from
showing his disapproval over many of the former’s publications. We can
well imagine the implied sarcasm in his declaration that Newbery was an
extraordinary man, “for I know not whether he has read, or written most
books.” Between 1744 and 1802, records indicate that Newbery and his
successors printed some three hundred volumes, two hundred of which
were juvenile; small wonder he needed the editorial assistance of such
persons as Dr. Johnson and Oliver Goldsmith.
One of the first pieces the latter let Newbery have, was an article for the
Literary Magazine of January, 1758. Then there came into existence The
Universal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette in April, 1758, for which Johnson
wrote “The Idler.” In 1759, The British Magazine or Monthly Repository for
Gentlemen and Ladies, by T. Smollett, M.D., and others was announced,
Smollett then taking a rest cure in jail. As though magazines could be
launched in a few hours without sinking, a daily sheet called the Public
Ledger was brought into existence on January 12, 1760, for which
Goldsmith wrote his “Chinese Letters.” Between this date and 1767,
Goldsmith resided in a room on the upper floor of Newbery’s house at
Islington, and the publisher’s son declares that while there Goldsmith read
to him odd parts of “The Traveller” and the “Vicar of Wakefield.” This has
not so much evidence to support it as the fact that bills presented at the front
door for Goldsmith, usually found their way to Newbery for settlement.
How much actual suggestion Goldsmith gave to his publisher-employer,
how far he influenced the character of the books to be printed, cannot be
determined; he and Griffith and Giles Jones assuredly encouraged the
juvenile picture stories. An advertisement of 1765 calls attention to the
following: “The Renowned History of Giles Gingerbread, a little boy who
lived upon learning” [the combination is very appropriate in its
compensating qualities of knowledge and “sweets”]; “The Whitsuntide Gift,
or the Way to be Happy”; “The Valentine Gift, or how to behave with
honour, integrity and humanity”; and “The History of Little Goody Two
Shoes, otherwise called Margery Two Shoes.”
Though he could not wholly escape the charge of catering to the moral
craze of the time, Newbery at least infused into his little books something
of imagination and something of heroic adventure; not sufficient however to
please Dr. Johnson, who once said: “Babies do not want to hear about
babies; they like to be told of giants and castles, and of somewhat which
can stretch and stimulate their little minds.” A thrust at the ignorance of
grown people, regarding what children like, is further seen in Johnson’s
remark that parents buy, but girls and boys seldom read what is calculated
for them.
There are many to praise Newbery’s prints; they were more or less
oddities, even in their own time. Their usefulness was typified in such
books as the “Circle of Sciences,” a compendium of universal knowledge;
their attractiveness was dependent not only upon the beauty of their make,
but also upon the queerness of their format; for example, such volumes as
were called the snuff-box series, or ready references for waistcoat pockets.
Then there was the combination plan, indicated in the announcement: “A
Little Pretty Pocket-Book, intended for the Instruction and Amusement of
Little Master Tommy and Pretty Miss Polly, with an agreeable letter to read
from Jack-the-Giant-Killer, as also a Ball and Pincushion, the use of which
will infallibly make Tommy a Good Boy, and Polly a Good Girl.... Price of
the Book alone, 6d., with a Ball or Pincushion, 8d.”
The variety of Newbery’s ideas resulted in every species of book-
publishing, from a children’s magazine (The Lilliputian), with Goldsmith as
the reputed editor, to a child’s grammar. Interested one moment in a
machine for the colouring of silks and cloths, at another he would be
extolling the fever powders of Dr. James, a whilom schoolfellow of
Johnson. He was untiring in his business activity. His firm changed name
many times, but always Newbery remained the dominant figure. After his
death, the business continued for some while to be identified with its
founder, and for a long period his original policy was continued. Francis
Newbery, the son, left an autobiography of historic value.
Newbery’s real genius consisted in his trading ability. Modern
advertising is not more clever than that practised by this shrewd man of the
eighteenth century. Not only was he in the habit of soliciting puffs, and of
making some of the characters in his stories proclaim the excellencies of his
books, but the personal note and the friendly feeling displayed in his
newspaper items were uncommonly intimate. Witness the London
Chronicle for December 19–January 1, 1765:
“The Philosophers, Politicians, Necromancers, and the learned in every
faculty are desired to observe that on the first of January, being New Year’s
day (oh, that we all may lead new lives!), Mr. Newbery intends to publish
the following important volumes, bound and gilt, and hereby invites all his
little friends who are good to call for them at the Bible and Sun, in St.
Paul’s Churchyard, but those who are naughty to have none.”
Thomas in later years adopted the same method of advertising.
The most thorough piece of research work done by Mr. Charles Welsh is
his “A Bookseller of the Last Century.” Had he aimed at nothing more than
preserving the catalogue of Newbery’s books, he would have rendered a
great service to the library student. But he has in addition written a very
complete life of Newbery. When it is noted that this printer was brought
into business relations with Robert Raikes, and was further connected with
him by the union of Newbery’s son with Raikes’ sister, it is safe to believe
that some of the piousness which crept into the publisher’s wares was
encouraged by the zealous spirit of the founder of Sunday-schools. Raikes
will be dealt with in his proper place.
Newbery was what may be termed an enthusiastic publisher, a careful
manufacturer of books of the flower-and-gilt species. As a friend he has
been pictured nothing loath to help the needy, but always with generous
security and heavy interest attached; he was a business man above all else,
and that betokens keenness for a bargain, a keenness akin to cleverness
rather than to graciousness. In his “Life of Goldsmith,” Washington Irving
is inclined to be severe in his estimate; he writes:
“The poet [Goldsmith] has celebrated him as the friend of all mankind;
he certainly lost nothing by his friendship. He coined the brains of authors
in the times of their exigency, and made them pay dear for the plank put out
to keep them from drowning. It is not likely his death caused much
lamentation among the scribbling tribe.”
One difficulty Newbery had to contend with was the piracy of his books;
there was no adequate protection afforded by the copyright system, and we
read of Goldsmith and Johnson bewailing the literary thievery of the day.
By some it was regarded as a custom to be accepted; by others as a
deplorable condition beyond control. Early American authorship suffered
from the same evil, and Irving and Cooper were the two prominent victims.
The book list of Isaiah Thomas (1749–1831), the Worcester,
Massachusetts printer, shows how freely he drew from the London
bookseller. Called by many the Didot of America, founder of the American
Antiquarian Society, author of one of the most authentic histories of early
printing in this country, he is the pioneer of children’s books for America.
He scattered his presses and stores over a region embracing Worcester and
Boston, Mass.; Concord, N. H.; Baltimore, Md.; and Albany, N. Y. Books
were kept by him, so he vouched, specially for the instruction and
amusement of children, to make them safe and happy. In his “Memoirs”
there is found abundant material to satisfy one as to the nature of reading
for young folks in New England, previous to the Revolution.
Emerson writes in his “Spiritual Laws” regarding “theological
problems”; he calls them “the soul’s mumps and measles and whooping-
cough.” Already the sombre sternness of Colonial literature for children has
been typified in the “New England Primer.” The benefits of divine songs
and praises; the reiteration of the joy to parents, consequent upon the
behaviour of godly children; the mandates, the terrible finger of retribution,
the warning to all sinners lurking in the throat disease which was prevalent
at one time—all these ogres rise up in the Thomas book to crush juvenile
exuberance. Does it take much description to get at the miserable heart of
the early piety displayed by the heroines of Cotton Mather’s volumes, those
stone images of unthinkable children who passed away early, who were
reclaimed from disobedience, “children in whom the fear of God was
remarkably budding before they died”? Writers never fail to say, in
speaking of Thomas White’s “Little Book for Children” (reprint of 1702),
that its immortality, in the face of all its theology, is centred in one famous
untheological line, “A was an archer who shot at a frog.”
What Thomas did, when he began taking from Newbery, was to change
colloquial English terms to fit new environment; the coach no longer
belongs to the Lord Mayor, but to the Governor instead.[29] The text is only
slightly altered. We recognise the same little boys who would become great
masters; the same ear-marks stigmatise the heroines of “The Juvenile
Biographer,” insufferable apostles of surname-meaning, Mistresses
Allgood, Careful, and Lovebook, together with Mr. Badenough. Oh, Betsey
and Nancy and Amelia and Billy, did you know what it was to romp and
play?
The evident desire on the part of Miss Hewins, in her discussion of early
juvenile books, to emphasise the playful, in her quotations from Thomas’
stories, only indicates that there was little levity to deal with. Those were
the days of gilded “Gifts” and “Delights”; the pleasures of childhood were
strangely considered; goodness was inculcated by making the hair stand on
end in fright, by picturing to the naughty boy what animal he was soon to
turn into, and what foul beast’s disposition was akin to that of the fractious
girl. Intentions, both of an educational and religious nature, were excellent,
no doubt; but, when all is estimated, the residue presents a miserable,
lifeless ash.[30]
So far no distinctive writer for children has arisen. The volumes issued
by Newbery represent a conscious attempt to appeal through form to the
juvenile eye. If the books were addressed intentionally to children, their
amusement consisted in some extraneous novelty; it was rarely contained in
the story. Action rather than motive is the redeeming feature of “Goody
Two Shoes.” As for religious training, it was administered to the child with
no regard for his individual needs. He represented a theological stage of sin;
the world was a long dark road, through the maze of which, by his birth, he
was doomed to fight his little way. Life was a probationary period.
It is now necessary to leave the New England book, and to return to it
through another channel. The viewpoint shifts slightly; a new element is to
be added: a self-conscious recognition of education for children. The
sternness of the “New England Primer” possessed strength. The didactic
school, retaining the moral factor,—several points removed from theology
—sentimentalised it; for many a day it was to exist in juvenile literature
rampant. And, overflowing its borders, it was to influence later chap-books,
and some of the later publications of Thomas and Newbery. Through
Hannah More, it was to grip Peter Parley, and finally to die out on
American shores. For “Queechy” and “The Wide, Wide World” represent
the final flowering of this style. In order to retain a clear connection, it is
necessary to watch both streams, educational and moral, one at first
blending with the other, and flourishing in this country through a long list of
New England authors, until, in the end, the educational, increasing in
volume, conquered altogether.
Bibliographical Note
The Babees Book—Ed. Frederick J. Furnivall, M.A. Published for the
Early English Text Society. London, Trübner, 1868.
In the foreword, note the following:
Education in early England:
1. In Nobles’ Houses; 2. At Home and at Private Tutors’; 3. At English
Universities; 4. At Foreign Universities; 5. At Monastic and Cathedral
Schools; 6. At Grammar Schools. Vide the several other prefaces.
This collection contains:
1. The Babees Book, or a ‘Lytyl Reporte’ of How Young People
Should Behave (circa 1475 a.d.); 2. The A B C of Aristotle (1430 a.d.);
3. The Book of Curteisie That is Clepid Stans Puer ad Mensam (1430
a.d.); 4. The boke of Nurture, or Schoole of good maners: For Men,
Servants, and children (1577); 5. The Schoole of Vertue, and booke of
good Nourture for chyldren and youth to learne theyr dutie by (1557).
Vide Vol. iv, Percy Society, London, 1841:1. The Boke of Curtasye, ed.
J. O. Halliwell. 2. Specimens of Old Christmas Carols, ed. T. Wright. 3.
The Nursery Rhymes of England, ed. J. O. Halliwell, 1842: a. Historical;
b. Tales; c. Jingles; d. Riddles; e. Proverbs; f. Lullabies; g. Charms; h.
Games; i. Literal; j. Paradoxes; k. Scholastic; l. Customs; m. Songs; n.
Fragments.
Vide Vol. xxix, Percy Society, London, 1849. Notices of Fugitive
Tracts and Chap-books printed at Aldermary Churchyard, Bow
Churchyard, etc., ed. J. O. Halliwell.
Ashton, John—Chap-books of the 18th Century.

