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Green Approaches to
Biocomposite Materials
Science and Engineering
Deepak Verma
Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India
Siddharth Jain
College of Engineering Roorkee, India and University of Alberta,
Canada
Xiaolei Zhang
Queens University, Belfast, UK
Prakash Chandra Gope

College of Technology, G.B.Pant University of Agriculure and
Technology, Pantnagar, India
A volume in the Advances

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Title: Green approaches to biocomposite materials science and engineering /
Deepak Verma, Siddharth Jain, Xiaolei Zhang, and Prakash Chandra Gope,
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Table of Contents
Preface. ............................................................................................................... xiv

; ;
Chapter 1 ;
Natural Fibers for the Production of Green Composites. ....................................... 1 ; ;
Xiaolei Zhang, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

; ;
Jun Li, University of Strathclyde, UK

; ;
Siddharth Jain, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

; ;
Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India

; ;
Chapter 2 ;
Processing Technologies for Green Composites Production................................ 24 ; ;
Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;
Garvit Joshi, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;
Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India ; ;
Chapter 3 ;
Concurrent Design of Green Composites............................................................. 48

; ;
Muhd Ridzuan Mansor, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia ; ;
S. M. Sapuan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

; ;
Mohd Azli Salim, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
Mohd Zaid Akop, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
M. T. Musthafah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
M. A. Shaharuzaman, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia ; ;
Chapter 4 ;
Effect of Bamboo Hybridization and Staking Sequence on Mechanical

Behavior of Bamboo-Glass Hybrid Composite.................................................... 76 ; ;
Piyush P. Gohil, The M. S. University of Baroda, India

; ;
Kundan Patel, CHARUSAT, India; ;
Vijaykumar Chaudhary, CHARUSAT, India ; ;
Ronak Ramjiyani, CHARUSAT, India ; ;

Chapter 5 ;
Estimation of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Epoxy-Based Green

Composites........................................................................................................... 96
; ;
Supriyo Roy, Birla Institute of Technology, India

; ;
Sumit Bhowmik, National Institute of Technology, India; ;
J. Paulo Davim, University of Aveiro, Portugal ; ;
Kaushik Kumar, Birla Institute of Technology, India ; ;
Chapter 6 ;
Fabrication and Processing of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced .

Composites......................................................................................................... 125
; ;
S. H. Sheikh Md. Fadzullah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, ;
Malaysia ;
Zaleha Mustafa, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
Chapter 7 ;
Green Composites and Their Properties: A Brief Introduction.......................... 148 ; ;

; ;
Prakash Chandra Gope, College of Technology, India ; ;

; ;
Siddharth Jain, University of Alberta, Canada

; ;
Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India ; ;
Chapter 8 ;
Rice Husk Reinforcement in Polymer Composites. ........................................... 165

; ;
Sanjay Sharma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;

; ;
Chapter 9 ;
Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment for the Production of Green

Composites......................................................................................................... 192
; ;

; ;

; ;
Chapter 10 ;
Banana Fiber Reinforcement and Application in Composites: A Review. ........ 201 ; ;
Abhinav Shandilya, Federal Mogul Goetze India Ltd., India ; ;
Ayush Gupta, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

; ;

; ;
Chapter 11 ;
Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Composites. ............................................................. 228

; ;
Irem Sanal, Atlim University, Turkey

; ;
Chapter 12 ;
Coir Fiber-Reinforced Composites..................................................................... 247

; ;
Irem Sanal, Atilim University, Turkey

; ;
Compilation of References............................................................................... 276

; ;
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 312

; ;
Index. ................................................................................................................. 319

; ;
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface. ............................................................................................................... xiv

; ;
Chapter 1 ;
Natural Fibers for the Production of Green Composites. ....................................... 1

; ;

; ;
Jun Li, University of Strathclyde, UK

; ;

; ;
Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India

; ;
Development of green composite from natural fibers has gained increasing interests
due to the environmental and sustainable benefits when compared with petroleum
based non-degradable materials. However, a big challenge of green composites is
the diversity of fiber sources, because of the large variation in the properties and
characteristics of the lignocellulosic renewable resource. The lignocellulosic fibers/
natural fibers used to reinforce green composites are reviewed in this chapter. A
classification of fiber types and sources, the properties of various natural fibers,
including structure, composition, physical and chemical properties are focused;
followed by the impacts of natural fibers on composite properties, with identification
of the main pathways from the natural fibers to the green composite. Furthermore,
the main challenges and future trend of natural fibers are highlighted. ;
Chapter 2 ;
Processing Technologies for Green Composites Production................................ 24 ; ;

; ;
Garvit Joshi, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;
Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;
Green composites became a most important and adaptable theme of research. This
area/theme not only harness the agricultural wastes such as bagasse fibres, banana
fibres, etc. but also provides a new material manufactured from these wastes which
are reduced weight, have low cost, and have high mechanical strength. Currently, there
are various methods available for the processing or fabrication of green composites.
Some of these methods are hand layup method, injection molding method, spray-up
method, compression molding, Resin-Transfer Molding (RTM), etc. In this chapter,
we are discussing about the fabrication method of green composite and their important
parameters. Various properties and characterization of composite materials made
by these methods have also been discussed and reported here. ;
Chapter 3 ;
Concurrent Design of Green Composites............................................................. 48

; ;
Muhd Ridzuan Mansor, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
S. M. Sapuan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

; ;
Mohd Azli Salim, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
Mohd Zaid Akop, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
M. T. Musthafah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
M. A. Shaharuzaman, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
This chapter presents the overview of concurrent design process of green composite
products with special focus on conceptual design stage of natural fiber composites
product development. Design of green composites product especially during the early
product development stage requires three main aspects in product design which are
materials, design and manufacturing process to satisfy lower cost, high quality and
fast development time requirements in order to ensure successful product launch
into the market. In this chapter, the concurrent design process of green composite
products are discussed involving several main stages in product development such
as green composite materials selection for both natural fiber and matrix constituents,
conceptual design development and concept design selection of green composite
products, and green composites manufacturing process selection. In addition,
discussion on life cycle assessment of green composites is also included in order
to provide further insight of the sustainability design requirements to the overall
product development process. ;
Chapter 4 ;
Effect of Bamboo Hybridization and Staking Sequence on Mechanical

Behavior of Bamboo-Glass Hybrid Composite.................................................... 76
; ;
Piyush P. Gohil, The M. S. University of Baroda, India

; ;
Kundan Patel, CHARUSAT, India

; ;
Vijaykumar Chaudhary, CHARUSAT, India ; ;
Ronak Ramjiyani, CHARUSAT, India ; ;
The advancement of polymer composites containing natural fibers as a manageable

option material for certain designing applications, especially aviation and car
applications, is a well-known area of investigation. Nevertheless, the high mechanical
properties connected with synthetic fibers they are awesome and lavish contrasted
with natural fibers. The utilization of natural plant fibers and mixes of natural and
synthetic fibers for making ease building materials has produced much interest
recently. In the present work, bamboo–glass hybrid polyester composites were
produced and their mechanical properties like elasticity and flexural quality were
assessed for different weight fraction and distinctive stacking sequence. The outcomes
observed that bamboo–glass mixture composites offered the benefits of both natural
and synthetic fibers. It is also observed that hybridization started a material with
general intermediate properties between pure glass and pure bamboo. However, the
significance of controlling the stacking grouping to upgrade properties was evident. ;
Chapter 5 ;
Estimation of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Epoxy-Based Green

Composites........................................................................................................... 96
; ;
Supriyo Roy, Birla Institute of Technology, India

; ;
Sumit Bhowmik, National Institute of Technology, India

; ;
J. Paulo Davim, University of Aveiro, Portugal

; ;
Kaushik Kumar, Birla Institute of Technology, India

; ;
Composites based on natural fibre reinforcement have generated wide research and
engineering interest in the last few decades due to their small density, high specific
strength, low cost, light weight, recyclability and biodegradability and has earned
a special category of ‘green composite’. Here, in our proposed research, wood dust
reinforced epoxy composite was processed with different % filler weight primarily.
For this, natural filler based epoxy composite from wood dust is developed and its
mechanical behaviour, including Tensile, Flexural, Density etc., under various testing
conditions and % of filler weight were studied. These samples were simultaneously
tested for abrasive wear and friction coefficient measurement. Microstructure of the
composites was studied to analyze the distribution of the filler in the epoxy matrix
change using scanning electron microscopy. ;
Chapter 6 ;
Fabrication and Processing of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced .

Composites......................................................................................................... 125
; ;
S. H. Sheikh Md. Fadzullah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,

;
Malaysia ;
Zaleha Mustafa, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

; ;
There is an increasing interest worldwide in the use of Pineapple Leaf Fibers (PALF)
as reinforcements in polymer composites, since this type of natural fiber exhibit
attractive features such as superior mechanical, physical and thermal properties,
thus offer potential uses in a spectrum of applications. PALF contains high cellulose
content (between 70-82%) and high crystallinity. However, being hydrophilic,
it posed a compatibility issue particularly in a hydrophobic polymeric matrix
system. Thus, their shortcoming need to be addressed to ensure good interfacial
bonding at the fibers/matrix interphase before their full potential can be harnessed.
This chapter summarized some of the important aspects relating to PALF and its
reinforced composites, particularly the main characteristics of the fiber, extraction
and pre-treatment process of the fibers. Following this, discussions on the available
fabrication processes for both short and continuous long PALF reinforced composites
are presented. ;
Chapter 7 ;
Green Composites and Their Properties: A Brief Introduction.......................... 148

; ;

; ;
Prakash Chandra Gope, College of Technology, India

; ;

; ;
Siddharth Jain, University of Alberta, Canada

; ;
Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;
Green composites are important class of biocomposites widely explored due to their
enhanced properties. The biodegradable polymeric material is reinforced with natural
fibers to form a composite that is eco-friendly and environment sustainable. The
green composites have potential to attract the traditional petroleum-based composites
which are toxic and nonbiodegradable. The green composites eliminate the traditional
materials such as steel and wood with biodegradable polymer composites. The
degradable and environment-friendly green composites were prepared by various
fabrication techniques. The various properties of different fiber composite were
studied as reinforcement for fully biodegradable and environmental-friendly green
composites. ;
Chapter 8 ;
Rice Husk Reinforcement in Polymer Composites. ........................................... 165

; ;
Sanjay Sharma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

; ;

; ;
Increasing concern about global warming and depleting petroleum reserves and
the high cost of petroleum products had made scientists to focus more on the use
of natural fibres such as rice husk, baggase, coconut husk, hemp, sisal, jute, flax,
banana etc. Past decade has shown many efforts to develop composites to replace
the Petroleum and other non-decaying material products. Reinforcement with natural
fibre in composites has recently gained attention due to low cost, easy availability,
low density, acceptable, strength full, stiffness, ease of separation, enhanced energy
recovery, biodegradability and recyclable in nature. Natural fibre composites are
suitable as wood substitutes in the construction sector. All these have excellent
physical, thermal and mechanical properties and can be utilized more effectively
in the development of composite materials. In this connection, an investigation has
been carried using rice husk, a natural fibre abundantly available in India. ;
Chapter 9 ;
Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment for the Production of Green

Composites......................................................................................................... 192
; ;

; ;

; ;
Botanically, green composites belong to an economically important seed plant family

that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum known as Saccharum offi cinarum.
There are so many natural fibers available in the environment such as rice husk,
hemp fibers, flax fibers, bamboo fibers, coconut fiber, coconut coir, grawia optiva
and many others also. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a process to estimate the
environmental feature and potential impacts related to a product, by organizing a
directory of pertinent inputs and outputs of a product system, assessing the potential
environmental impacts related with the said inputs and outputs, explaining the
results of the inventory analysis and impact evaluation phases in connection to the
objectives of the study. Particularly Bagasse, an agricultural residue not only becomes
a problem from the environmental point of view, but also affects the profitability of
the sugarcane industries. This chapter discusses the properties, processing methods
and various other aspects including economic and environmental aspects related
to green composites. ;
Chapter 10 ;
Banana Fiber Reinforcement and Application in Composites: A Review. ........ 201 ; ;
Abhinav Shandilya, Federal Mogul Goetze India Ltd., India

; ;
Ayush Gupta, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

; ;

; ;
The growing awareness about sustainable development, environmental ecology

and new legislations has led researchers to focus attention on bio fibres reinforced
composites. In this field research has been done on many fibres but fibres such as
banana, coir, bagasse, jute have gained importance in the recent decades. The main
advantage of the natural fibre based composites materials being their low cost,
easy availability, low density, acceptable specific properties, ease of separation,
enhanced energy recovery, C02 neutrality, biodegradability and recyclability in
nature. The attention is being given to the development of natural fibre composites
is to explore value-added application avenues for their use and also for a sustainable
and economical use of easily available natural material in hand. Agricultural waste
is a very good example of such naturally available material and it can also be used to
prepare composite materials for commercial use this has a very significant advantage
over other natural fibres as its abundance and because of almost no cost. ;
Chapter 11 ;
Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Composites. ............................................................. 228

; ;
Irem Sanal, Atlim University, Turkey

; ;
Nowadays, there has been an increased interest in the applications of bio-composites

based on natural fibers, with the increasing emphasis on materials and processes
which are environmental friendly and sustainable. Environmental friendly, fully
biodegradable reinforced polymers or ‘green’ composite materials will play a
major role in making the products of the future to protect our environment. The use
of biodegradable and environment-friendly plant-based natural fibers has been a
promising choice for polymers to make them ‘greener’. In addition to being obtained
from renewable sources, natural fibers suitable for composites are biodegradable and
have enhanced properties. Bamboo is an excellent example for the development of
sustainable natural fibers, since it can grow very fast per day, and the fibers of bamboo
have excellent mechanical performance. Additionally, research in the development
of bamboo-reinforced composites should be increased in the future, considering
their enhanced properties, economical benefits and environmental friendly nature. ;
Chapter 12 ;
Coir Fiber-Reinforced Composites..................................................................... 247

; ;
Irem Sanal, Atilim University, Turkey

; ;
Nowadays, fiber-reinforced polymer composites have played a significant role in

many different fields of applications, regarding their high specific strength and
high modulus. The fiber which serves as reinforcement mechanism in polymer
composites may be either synthetic or natural. Natural fibers are not only strong
and lightweight but also very economical and environmental friendly. Natural fibers
as reinforcement are stated to be a major step taken in promoting environmental
protection and sustainability. There are many types of natural cellulose fibers but
the thickest and most resistant of all commercial natural fibers, coir/coconut fiber is
a coarse, short fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts. Coir/coconut fibers
have the highest concentrations of lignin, making it most suitable for applications
where slow biodegradability is required. This chapter has been written with an aim
to explore the potential of the coconut/coir fiber reinforced polymer composites in
terms of their performance, surface treatments/modifications and areas of application. ;
Compilation of References............................................................................... 276