Ashton, John—Social Life in the Time of Queen Anne.
Bergengren, R.—Boswell’s Chap-books and Others. Lamp, 28:39–44
(Feb., 1904).
Chambers, W.—Historical Sketch of Popular Literature and Its Influence
on Society, 1863.
Cunningham, R. H.—Amusing Prose Chap-books. Glasgow, 1889.
Faxon, Frederick Winthrop—A Bibliography of the Modern Chap-books
and their Imitators (Bulletin of Bibl. Pamphl. No. 11), Boston Book Co.,
1903. [A “freak” movement, beginning with the publication of Chap-
book, at Cambridge, May 15, 1894.]
Ferguson, Chancellor—On the Chap-books in the Bibliotheca
Jacksoniana in Tullie House, Carlisle. Archaeolog. Jour., 52:292 (1895).
Fraser, John—Scottish Chap-books. (2 pts.) New York, Hinton, 1873.
Gerring, Charles—Notes on Printers and Booksellers, with a Chapter on
Chap-books. London, 1900.
Halliwell, James Orchard—A Catalogue of Chap-books, Garlands, and
Popular Histories in the Possession of Halliwell. London, 1849.
Harvard College Library—Catalogue of English and American Chap-
books and Broadside Ballads in 1905 (Bibl. contrib. No. 56).
Nisard, Marie Léonard Charles—Histoire des Livres Populaires ou de la
Littérature du Colportage, depuis l’origine de l’imprimerie jusqu’ à
l’établissement de la Commission d’examen des livres du Colportage (30
Nov., 1852) [2 vols.]. Paris, Dentu, 1864.
Pearson, Edwin—Banbury Chap-books and Nursery Toy Book Literature
of the 18th and Early 19th Centuries. London, 1890.
Pyle, Howard—Chap-book Heroes. Harper’s Monthly Magazine, 81:123
(1890).
Sieveking, S. Giberne—The Mediæval Chap-book as an Educational
Factor in the Past. The Reliquary and Illus. Archaeolog., 9:241 (1903).
The student is referred to the following invaluable reference for matter