; ;
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 312

; ;
Index. ................................................................................................................. 319

; ;
xiv
Preface
Natural fibres can be defined as bio-based fibres or fibres from vegetable and animal
origin. This definition includes all natural cellulosic fibres (cotton, jute, sisal, coir,
flax, hemp, abaca, ramie, etc.) and protein based fibres such as wool and silk. Ex-
cluded here are mineral fibres such as asbestos that occur naturally but are not bio
based. Asbestos containing products are not considered sustainable due to the well
known health risk, that resulted in prohibition of its use in many countries. On the
other hand there are manmade cellulose fibres (e.g. viscose-rayon and cellulose
acetate) that are produced with chemical procedures from pulped wood or other
sources (cotton, bamboo). Similarly, regenerated (soybean) protein, polymer fibre
(bio-polyester, PHA, PLA) and chitosan fibre are examples of semi-synthetic prod-
ucts that are based on renewable resources. In this paper also the use of fibres in
food industries is excluded, where in recent years these are frequently promoted as
dietary fibres or as supplements for health products.
Natural fibers are abundantly available worldwide in the form of agriculture
biomass or agriculture wastes. It is seen that these fibers are another or possible
source of renewable materials and can be used as prospective materials for different
applications. In spite of vast production of agricultural wastes, a very little amount of
the agricultural biomass or wastes is used for various applications. From the industrial
point of view, they are utilizing this bio-wastes in the best possible applications.
Here we are only concentrated on the term Natural Fibers which is derived from the
agriculture wastes and can be used for the production of the composite materials.
Natural fibres generally provide outstanding properties (specifically mechanical and
thermal) and can be utilized as excellent reinforcing fillers in the matrix and can be
act as an another option for bio-composites and also hybrid composites. The various
Natural fibre used for the development of the polymer composites are jute, Bagasse,
Coconut coir, hemp, pineapple leaf etc. have a economical market cost and are uti-
lized by the various commercial industries such as Automobile industries, Building
and construction industries, ceilings and partition boards, structural applications,
aerospace, sports, boats, office products, machinery etc for their different applica-
tions. It is also observed that the future research on natural fibre-based composites
xv
is not only restricted to its automotive applications but also necessitate to broaden
its application in construction industry, rural housing and biomedical applications.
The utilization of the natural waste/ fiber in polymer matrix is also reduces the
environment pollution. The basic components of natural fibers are cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, lignin, pectin, waxes and water soluble substances. In present scenario
natural fiber composites become the important materials from the environmental
point of views. These materials have potential of great mechanical strength and also
have low density and are light in weight. Various industries like automative and
interior decorative industries are using these materials in their industries for mak-
ing automative composnents, car doors, car panels, interirors of cars, furnitures etc.
Each chapter aims on the awareness and insight of the interfaces demonstrated in
these green composites systems and also optimizes different parameters for the novel
processing. In addition, the book also encapsulate the current progress put together
in the area of the various composite fabrication techniques, chemical functions and
reactions of natural fibers, novel processing of biocomposites, their applications in
the various industries. Some censorious issues and recommendations for future work
will be discussed in the present book. The main objective of this publication is to
aware the academicians and scholars about environment concern and to develop the
biocomposites by using agricultural wastes or natural wastes like plants seeds etc. The
research scholars will learn from the past research in the field of green composites
and then can get ideas for the further development of the biocomposites by using
various polymer composites like thermosetting or thermoplastic polymers. They
can also learn about the green polymer matrix for the development of bidegradable
composites. This book discusses the issues related to the agriculture wastes/ resi-
due (also natural fibers) which could be effectively utilized to make the composite
materials (Polymer and biopolymer based) that ultimately solves the environmental
concerns. The use of natural fibers into the composites not only solves the disposal
problem but also utilizes these waste natural fibers to make some useful products.
It is generally termed as a renewable source because wastes from agriculture or
natural fibers are grown in a mass level and can become a great source of energy
by utilizing these into a material form or some other energy source like fuel etc.
The proper utilization of these residues or natural fibers in polymer matrix or bio-
polymer matrix has resulted in the form of biodegradable material. The term green
composite material means the composite which is environmental friendly and fully
sustainable. Global realization related to environmental concerns, has exposed the
economic and environmental friendly biocomposite materials which are free from
the side effects of synthetic fiber composites. In addition, natural fibers or green
materials can be used on a sustainable basis and may create unique opportunity for
regional development.
xvi
It is also seen that the Natural fibers such as Flax, Hemp, Jute, Bamboo fibers
generally have higher moduli as compared to the synthetic fibers (E glass fibres).
The typical market specification for the automotive applications are ultimate break-
ing force, flexural properties, impact strength, flammability, acoustic absorption,
water absorption and crash behavior.
The researchers related to the automotive industries have kept in mind specifically
the durability of the automotive components and used non degradable polymeric
resins such as epoxies, polyurethane by reinforcing the man-made fibers such as
aramid, glass fibers etc. Many of these polymers and fibers are derived from petro-
leum which is also a renewable resource.
Biocomposites (natural fiber composites) from local and renewable resources offer
significant sustainability; industrial ecology, eco-efficiency, and green chemistry are
guiding the development of the next generation of materials, products, and processes.
Considerable growth has been seen in the use of biocomposites in the domestic sector,
building materials, aerospace industry, circuit boards, and automotive applications
over the past decade, but application in other sectors until now has been limited.
Nevertheless, with suitable development, the potential exists for biocomposites to
enter new markets and thus stimulate an increase in demand. Many types of natural
fibers have been investigated with polymer matrices to produce composite materials
that are competitive with synthetic fiber composites which require special attention.
The agricultural wastes can be used to prepare fiber-reinforced polymer composites
for commercial use and have marketing appeal. The growing global environmental
and social concern, high percentage of exhaustion of petroleum resources, and new
environmental regulations have forced the search for new composites, compatible
with the environment. Many references to the current status of research work on
the applications of biocomposites are cited in this book.
In the present era of environmental consciousness, more and more material are
emerging worldwide, Efficient utilization of plant species and utilizing the smaller
particles and fibers obtained from various lignocellulosic materials including agro
wastes to develop eco-friendly materials is thus certainly a rational and sustainable
approach. Any lignocellulosic waste matter can, therefore, be turned into composite
products through appropriate R& D work and development in technological aspects.
These approaches offer much simpler materials for future use in comparison to metal
based composites. Resilience property which makes plastics ideal for many applica-
tions like food industries, packaging, construction field and sanitation products etc.
Petroleum-derived plastics can lead to waste disposal problems, as these materials
are not readily biodegradable and because of their resistance to microbial degrada-
tion, they accumulate in the environment. Biodegradable plastics and polymers were
first introduced in 1980s. There are many sources of biodegradable plastics, from
synthetic to natural polymers. Natural polymers are available in large quantities
xvii
from renewable sources, while synthetic polymers are produced from non renew-
able petroleum resources.
The future outlook for development in the field of biopolymers materials is
promising because of its Environment friendly behaviour. Bio-composites often lead
to a reduction in weight and costs and potential applications in the fields related to
environmental protection and the maintenance of physical health. For these reasons
the popularity of these composites is increasing in the western countries and already
a significant amount of scientific knowledge is generated. Starch is a vegetable matter
renewable from carbon dioxide, water and sunshine. It is biodegradable, cheap and
to be physical or chemical modified easily. This means someday it is unnecessary
to rely on petroleum resources. This will ensure their continued interest in agro
forestry. This is necessary for keeping alive the tempo of tree growing which is
necessary for the very survival of humanity.
Biodegradation takes place through the action of enzymes and/or chemical de-
terioration associated with living organisms. Biodegradability depends not only on
the origin of the polymer but also on its chemical structure and the environmental
degrading conditions. Biobased polyesters such as PLA and polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs) have begun to be more accepted since they are prepared from renewable
feedstock rather than petroleum and are biodegradable.
The objective of this book is to utilize the natural fibers or natural resource-
based material and suggests the potential replacement of synthetic fiber composite
material by green composite materials. This book elaborates the information of
the various available natural fibers and use of these fibers as a sustainable option
to synthetic fibers and polymers by considering the present situation and growing
benefit of green materials from natural resources. This book also provides aware-
ness on recent details and progress made in the fabrication of natural polymers or
renewable materials for their variety of applications. The various types of natural
polymer (or biopolymer) i.e. their manufacturing and properties is also discussed
in this book. Thermal analysis of green composites is also discussed in this book.
The present book concentrates on the progress of biomaterials in the field of
orthopaedics, an effort to utilize the advantages offered by renewable resources
for the development of biocomposite materials based on biopolymers and natural
fibers. The present book focuses on the enhanced properties of natural fiber as bone
implant. It is a challenge to the creation of better materials for the improvement of
quality of life. The present book proposes suggestions of using natural fiber rein-
forced composite as a plate material, which uses pure natural fibers that are rich in
medicinal properties.
Academicians, researchers focusing on bio-materials or natural fiber reinforced
composite material will find this text useful in furthering their research exposure to
relevant topics in green composites and assisting in furthering their own research
xviii
efforts in this field. This book discusses the importance of the natural fibers and
their properties. Various factors which can be considered before reinforcing in to
the matrix are also discussed in the present chapter. The research scholars who are
working in the same research field can take an advantage from this book by knowing
about the various types of the natural fibers available and their properties.
ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTERS
The book is organized into twelve chapters. Brief descriptions of each of the chap-
ters are as follows
Chapter 1 identifies the the various types of the natural fibers available and their
structures. In this chapter a classification of fiber types and sources, the properties
of various natural fibers, including structure, composition, physical and chemical
properties are focused; followed by the impacts of natural fibers on composite
properties, with identification of the main pathways from the natural fibers to the
green composite. Furthermore, the main challenges and future trend of natural
fibers are highlighted.
Chapter 2 establishes the information about the various types of the processes
available for the manufacturing of the green composite materials. Some of these
methods are hand layup method, injection molding method, spray-up method,
compression molding, Resin-Transfer Molding (RTM), etc. In this chapter authors
have discussed about the fabrication method of green composite and their important
parameters. Various properties and characterization of composite materials made
by these methods have also been discussed and reported in this chapter.
Chapter 3 discussed about the concurrent design of the composite materials
with special focus on conceptual design stage of natural fiber composites product
development. The main stages for the product development used by the concurrent
design process are also discussed in this chapter. In addition, discussion on life cycle
assessment of green composites is also included in order to provide further insight
of the sustainability design requirements to the overall product development process.
Chapter 4 presents an analysis of the bamboo–glass hybrid polyester compos-
ites and their mechanical properties like elasticity and flexural quality for different
weight fraction and distinctive stacking sequence. This chapter also showed that
the hybridization started a material with general intermediate properties between
pure glass and pure bamboo.
Chapter 5 discussed the development of natural filler based epoxy composite from
wood and its mechanical behaviour, including Tensile, Flexural, Density etc., under
various testing conditions and % of filler weight. These samples were simultane-
ously tested for abrasive wear and friction coefficient measurement. Microstructure
xix
of the composites was studied to analyze the distribution of the filler in the epoxy
matrix change using scanning electron microscopy.
Chapter 6 discussed the use of Pineapple Leaf Fibers (PALF) as reinforcements
in polymer composites, since this type of natural fiber exhibit attractive features such
as superior mechanical, physical and thermal properties, thus offer potential uses in
a spectrum of applications. This chapter summarized some of the important aspects
relating to PALF and its reinforced composites, particularly the main characteristics
of the fiber, extraction and pre-treatment process of the fibers. Discussions on the
available fabrication processes for both short and continuous long PALF reinforced
composites are also presented in this chapter.
Chapter 7 discussed a brief introduction about the green composites and their
properties. The green composite have potential to attract the traditional petroleum-
based composites which are toxic and non-biodegradable. The various properties of
different fiber composite were discussed as reinforcement for fully biodegradable
and environmental-friendly green composites.
Chapter 8 discussed the use of ricer husk as filler in the polymer matrix com-
posites. In this chapter authors presented a review on the past research based on
the rice husk reinforcement in polymer matrix and their mechanical properties.
Various types of mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength,
impact strength are reviewed in the present chapter. Microstructure of the rice husk
reinforced composite is shown by the scanning electron microscopy.
Chapter 9 discussed the techno economic and life cycle assessment of the green
composites. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a process to estimate the environmental
feature and potential impacts related to a product, by organizing a directory of rper-
tinant inputs and outputs of a product system, assessing the potential environmental
impacts related with the said inputs and outputs, explaining the results of the inventory
analysis and impact evaluation phases in connection to the objectives of the study.
Chapter 10 reviews the banana fiber reinforcement and application in the compos-
ites. The attention is being given to the development of natural fibre composites is to
explore value-added application avenues for their use and also for a sustainable and
economical use of easily available natural material in hand. In this chapter authors
presented a review on the past research based on the banana fiber reinforcement in
polymer matrix and their mechanical properties. Various types of mechanical prop-
erties such as tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength are reviewed
in the present chapter. Microstructure of the banana fiber reinforced composite is
shown by the scanning electron microscopy.
Chapter 11 discussed the use of bamboo fibers in polymer composites. Bamboo
is an excellent example for the development of sustainable natural fibers, since it can
grow very fast per day, and the fibers of bamboo have excellent mechanical perfor-
mance. Additionally, research in the development of bamboo-reinforced composites
xx
should be increased in the future, considering their enhanced properties, economical

benefits and environmental friendly nature. In this chapter authors presented a review
on the past research based on the bamboo fiber reinforcement in polymer matrix and
their mechanical properties. Various types of mechanical properties such as tensile
strength, flexural strength and impact strength are reviewed in the present chapter.
Chapter 12 discussed the use of coir fibers in polymer composites. Coir/coco-
nut fiber is a coarse, short fiber extracted from the outer shell of coconuts. Coir/
coconut fibers have the highest concentrations of lignin, making it most suitable for
applications where slow biodegradability is required. This chapter has been written
with an aim to explore the potential of the coconut/coir fiber reinforced polymer
composites in terms of their performance, surface treatments/modifications and
areas of application.
We wish to express our gratitude to all the authors/contributors from all over the
world for accepting our invitations for contribution and sharing their knowledge but
also for commendably integrating their skills on scattered information from various
fields in making the chapters and undergo editorial suggestions to finally produce
this project that will hope be a success. We greatly appreciate their commitment.
We thank IGI Global team for their generous cooperation at every stage of the book
production.
Deepak Verma
Graphic Era Hill University, India
Siddharth Jain
University of Alberta, Canada & College of Engineering Roorkee, India
Xiaolei Zhang
Queens University Belfast, UK
Prakash Chandra Gope

GBPUAT, India
1
Chapter 1
Natural Fibers for
the Production of
Green Composites
Xiaolei Zhang Siddharth Jain
Queen’s University Belfast, UK College of Engineering Roorkee, India
Jun Li Deepak Verma