relating to New England literature: Catalogue of the American Library of
the Late Mr. George Brinley of Hartford, Conn. (5 pts.) Hartford: Press of
the Case, Lockwood, and Brainard Co., 1878–97. Not completed.
Comprising a list of Books printed at Cambridge and Boston, 1640–
1709.
Pt. I.—The Bay Psalm Book, No. 847; Almanacs, 1646–1707; The
Mathers, Special Chapter of References.
Pt. III.—Bibles, 146; Catechisms and Primers, New England Primer,
158; Music and Psalmody, 163; Psalms and Hymns, 172.
Pt. IV.—Continuation of Psalms and Hymns; Bibl. Ref. to
Denominational Churches, Law, Government, Political Economy,
Sciences, etc.; Popular Literature: Jest Books, Anecdotes, 131; Chap-
books, 135; Books for Children, 139; Mother Goose, 140; Primers and
Catechisms, 141; Educational, 143; Almanacs, 163; Theology, 177.
Pt. V.—Newspapers and Periodicals, 137.
Ford, Paul Leicester—The New England Primer (ed.). N. Y., Dodd,
Mead, 1897. (Edition limited.) [Vide excellent bibliography.]
The New England Primer. Bookman, 4:122–131 (Oct., 1896).
Johnson, Clifton—The New England Primer. New England Mag., n.s.
28:323. (May, 1903.) [Some essential data, but written superficially.]
Marble, Annie Russell—Early New England Almanacs. New England
Mag., n.s. 19:548. (Jan., 1899.) [Vide also Griswold’s Curiosities of
American Literature; Tyler’s History of American Literature; Thomas’s
History of Printing. A collection of Almanacs is owned by the Am.
Antiq. Soc., Worcester, Mass.]
Collin de Plancy—Memories of Perrault.