University of Strathclyde, UK Graphic Era Hill University,
Dehradun, India
ABSTRACT
Development of green composite from natural fibers has gained increasing interests
due to the environmental and sustainable benefits when compared with petroleum
based non-degradable materials. However, a big challenge of green composites is
the diversity of fiber sources, because of the large variation in the properties and
characteristics of the lignocellulosic renewable resource. The lignocellulosic fibers/
natural fibers used to reinforce green composites are reviewed in this chapter. A
classification of fiber types and sources, the properties of various natural fibers,
including structure, composition, physical and chemical properties are focused;
followed by the impacts of natural fibers on composite properties, with identification
of the main pathways from the natural fibers to the green composite. Furthermore,
the main challenges and future trend of natural fibers are highlighted.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0424-5.ch001
Copyright ©2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Natural Fibers for the Production of Green Composites
INTRODUCTION
Remarkable achievements of green technology in material science have been made

in past few decades, mainly by using natural resources to develop high performance
engineering products. Utilization of natural fibers, or lignocellulosic fibers, extracted
from biodegradable materials to reinforce composites have attracted increasing
interest (Satyanarayana, Arizaga, & Wypych, 2009). The design of novel, green,
value-added products focuses on sustainable ecology and “green chemistry” with
the holistic approach of life cycle assessment (Faruk, Bledzki, Fink, & Sain, 2014;
Satyanarayana et al., 2009). Moreover, other driving forces for increased global at-
tention on natural fiber reinforced composites, are strong worldwide demands for:
1. Creating a resource circulating society, and

2. Addressing the environmental challenge of using petroleum-based products
(Satyanarayana et al., 2009).
Lignocellulosic materials had been used earlier around a century ago to produce
composites. The first polymer composite based on natural fiber was recorded as
early as in 1908. This composite was produced from cotton or paper reinforced on
phenol or melamine form aldehyde resins (Bledzki & Gassan, 1999). In the 1940s,
the development of reinforcement using glass fibers with lower cost and superior
properties took over the competition with lignocellulosic materials (Satyanarayana
et al., 2009). However, utilization of glass fibers suffers the problems of high den-
sity of glass leading to high dead-weight of the material, and disposal problem at
their end life.
The development of lignocellulosic fibers restarted during the period of oil
crisis. Required by the laws on reduction of environmentally unfriendly materials,
great efforts had been paid by the EU to manufacture eco-friendly products based
on natural resources. In 1990s, cellulosic fibers were explored extensively to replace
traditional glass fibers for reinforcement composites. In 21st century, polymers
reinforced with natural fibers (NFCs), commonly known as bio-composites, have
been developed and successfully applied in automotive and building sectors, as well
as other consumer goods.
Natural fibers are playing an important role in a number of applications due to
their inherent eco-friendly advantages, which are explored to substitute traditional
synthetic fibers, particularly, emphasizing green reinforcement. Consequently, natural
fibers reinforced composites are emerging very rapidly as the potential substitute
of the traditional synthetic fibers in automotive, aerospace, marine, sporting goods
and electronic industries (Vijay Kumar Thakur & Thakur, 2014) for the following
major advantages:
2
• Sustainability: The renewable nature of lignocellulosic fibers lead to the sus-

tainable benefit for their derived materials (V. K. Thakur, Singha, & Thakur,
2012a). Lignocellulosic fibers are carbon neutral materials; it is acknowl-
edged that they do not release excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere after
being composted or combusted. The working conditions are friendly thereby
reducing the chances of dermal and respiratory irritation (John & Thomas,
2008). The increasing ecological concerns help to have greater focus on plant
derived fiber and crop derived plastics as materials, with attractive benefits
in CO2 sequestration, reduce dependence on petroleum products and added
opportunities for agricultural industries (Satyanarayana et al., 2009).
• Recyclability: The thermal decomposition and biodegradable properties of
natural fibers reduce the environmental impact when compared with petro-
leum derived materials. It was pointed out that producing petroleum from
biomass needs 106 years, compared to 1 to10 years of time to convert the fu-
els or chemicals into CO2 (Satyanarayana et al., 2009). While the degradable
time for most of the natural fibers is just1 to 6 months as opposed to 13 years
for painted wood, 450 years for plastic, and for glasses and tires, the degrada-
tion need an uncertain long time (Satyanarayana et al., 2009).
• Availability: The existence of abundant availability of lignocellulosic re-
sources throughout the world, with some of them being abundant typically
in the tropics and agricultural crops (Satyanarayana et al., 2009), is an addi-
tional factor for the interests in natural fibers, especially with the foreseeable
shortage of fossil fuels (John & Thomas, 2008).
• Weight Reduction: Lower mass density of natural fibers than that of glass
fibers brings the benefit of reduced weight and saving in energy consumption
(Faruk et al., 2014; John & Thomas, 2008).
• Cost Reduction: The growing interest in using lignocellulosic fibers is driven
by the economic benefits. Bio-fibers are nonabrasive to mixing and molding
equipment, which provide longevity to the life of the processing equipment
and thereby contributes to reduced processing cost to the tune of one third of
glass fibers (Faruk et al., 2014).
However, the shortcomings from some properties of natural fiber might cause
serious limitations and problems in shipping, storage, processing and applications
of bio-composites. A major disadvantage of natural fiber reinforced composites
is the non-uniform dispersion of fibers within the matrix which impairs the ef-
ficiency of the composite. This non-uniformity is caused by the difficulties jointly
associated with the inherent polar and hydrophilic nature of lignocellulosic fibers
and the non-polar characteristics of most thermoplastics. Another problem is that
the processing of composites is restricted to 200 °C because a higher temperature
3
results in degradation. The high moisture absorption of natural fibers is cited as

another disadvantage, which causes swelling and presence of voids at the interface,
resulting in poor mechanical properties and reduction of dimensional stability of
composites. Lastly, low microbial resistance and susceptibility may cause rotting,
which limits the exploitation of bio-fibers in durable composite applications (John
& Thomas, 2008).
The obvious advantages outweigh the limitations and drive the increasing de-
velopment of natural fibers for various applications as a replacement of petroleum
derived synthetic materials. Based on the challenges of applying natural fibers on the
variation of types, physical and chemical properties of the fiber nature, the detailed
characterization of natural fibers and their impact on the composite properties will
be covered in this chapter.
CHARACTERIZATION OF NATURAL FIBERS
Fiber Type
According to the sources, natural fibers can be classified into: plant fibers, animal
fibers, and minerals fibers, as shown in Figure 1. The main composition for plant
fibers is cellulose thus they can also be called as cellulosic fibers. Cellulosic fibers
have numerous advantages over synthetic materials, such as abundant availability
and environmentally friendly. Various cellulosic fibers include non-wood based or
agricultural based fibers such as stem, straw, bast, leaf, seed, fruit, and grass, and
wood based fibers (V. K. Thakur et al., 2012a). The main composition of animal
fibers is proteins. While for mineral fibers, two typical fiber types are asbestos
and metal fibers, with the main composition of hydrous magnesium silicates and
metals respectively. The pure fibers need to be extracted and separated from either
plant or animal raw materials, which can be further used as reinforcement (Zini &
Scandola, 2011). Plant fibers can also been classified into primary and secondary
fibers, where the primary fibers are produced from the plant as the main products,
while the secondary fibers are produced as by-products of the plant (Faruk, Bledzki,
Fink, & Sain, 2012).
Bast fibers are collected from the inner bark which surrounding the stems of
dicotyledonous plants (Faruk et al., 2012). Bast fibers provide mechanical support
for the stem of a plant (V. K. Thakur, Singha, & Thakur, 2012b). The cultivation
conditions significantly influence the properties of a bast fiber (Bogoeva-Gaceva
et al., 2007; Eichhorn et al., 2010). Most frequently used bast fibers include flax,
hemp, jute, kenaf, and Ramie (Faruk et al., 2012). Flax prefers temperate climates
in the world and is extensively used in the textile markets and to reinforce the green
4
Figure 1. Main natural fiber types

EFB: Empty Fruit Bunch (Abdul Khalil, Bhat, & Ireana Yusra, 2012; Vijay Kumar Thakur & Thakur,
2014).
composites. Hemp is another widely used bast fiber crop that grows in temperate
regions, as an important non-food agricultural fiber crop in Europe. Jute is one of
the cheapest natural fibers and currently has higher production yield than other bast
fiber types, with preferred growth conditions in Bangladesh, India, and China.
Kenaf is a promising raw material for composite production due to the recently
developed decortications equipment, which can separate the bast fiber with the core.
Ramie is one of the oldest fiber crops, different with other bast fibers, a pre-treatment
is needed for ramie due to its chemical composition, which limits its extensive com-
mercialization (Faruk et al., 2012).
5
As opposed to bast fibers providing support to stem, leaf fibers provide the
mechanical support for the leaves of a plant, mostly monocotyledonous plant (Akil
et al., 2011). Leaf fibers are normally used to produce rugs, cordages, carpets, and
mats, which are coarser than the products from the bast fibers (Bogoeva-Gaceva et
al., 2007; Eichhorn et al., 2010). As shown in Figure 1, typical leaf fibers include
henequen, sisal, abaca, and pineapple. Among which, abaca is the strongest com-
mercial cellulosic fiber, extensively grows in Philippines, Ecuador, and Costa Rica.
Sisal is a fiber plant native to southern Mexico and extensively cultivated in many
other countries, with extensive application to produce rope, twine, paper, cloth, wall
coverings, carpets, and dartboards. Pineapple leaf fibers have huge potential to be
used as composite reinforcement due to its low-cost and abundant availability since
it is a waste product from pineapple cultivation (Faruk et al., 2012).
Similar with the pineapple leaves, large amount of straw as the by-product of
cereal cultivation is also considered to have huge potential to be used to reinforce
composites (Li, Cai, Winandy, & Basta, 2010). Various agricultural wastes can
be used to extract fibers including rice husk, wheat straw, and cornhusk (Zini &
Scandola, 2011).
Seed fibers are collected from seed or seed case, which are different with bast
or leaf fibers, two examples of seed fibers are cotton and kapok (Vijay Kumar
Thakur & Thakur, 2014). Fruit fibers are fibers collected from fruits, with typical
examples of coir. By extracting from the coconut husk, coir is collected from the
material between internal shell and the outer husk. Production of coir has a signifi-
cant advantage that it can be adjusted by the market demand, due to the abundant
quantities of coconut husk (Faruk et al., 2012).
Different with other fiber types, grass fibers are produced from stems of mono-
cotyledonous plants (Vijay Kumar Thakur & Thakur, 2014). Typical grass fibers
include bamboo, elephant grass, indiangrass, and switchgrass. Indiangrass and
switchgrass get the interests to become reinforcing agents due to the aim of land
saving. Low amount of fertilizer for the growth of switchgrass is needed because
of its self-seeding nature. Indiangrass is a perennial grass that can grow even with
bare soil (Zini & Scandola, 2011). Bamboo is a perennial plant that grows in mon-
soon climates.
Animal derived protein wastes provide another source for natural fiber. Examples
include hair, silk, wool, and feather. Specifically, over 4 million tons of chicken
feather from poultry industry worldwide annually provide huge resource for pro-
duction of natural fibers.
6
Figure 2. Various scale of fibers from a kenaf stem

(H P S Abdul Khalil et al., 2012).
Structure and Composition
Figure 2 gives the different scales of fibers from a kenaf stem, a kenaf stem can
be broke and scotched into bast fiber bundles, where one fiber bundle consist of
elementary fibers. Furthermore, one elementary fiber consists of thousands of
micro-fibrils. The kenaf fibers can be used to reinforce composite ranges from fiber
bundles to elementary fibers, or even to micro-fibrils. The mechanical properties
differ significantly with different scales of fibers. The price-performance ratio of
fiber bundles is acceptable despite the fact that their lateral strength is poorer than
axial strength. The tensile strength of elementary fibers is stronger than fiber bundles
(H P S Abdul Khalil et al., 2012).
The structure and chemical composition of natural fibers could be influenced
by climatic conditions, age and the degradation process of living plants. Water is
the major chemical component of a living plant. After drying, the plant cell walls
have been found to contain different amount of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and
also small amount of pectins and waxes (H P S Abdul Khalil et al., 2012; John &
Thomas, 2008). The unidirectional cellulose microfibrils reinforce the matrix
7
Figure 3. The main compositions, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and others, frac-
tions of main plant fibers
blended by hemicellulose and lignin (Gassan, Chate, & Bledzki, 2001). Pectins are
a collective name for hetero-polysaccharides, serves the purpose of providing flex-
ibility to a plant. Waxes make up the last part of fibers and they consist of different
types of alcohols (John & Thomas, 2008). The chemical composition varies from
plant to plant, and also fluctuates within different parts of the same plant, for ex-
ample, the lignin content in the root and stalk core is higher than that in the fibers
(H P S Abdul Khalil et al., 2012; Faruk et al., 2012).
The chemical composition percentage of selected natural fibers is illustrated in
Figure 3. It is shown that stem, bast, leaf, and seed contain higher amount of cel-
lulose than that in straw, fruit, grass and wood. Typically, the content of cellulose in
seed is more than 95%, while the hemicellulose and lignin contents are as lower as
1 to 2%. Due to the nature of the three major components, the fibers derived from
those varying sources of lignocellulosic material are quite different.
Cellulose
Generally, most of the natural cellulosic fibers contain 60 to70% cellulose, and
cellulose is primarily composed of C, H, and O with general formula of [C6 H10O5 ]n
8
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To arrive there in time we should have to take the train next
morning. I went accordingly to the princess, who was the only person
whom I knew in Roumania, to ask her if she would come to my
assistance.
I called on her at nine o’clock in the morning. I was taken to the
second storey of the palace, to a room that was even prettier, if
possible, than the one in which I had been received the first time.
The princess received me. She was in her night-robe, and had
put on a dressing-gown of white silk over which her beautiful
dishevelled hair hung. She was still engaged in her toilet when I
arrived, but in order not to make me wait, she bade me come into
her little boudoir, where no one would disturb us. The room, filled
with well-chosen first editions, was in charming taste. Everywhere
there were little draped statuettes on pedestals. Beside the fireplace
was a very comfortable corner. In the midst of all these beautiful
objects one might have thought oneself in a miniature museum.
I asked her what she liked best among all the things there and
she replied, “the rosaries,” of which she had quite a collection. What
an artist she must be to bring together all these beautiful things.
“This is my room,” she said, while we were talking, “in which
whatever happens no one is permitted to bother me. I take refuge
here from time to time, and remain until I feel myself ready to face
the world once more.”
I then told her my troubles. She rang a bell, and gave an order to
let M. X—— know immediately that Miss Fuller would come to see
him with a card from her, and that M. X—— would kindly do
everything in his power to assist Miss Fuller.
I looked at her for some time and then I said to her:
“I should have liked greatly to know you without being aware that
you were a princess.”
“But,” she said, “it is the woman whom you now know and not the
princess.”
And that was true. I felt that I was in the presence of some one
who was really great, even if her birth had not made her so. I am
certain that she would have accomplished great things if she had not
found her career already mapped out for her from the day of her birth
in her father’s palace.
Everyone knows that a princess’ life precludes liberty, and
contains no possibility of breaking with the conventions for the sake
of doing something extraordinary or notable. These chains are so
strong that if one contrives to break them, it generally happens under
the impulse of despair, as a result of irritation and not for the sake of
a purely inspired work.
When I arose to take leave of the princess she kissed me and
said:
“If ever I come to Paris I shall call on you at your studio.”
She caused an attendant to accompany me to the master of
ceremonies, with whom I was to go to the bank. There the master of
ceremonies communicated Princess Marie’s order to the effect that I
was to be accommodated in any way I might desire.
The money I needed was advanced in return for a cheque, and I
left Bucharest.
The journey was full of troubles. Vexatious delays occurred.
Finally I arrived at Rome, where my appearance had to be
postponed until my baggage, lost in transit, had been found. Three
thousand people, who had come to my first performance, went away
without seeing me. That certainly was very hard luck. If I had been
able to foresee all that, I should never have ventured to intrude upon
the Princess.
In that case I should not have discovered what an admirable
woman she is.
XV
SEVERAL SOVEREIGNS
I N the course of my travels about the world, east, west, north and
south, over oceans and across continents, I have had the
experience of seeing or of encountering many persons of
distinction, including not a few sovereigns and members of royal
households.
It has seemed to me that it might be interesting to bring together
at this point some of the most typical of the incidents that occur to
me. Just as they come, drawn haphazard from memory, without
order or sequence, and with no thought of literary composition, I am
going to put them simply on paper, one by one.
How I Failed to see Queen Victoria.