Dillaye, Frédéric—Les Contes de Perrault (ed.). Paris, 1880.
Lang, Andrew—Perrault’s Popular Tales; edited from the original
editions, with an introduction by. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1888. [A
concise and agreeable introduction to the study of folk-lore in general,
and of a few noted tales in particular.]
Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales—Madame D’Aulnoy, Charles Perrault, etc.
Little, Brown, $1.00.
Old French Fairy Tales—C. Perrault, Madame D’Aulnoy. Little, Brown,
$1.00.
D’Anois, Countess—Fairy Tales, Translated from the French of. (2 vols.)
London, 1817.
D’Aulnoy, Comtesse—Mémoires de la. [Vide Collection pour les jeunes
filles.]
Hale, Edward Everett—Reprint of the Monroe and Francis Mother
Goose.
Green, P. B.—History of Nursery Rhymes. London, 1899.
Headland, J. T.—Chinese Mother Goose. Chicago, 1900.
Halliwell, J. O.—Nursery Rhymes of England; collected principally from
oral tradition. London, 1842. [The Percy Society, Early English Poetry.]
Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales. A Sequel to Nursery Rhymes.
London, 1849.
Ritson, Joseph—Gammer Gurton’s Garland; or, The Nursery Parnassus.
London, 1810; reprint 1866.
Welsh, Charles—An Appeal for Nursery Rhymes and Jingles. Dial
(Chicago), 27:230 (1 Oct., 1899).
Father of Children’s Books—Current Literature, 27:110.

Welsh, Charles—A Bookseller of the Last Century. Griffith, Farren & Co.
London.
Batchelder, F. R.—Patriot Printer. New England Mag., n.s. 25:284 (N.

‘01).
Evans, Charles—American Bibliography. A Chronological Dictionary of
all Books, Pamphlets, and Periodical Publications Printed in the United
States of America. From the genesis of Printing in 1639 Down to and
Including the Year 1820. With Bibliographical and Biographical Notes.
Privately Printed for the Author by the Blakely Press, Chicago. Anno
Domini mdcccciii. Thus far issued: Vol. I. 1639–1729; Vol. II. 1730–
1750; Vol. III. 1751–1764.
Livingston, L. S.—American Publisher of a Hundred Years Ago.

Bookman, 11:530 (Aug., ’00).
Nichols, Charles L.—Some Notes on Isaiah Thomas and his Worcester
Imprints. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1899–1900, n.s., 13:429.
Thomas, Benjamin Franklin—Memoir of Isaiah Thomas. By his
Grandson. Boston, 1874.
Hewins, Caroline M.—The History of Children’s Books. Atlantic, 61:112
(Jan., 1888).
Welsh, Charles.—The Early History of Children’s Books in New
England. New England Mag., n.s. 20:147–60 (April, 1899).
Yonge, Charlotte M.—Children’s Literature of the Last Century. Liv.
Age, 102:373 (Aug. 7, 1869); 612 (Sept. 4, 1869); 103:96 (Oct. 9, 1869).
FOOTNOTES
[15] In “The Child and His Book,” by Mrs. E. M. Field (London: Wells
Gardner, Darton & Co., 1892), the reader is referred to chapters: Before
the Norman Conquest; Books from the Conquest to Caxton; The Child
in England, 1066–1640. Her researches form an invaluable contribution
to the history of children’s books, furnishing sources for considerable
speculation. Much is included of interest to the antiquarian only.
[16] Thomas Newbery was the author. Vide Fugitive Tracts, 1875.
Hazlitt and Huth.
[17] As early as 1262, the macaronic style of delivering sermons was
customary. The gradual substitution of the vernacular for Latin is dealt
with in the introduction to the present author’s edition of “Everyman,”
1903, xxvii.
[18] Chap = An abbreviation of Chapman, which seems to have come
into vulgar use in the end of the 16th c.; but it is rare in books, even in
the dramatists, before 1700. It was not recognised by Johnson. 1577
Breton Toyes Idle Head (Grosart). Those crusty chaps I cannot love. a.
A buyer, purchaser, customer.
Chap-book = f. chap in Chapman + Book. A modern name applied
by book collectors and others to specimens of the popular literature
which was formerly circulated by itinerant dealers or chapmen,
consisting chiefly of small pamphlets of popular tales, etc. 1824 Dibdin
Libr. Comp. It is a chap-book, printed in rather neat black letter. 1882 J.
Ashton Chap-books, 18th Century in Athenæum 2 Sept. 302/1. A great
mass of chap-books.
Chapman = [OE. Céapmann = OHG. Choufman (OHG., MHG.
Koufman), Ger. Kaufmann.] A man whose business is buying and
selling; a merchant, trader, dealer. Vide 890 K. Ælfred Bæda. Vide
further, A New English Dictionary. Murray, Oxford.
[19] “The History of Tom Hickathrift” is regarded as distinctively
English; its literary qualities were likened by Thackeray to Fielding.
Vide Fraser’s Magazine.
[20] The notice ran as follows: “Advertisement: There is now in the
Press, and will suddenly be extant, a Second Impression of The New
England Primer, enlarged, to which is added, more Directions for
Spelling; the Prayer of K. Edward the 6th, and Verses made by Mr.
Rogers, the Martyr, left as a Legacy to his Children. Sold by Benjamin
Harris, at the London Coffee-House in Boston.”
[21] Three typical examples of later reprints are: The N. E. Primer,
Walpole, N. H., I. Thomas & Co., 1814; The N. E. Primer Improved for
the More Easy Attaining the True Reading of English. To which is added
The Assembly of Divines and Episcopal Catechisms. N. Y., 1815; The
N. E. Primer, or an Easy and Pleasant Guide to the Art of Reading,
Mass. Sabbath School Soc., 1841.
[22] Another writer of Contes des fées was Mme. Jeanne Marie Le
Prince de Beaumont (1711–1780), author of “Magasins des Enfans, des
Adolescens et des Dames.”
[23] The Original Mother Goose’s Melody, as first issued by John
Newbery, of London, about a.d. 1760. Reproduced in facsimile from the
edition as reprinted by Isaiah Thomas, of Worcester, Mass., about a.d.
1785. With Introductory Notes by William H. Whitmore. Albany,
Munsell, 1889. [Vide N. E. Hist. and Geneal. Regist., 1873, pp. 144, 311;
Proceed. Am. Antiq. Soc., Oct., 1888, p. 406.]
[24] Lang says the term Mother Goose appears in Loret’s “La Muse
Historique” (Lettre v., 11 Juin, 1650). Vide also Deulin, Charles—Les
Contes de Ma Mère L’Oye, avant Perrault. Paris, 1878; and Halliwell, J.
O.—Percy Society.
[25] He was the author also of a “History of Animated Nature.”
[26] A list of his publications is owned by the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
[27] Vide Notes and Queries, June, 1875, 5th series, iii, 441. Prof.
Edward F. Rimbault.
[28] Gentleman’s Magazine, 1826, Pt. ii, 467–69.
[29] Nurse Truelove’s New Year’s Gift; or, the Book of Books for
Children. Adorned with Cuts; and designed for a Present to every little
Boy who would become a great Man, and ride upon a fine Horse; and to
every little Girl, who would become a great Woman, and ride in a
Governour’s Gilt Coach.
[30] An interesting field of investigation: Early New England Printers.
Mr. Welsh mentions a few in article referred to, p.60. A full list of
Printers and Publishers (North and South) given in Evans’s American
Bibliography.
III. THE OLD-FASHIONED LIBRARY
A child should not need to choose between right and wrong. It
should not be capable of wrong; it should not conceive of wrong.
Obedient, as bark to helm, not by sudden strain or effort, but in the
freedom of its bright course of constant life; true, with an
undistinguished, painless, unboastful truth, in a crystalline
household world of truth; gentle, through daily entreatings of
gentleness, and honourable trusts, and pretty prides of child-
fellowship in offices of good; strong, not in bitter and doubtful
contest with temptation, but in peace of heart, and armour of
habitual right, from which temptation falls like thawing hail; self-
commanding, not in sick restraint of mean appetites and covetous
thoughts, but in vital joy of unluxurious life, and contentment in
narrow possession, wisely esteemed.—John Ruskin, in an
introduction to Grimm’s “German Popular Tales,” illustrated by
Cruikshank.
I. The Rousseau Impetus.