One day at Nice some one came and asked me to dance before
Queen Victoria. She had just arrived on the Riviera to pass the
winter months, as she was accustomed to do every year.
It may well be believed that I was flattered by such a request. I
assented, naturally, and set myself to work making all my
preparations for this important event.
There was a knock at the door. A maid brought a telegram. It was
signed by my manager, and was couched in the following words:
“Take train this evening, to sail day after to-morrow; destination, New
York.”
I replied with a message pleading for a delay, for the purpose of
dancing before Queen Victoria.
I received simply the following laconic telegram:
“Impossible. Leave at once. Time is money.”
That’s why I did not dance before Queen Victoria.
I stop the Queen of the Belgians in the Street.

I was engaged for some performances at Spa. The evening of my
first appearance the Queen and Princess Clementine were in the
royal box. That was a gala evening, one on which the hall was
resplendent with magnificent gowns and jewels.
Everything went off perfectly.
Next morning I went for a walk with my mother. We were crossing
the causeway when a carriage, drawn by two spirited horses driven
by a middle-aged woman, bore down upon us.
Frightened on account of my mother, I threw up my arms in front
of the carriage, which stopped.
The lady allowed us to pass and, while thanking her, I remarked
to myself that a woman ought not to drive such lively horses.
I had forgotten the incident when, shortly after my return to the
hotel, I saw the same carriage go by.
Two gentlemen were talking on the landing near us.
“See. There is the Queen,” said one of them.
It was the Queen whom I had stopped!
Princely Simplicity.
At the Hague I was asked to give a performance before the
Grand Duke and Duchess of Mecklenburg, Princess Victoria of
Schaumburg-Lippe and their retinue.
The hall was well filled. I had the Philharmonic Society’s
orchestra.
This was a gala evening, and in every way a very successful one
for me.
Next day on coming down from my room I encountered on the
stairway of the hotel a lady with a very sweet expression, who asked
me:
“You are Miss Loie Fuller? Your dances interest me greatly. My
husband has gone out on the beach. Wouldn’t you like to come and
talk to him about your lighting effects. I am sure that would prove
very interesting to him.”
I gladly acquiesced and followed her.
I was delighted to talk to this woman and her husband, who
proved to be a most delightful man. I explained to them all my
schemes of lighting and my dances. I then took my leave and joined
my mother, who was waiting for me.
When I returned to the hotel the proprietor came to me and said:
“You met with great success yesterday, Miss Fuller, and with
even greater this morning.”
“This morning?”
“Yes. Do you know who the gentleman is with whom you have
just been talking?”
“No. Who is he?”
“The Grand Duke of Mecklenburg.”
This same day I boarded a street car.
On the car several people appeared to know me. One lady came
and sat beside me and began to talk.
When we arrived at our destination I asked her if she would not
tell me her name.
“Victoria de Schaumburg-Lippe.”
One evening when I was dancing at the Hague the princess was
in the hall with Major Winslow and others of her retinue. She sent for
me, and asked me to show her one of my robes.
I brought her the robe which I put on for the butterfly dance.
She took the stuff in her hand and said:
“The robe is really wonderful, but it is after all only what you do
that counts.”
I remember that she asked me to sign a photograph for her. And
when I returned to the hotel the manager of the Kurhaus handed to
me an exceedingly pretty watch, on the cover of which were
engraved these words:
“In memory of the performance given for Princess Victoria.”
The Curiosity of the Archduchesses of Austria.

I was once at the Swedish gymnasium at Carlsbad, where
machines with electrical vibrations shock you from head to foot. I
was just about to dress myself when one of the women of the place
came to me, and said:
“Won’t you please return to the hall, and pretend to take the
electric treatment again in order that the archduchesses, who are
there, with a whole crowd of court ladies, may see you?”
I replied: “Tell the archduchesses that they can see me this
evening at the theatre.”
The poor woman then declared to me that she had been
forbidden to mention their Royal Highnesses, and that they had
bidden her get me back into the hall on some pretext or other.
She was so grieved at not having succeeded that I returned to
the machines, and had my back massaged, in order that the noble
company might look at me at their ease, as they would survey an
interesting animal.
They looked at me, all of them, smiling, and while they viewed
me I never turned my eyes away from them.
The odd thing was that they did not know that I knew them. I was,
therefore, as much amused by them, and without their perceiving it,
as they were amused by me.
How I was not decorated with the Order of the Lion
and the Sun of Persia.
During one of the visits that the Shah of Persia pays to Paris, the
Marquis and Marquise d’Oyley, who were great friends of the
Sovereign and who were very fond of my dancing, brought the Shah
to one of my performances at Marigny.
After my appearance on the stage the Marquis and Marquise,
accompanied by some dignitaries of the sovereign’s retinue, came to
my dressing-room and brought me a Persian flag, which they
begged me to use in one of my dances.
What could I do with that heavy flag? In vain I racked my brain. I
could not discover any way. I could not refuse, and I was unable on
the other hand to convince them that it was impossible to try
anything so impromptu without running the risk of a failure.
More and more perplexed I made my entrance for the last dance.
I had the great flag in my arms. I tried to wave it gracefully, but I did
not succeed. I tried to strike a noble attitude, still holding the flag.
Again I failed. It was a woollen banner and would not float. Finally I
stood stock still, holding the staff upright, in as imposing an attitude
as possible. Then I bowed until the curtain fell.
My friends were surprised to observe that my last dance had
displeased his Majesty. The Shah finally told them that he did not
see why the Persian flag had been desecrated. No one dared to tell
him that the idea had not come from me, but from persons of his
retinue, or to inform him how I had received the flag.
My friends, the d’Oyleys, consoled me by saying that my pose
had been very noble and that even the flag, falling around me in
heavy folds, had produced a very striking effect.
The Shah decorates everybody who has attracted his attention;
that is a habit he has acquired. For my part, thanks to the brilliant
idea of the dignitaries from the court of Teheran, I have never seen
either the tail of the Lion or a ray of the Sun peculiar to Persian
decoration.
I have been told on other authority that on this evening the
Shah’s first thought was of a bomb which, so it had been announced,
was to be thrown at him in the hall. He was thinking of this rather
than of my person, my dances or even of the Persian flag I
“profaned.”
My Adventure with a Negro King.