Mr. E. V. Lucas has compiled two volumes of old-fashioned tales for
modern readers. In his introductions he analyses the qualities of his selected
stories, and it is generally the case that, except for incidental detail, what is
said of one of a kind might just as appropriately be meant for the other. If,
at moments, the editor is prone to confuse quaintness with interest, he
makes full amends by the quick humour with which he deals with the moral
purpose. Perhaps it was part of the game for our great-grandfathers to
expect didacticism, but simply because children were then considered “the
immature young of men” is no excuse, although it may be a reason, for the
artificiality which subserved play to contemplation. Wherever he can
escape the bonds of primness, Mr. Lucas never fails to take advantage; the
character of his selections indicates this as well as such critical remarks as
the following:
“The way toward a nice appreciation of the child’s own peculiar
characteristics was, however, being sought by at least two writers of the
eighteenth century, each of whom was before his time: Henry Brooke, who
in ‘The Fool of Quality’ first drew a small boy with a sense of fun, and
William Blake, who was the first to see how exquisitely worth study a
child’s mind may be.”
Mr. Lucas brings together a number of stories by different persons,
treating them as a group. Should you read them you will have a fairly
distinct conception of early nineteenth century writing for children. But
there is yet another way of approaching the subject, and that is by tracing
influence from writer to writer, from group to group; by seeking for the
impetus without which the story becomes even more of a husk than ever.
Let us conjure up the long row of theoretical children of a bygone age,
painfully pathetic in their staidness, closely imprisoned. They began with
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), the iconoclast, who attacked civil
society, the family, the state, the church, and from whose pen the school did
not escape chastisement. His universal cry of “back to nature” frightened
the conservative; even Voltaire could not refrain, on reading the essay
dealing with the origin of inequality among men, to write him: “Never has
any one employed so much genius to make us into beasts. When one reads
your book he is seized at once with a desire to go down on all-fours.”
Rousseau’s “Émile, or Treatise on Education” (1762) was wholly
revolutionary; it tore down ancient theories, such as those practised by Dr.
Isaac Watts upon his “ideal” boy and girl; all existent educational strictures
were ignored. Rousseau applied to childhood his belief in the free unfolding
of man’s nature; however impracticable his methods, he loosed the chains
that held fast the claims of childhood, and recognised their existence. He set
the pendulum swinging in the human direction; he turned men’s minds upon
the study of the child as a child, and, because of this, takes his place at the
head of modern education. He opened the way for a self-conscious striving
on the part of authors to meet the demands of a child’s nature, by furnishing
the best literary diet—according to educational theories—for juvenile
minds. Revolutionary in religious as well as in political and social ideals,
Rousseau’s educational machinery was destined to be infused, by some of
his zealous followers, with a piousness which he never would have
sanctioned.
Training should be natural, says Rousseau; the child should discover
beauty, not be told about it; should recognise spontaneously what he is now
taught. Education should be progressive; at the same time it should be
negative. This sounds contradictory, but Rousseau would keep his child a
child until the age of twelve; he would prevent him from knowing through
any mental effort; he would have him grow like “Topsy” in animal spirits,
his mind unbridled and imbibing facts as his lungs breathe in air. Yet
inconsistency is evident from the outset: the child must observe, at the same
time he must not remember. Is it possible, as Professor Payne challenges, to
form the mind before furnishing it?
Rousseau’s precepts are wise and brilliant. We hear him exclaiming: “It is
less consequence to prevent him [the child] from dying than to teach him
how to live;” “The man who has lived most is not he who has numbered the
most years, but he who has had the keenest sense of life;” “The best bed is
that which brings us the best sleep.” These aphorisms are as apt as those of
Franklin; but in their exercise it is necessary to consider the concomitants
brought into play.
Émile is made an orphan; thus Rousseau gives himself full sway; thus
does he free himself from the necessity of constant consultation with
parents. He is determined to love the boy, to encourage him in his sports, to
develop his amiable instincts, his natural self. Émile must not cry for the
sweets of life; he must have a need for all things rather than a joyful desire
for some. Instead of teaching virtue to him, Rousseau will try to shield him
from a knowledge of all vice. Where Plato recommends certain pastimes, he
will train Émile to delight in himself—thus making of him something of a
youthful egoist. This amœba state, endowed with all physical liberty,
deprived of all dignity of childish memory, is to be the boyhood of Émile.
He “shall never learn anything by heart, not even fables and not even those
of La Fontaine, artless and charming as they are.” Though he does not
possess the judgment to discriminate, he must be told the bare facts, and he
must discover for himself the relations which these facts bear to each other.
At the age of twelve, he shall hardly know a book when he sees it.
Rousseau calls books “cheerless furniture.”
So much for the boy; the girl Sophie fares as ill. Being of the woman
kind as well as of the child brand, she is to develop in even a more
colourless fashion. Fortunately all theory is not human actuality, and Émile
must have peopled his world in a way Rousseau could not prevent. We are
given natural rights and hereditary endowments; even the savage has his
standards and his dreams. Rousseau’s plan of existence ignored the social
evolution of history. Yet Émile might by such training have been saved
many wearisome explanations of the Mr. Barlow type, and it is ofttimes
true, as Mr. G. K. Chesterton claims, that the mysteries of God are
frequently more understandable than the solutions of man.
There was much in Rousseau’s book to rouse opposition; there was
equally as much to appeal to those whose instinctive love of childhood was
simply awaiting the flood gates to be opened. Like the Grimm fairy tales of
suspended animation, on the instant, the paternal instinct began to be active,
the maternal instinct to be motherly. Rousseau—emended, modified,
accentuated—overran England, France, and Germany. Children were now
recognised as children; it remained to be seen whether they were to be
children.
The didactic era is in no way more fitly introduced than with the names
of Madame de Genlis and Arnaud Berquin in France, together with the
Edgeworth and Aikin families and Thomas Day in England. To each, small
space may be allotted, but they are worthy of full and separate
consideration.
Stéphanie Félicité [Ducrest de St. Aubin], Comtesse de Genlis (1746–
1830), is represented upon the library shelves by nearly a hundred volumes.
They were written during the course of a varied existence, at the court of
Louis XV and at home. Her Mémoires are told in a facile and delightful
style, and indicate how she so thoroughly balanced the many conflicting
elements in her duties that she remains for those days a rare example of
wife, mother, society woman, and student. Her discernment of people, as
revealed in these pages, was penetrating and on the whole just; and, though
a typical product of her time, her nature was chastened by a refined and
noble spirit.
The first glimpse she affords of herself is as a child of six, when she was
taken to Paris. There, her brother was placed at a seat of learning, where the
master guaranteed within six weeks’ time to teach him reading and spelling
by means of a system of counters. The little girl’s teeth were shedding—not
a prepossessing phase of growth at best. But, in addition, she was encased
in whalebone stays, her feet were squeezed into tight shoes, her curls done
up in corkscrew papers, and she was forced to wear goggles. The height of
cruelty now followed. Country-bred as she had been, her manner was not in
accord with the best ideas; her awkwardness was a matter of some concern.
In order to give better poise to her head, a thick iron collar was clapped
upon her supple throat. Here she was then, ready for regular lessons in
walking. To run was to court disfavour, for little girls, especially city ones,
were not allowed to do such an improper thing; to leap was an unspeakable
crime; and to ask questions was an unwarranted license. It is small wonder
that later on she should utilise the memory of such abject slavery in “The
Dove,” one of the numerous plays included in her “Theatre of Education.”
Her early years thus prepared Madame de Genlis for the willing
acceptance of any new educational system, especially one which would
advocate a constant companionship between parents and child. For she had
been reared with but exceptional glimpses of her father and mother; during
one of these times she relates how the former, in his desire to make her
brave, forced her to catch spiders in her hands. Such a picture is worthy a
place by the side of Little Miss Muffet.
Like all children, Madame de Genlis was superior to her limited
pleasures; she possessed an imagination which expanded and placed her in
a heroic world of her own making. There is peculiar pleasure in discovering
under narrow circumstances the good, healthy spirit of youth. Madame de
Genlis seemed proud to record a certain dare-devil rebellion in herself
during this period. The pendulum that is made to swing to its unnatural bent
brings with the downward stroke unexpected consequences. And so, when
she married De Genlis, it is no surprise to read that she did so secretly—a
union which is most charmingly traced in the Memoirs.
She developed into a woman with deep religious sensibility; with
forceful personality; with artistic talent, well exemplified by a masterly
execution on the harp. Living in an atmosphere of court fêtes, the drama
occupied no small part in her daily life. Whether at her Château Genlis or
elsewhere, she was ever ready for her rôle in theatricals, as dramatist or as
actress. She played in Molière, and was accounted excellent in her
characters; naught pleased her better than a disguise; beneath it her vivacity
always disported itself.
Her interest in teaching began early; no sooner was she a mother than she
hastened to fix her opinions as to the duties that lay before her, in a written
treatise called “Reflections of a Mother Twenty Years of Age,” views which
in their first form were lost, but which were rehabilitated in the later “Adèle
et Théodore,” consisting of a series of letters on education.
After her mind had been drawn to the style of Buffon—for Madame de
Genlis was a widely read woman—she determined upon improving her own
manner of literary expression. She burned her bridges behind her, and fed
the flames with all of her early manuscripts. Then she started over again to
reconstruct her views, and in her study she made careful notes of what she
fancied of importance for her future use. She was on intimate terms with
Rousseau, took him to the theatre, and conversed with him on education
chiefly, and about diverse matters generally. If she did not agree with him,
Madame de Genlis was told that she had not as yet reached the years of
discretion when she would find his writings suited to her. But Rousseau
enjoyed the vivacious lady, who was kind-hearted and worth while talking
to, notwithstanding the fact that she had the courtier’s love of banter. She
writes:
“Not to appear better than I am, I must admit that I have often been given
to ridicule others, but I have never ridiculed anything but arrogance, folly,
and pedantry.”
Madame de Genlis was not a hero-worshipper; on first meeting
Rousseau, his coat, his maroon-coloured stockings, his round wig suggested
comedy to her, rather than gravity. We wonder whether she asked his advice
regarding the use of pictures in teaching history, a theory which she
originated and which Mrs. Trimmer was to follow in her Bible lessons. Full
as the days were, Madame de Genlis, nevertheless, seems to have been able
to give to her children every care and attention. This must have won the
unstinted commendation of Rousseau, who preached that a boy’s tutor
should be his father, and not a hired person.
Madame de Genlis created her own theatre; she wrote little comedies of
all kinds, which met with great success. Often these would be presented in
the open air, upon platforms erected beneath the shade of forest trees; by
means of the drama she sought to teach her daughters elementary lessons of
life; the stage to her was an educational force. Through the plays her
popularity and reputation increased to such an extent, that the Electress of
Saxony demanded her friendship. She became instructress to the children of
the Duke and Duchess of Chartres, and she prided herself upon being the
first in France to adopt the foreign method of teaching language by
conversation.[31] The rooms for her royal pupils were fitted according to her
special indications. Rough sketches were made upon a wall of blue,
representing medals, busts of kings and emperors of Rome. Dates and
names were frescoed within easy view. Every object was utilised, even to
the fire screens, which were made to represent the kings of France; and over
the balustrades were flung maps, like banners upon the outer walls.
Up and down such staircases, and through such rooms wandered the
cultivated flowers of royalty. They did not suffer, because their teacher was
luckily human as well as theoretical; because she had a vein of humour as
well as a large seriousness. Her whole educational scheme is described in
her “Lessons of a Governess” and “Adèle et Théodore.” When she engaged
a tutor to attend to the special studies of the young prince in her charge, she
suggested the keeping of an hourly journal which would record the little
fellow’s doings—each night she, herself, to write critical comments upon
the margins of every page. In addition, she kept a faithful record of
everything coming within her own observation; and this she read aloud each
day to her pupils, who had to sign their names to the entries. But much to
the chagrin of Madame de Genlis, the Duke and Duchess refused to take the
time to read the voluminous manuscripts; they trusted to the wisdom and
discretion of the teacher.
Not a moment was lost during these busy periods; history was played in
the garden, and civic processions were given with ponies gaily caparisoned.
Even a real theatre was built for them. Royalty was taught to weave, and
was taken on instructive walks and on visits to instructive places. But,
through all this artificiality, the woman in Madame de Genlis saved the
teacher.
The latter part of her eventful life was filled with vexations, for the
thunders of the French Revolution rolled about her. A short while before the
storm broke, she went on a visit to England, where she came in contact with
Fox and Sheridan, with Walpole and Reynolds; and where she paid a
special visit to the House of Commons and was a guest at Windsor.
All told, here was a writer for children, self-conscious and yet ofttimes
spontaneous in her style. She is interesting because of herself, and in spite
of many of her literary attempts. She is little read to-day, in fact rarely
mentioned among juvenile book lists; education killed a keen perception
and vivacity by forcing them along prescribed lines. One glimpse of
Madame de Genlis in old age is recorded by Maria Edgeworth, who called
on her in 1803.
“She came forward, and we made our way towards her as well as we
could, through a confusion of tables, chairs, and work-baskets, china,
writing-desks and inkstands, and bird-cages and a harp.... She looked like
the full-length picture of my great-great-grandmother Edgeworth you may
have seen in the garret, very thin and melancholy, but her face not so

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Interface Design An introduction to

visual communication in UI design

Visual Experiences: A Concise Guide to Digital

Nelson Visual Communication Design VCE 4th Edition

Humanizing Visual Design The Rhetoric Of Human Forms In

Digital Wood Design Innovative Techniques of

Exploring Engineering: An Introduction to Engineering

Structural wood design: ASD/LRFD Aghayere

How to Design Programs An Introduction to Programming

An Introduction to Systems Biology Design Principles of

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50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

Bloomsbury is a registered trade mark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published 2014

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or

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Printed and bound in China

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Finding the flow: Designing interaction 36

Graphical user interfaces 38

Graphic design for digital media 66

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Designing the aesthetic 110

Design and the user 112

Collaborating with the developer 138

The principles of designing modularity 140

Augmenting human capabilities 158

QR codes – print meets interaction 160

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An interface is the contact point The driver of a car doesn’t

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Please type the URL into your web browser

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Aims The chapters

This book aims to do three fresh things Chapter 1 focuses on establishing

The terms ‘visual designer’ and

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This chapter looks at visual communication

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Interface design is a complex Graphic designers in the UI team

Aesthetics is an integral part of the

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Neither Mars nor Venus It takes effort to see a project from

The UI design team

A UI design team will ideally include at least:

— An information architect defining the

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T-shaped designers But deep specialist knowledge is not

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The scope of the graphic This flow is immersive as the user

— Do they FEEL they have achieved

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The graphic designer in the flow information architecture, wireframing

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— An information architect defining the

— Do they FEEL they have achieved