At the Colonial exposition in Marseilles in 1907 I was with some
friends in the pavilion of one of the exhibitors when a magnificent
negro, six feet high, who looked like some prince from the Thousand
and One Nights, came upon the terrace where we sat. He was
accompanied by a large retinue. The other negroes were dressed
the same as he, but none of them had his magnificent presence.
Some French officials accompanied the visitors, who, naturally,
created a tremendous effect with their costumes, which were simple
but exquisitely finished. When they came near I exclaimed:
“He might be called a king out of a fairy tale!”
They passed before us and took their places in the reception hall.
The proprietor presently came to our group, and asked us if we
would not like to assist him in receiving the King of Djoloff in
Senegal.
“He is visiting the Exposition as a private citizen,” he added. “If
you would like to make his acquaintance come and I will present
you.”
I was charmed.
When I was in the presence of the king, I said quietly to my
friends, in a distinct voice and in French:
“What a handsome savage; I wonder if they are all built on this
model in Africa.”
I was presented to the king. He extended his hand, and, to my
consternation, I heard him say in very good French:
“I am delighted to make your acquaintance, Miss Fuller. I have
applauded you frequently. My education was gained in Paris.”
I could not repress an exclamation.
“Good heavens! Then you heard what I said, and you never
raised an eyelash!”
“No, since you did not suppose that I understood you.”
I looked at him for a minute or two to find out whether he had
been irritated or not. He smiled diplomatically and I felt that we
should be friends.
I was dancing at Marseilles at that time. He came to the theatre
to see me after the performance.
“What can we do that will give you pleasure in exchange for the
great satisfaction that your dances have just brought us?” he asked
me.
I thought the matter over a minute.
“I should like it very much if I might be present at one of your
religious ceremonies.”
The black chief promised to come to my hotel, and to give me an
idea of the ritualistic practices of his country.
The next day, accordingly, I made preparations for a tea-party in
the hotel garden. Rugs were spread on the grass and everything
was in readiness to receive the monarch.
“When will the ceremony begin?” I asked the king as soon as he
had arrived.
“We shall say our prayer at six o’clock, just at sunset.”
As night came on I observed that the king and his followers
began to survey the sky in every direction, and I wondered why.
Noting my wonderment, the king told me that they were
endeavouring to get their bearings in order to be certain of the point
toward which the sun was tending at the end of his journey.
“We are required,” he said, “always to pray with our faces toward
the setting sun.”
He gave the order to begin the ceremony then and there. I wish I
could describe it as perfectly as I saw it.
The unity of the motions of all these men was simply wonderful.
All together they said the same brief prayer, and with mechanical
precision made the same movement, which, from the point of view of
devotion, seemed to have similar importance to the words of their
ritual. The large white cloaks, spread over long blue blouses, waved
round their bodies. The men prostrated themselves, touched the
ground with their foreheads and then raised themselves together.
The rhythm and precision were most impressive. It was really very,
very beautiful.
After the prayers the king told me that his father had been
dethroned and then exiled from Senegal by the French Government.
As for himself, in his turn he had been nominated chief of his tribe,
for in reality there was no longer a king. He was a French subject,
and in his country, which was tributory to France, he was no more
than chief of his clan.
But the majesty remained, nevertheless, magnificently expressed
in his features.
While we were conversing I asked permission to put some
indiscreet questions. After he had consented, all the while smiling his
peculiarly winning smile, I asked him if he was married?
He replied in the affirmative. He had four wives. As I appeared to
be surprised to note that he travelled without them, especially in a
country where there are so many pretty women, he, in his turn,
looked at me for some time, and replied:
“From the point of view of my wives a white woman has neither
charm nor beauty.”
This surprised me greatly, and I asked him whether that was
because they had never seen any white women.
“Oh,” he replied, “in any case they would not be jealous of a white
woman. It seems to them absolutely impossible that a pale-faced
woman can play any part in my life.”
“And you? Are you so sure of that? If a white woman with long
blonde hair should suddenly appear in your country, among your
black women, would she not be taken for an angel?”
“Oh, no. She would be taken for a devil. Angels are black in our
Paradise.”
This, I must confess, opened new vistas in the domain of religion.
It had never before appeared so clear to me that men make their
gods in their own image, rather than that the gods make men after
theirs.
How the Empress of China Degraded a Mandarin on

my Account.
I was dancing in New York when several of Li Hung Chang’s
followers came to the theatre. Some friends presented me to the
American military attaché, Mr. Church, who accompanied the
Viceroy.
Thanks to Mr. Church I was able to satisfy my curiosity and
become acquainted with these high Chinese dignitaries. When they
left for their own country my manager went with them, in the hope
that, through their good offices, I might dance at the Chinese court in
the presence of the dowager Empress and her son.
As soon as my representative was in China, he cabled me that
everything had been arranged and that I was to take the first
steamer leaving Vancouver.
After crossing the continent I was on the point of embarking with

my mother, when the state of her health caused me the keenest
anxiety. Her prostration was so complete that I was obliged to send a
message to China, indicating the impossibility of keeping my
engagement.
My manager rejoined us utterly dejected.
At Pekin a magnificent reception had been prepared for me. I
was to dance before the Emperor and Empress and then in Japan I
was to appear before the Mikado. The theatre of the best Japanese
actor, Danjero, was to be put at my disposal. And all that to no
purpose whatever. My manager brought back from this oriental
country the most marvellous of embroideries, which Li Hung Chang
had sent over for me.
I experienced genuine regret at the failure of this trip, then I forgot
all about it.
One evening in London one of my friends at dinner found herself
seated next to a very high Chinese official. Apropos of the rich
colouring of the mandarin’s garments, they came to speak about me
and my coloured dances, and my friend said to her companion:
“You are acquainted with Loie Fuller, I presume.”
“Well, yes, madam,” he replied. “I am only too well acquainted
with her, if I may say so.”
“How is that?”
“I went to the United States with Li Hung Chang. Loie Fuller’s
manager accompanied us on our return to China, and, through the
influence of the Viceroy, we gained permission for Loie Fuller to
appear before the Empress. Just as she was about to leave for
Pekin she broke her agreement. It fell upon me to inform her Majesty
that Loie Fuller was unable to obey the Imperial mandate. The
Empress had me degraded! That was eight years ago. I lost my
yellow jacket, which has only recently been restored to me.”
My friend pleaded my case, alleging the condition of my mother’s
health, and the seriousness of her malady at the time of my failure to
report in the celestial empire.
I suppose that it would be too much to expect of His Excellency
to ask him to forgive my mistake. If I had known that my failure to
appear would be attended with such consequences, I should,
instead of cabling to my manager, have forwarded a long dispatch to
the Empress herself, telling her the reasons for my failure to keep an
engagement. A woman with a heart, even if she be an Empress,
could not blame a daughter for doing her duty towards her mother.
How Queen Alexandra did not fail to see me.

One morning the papers said that the King and Queen of
England were going to spend several days in Paris.
I was then dancing at the Hippodrome and, remembering what
Princess Marie of Roumania had told me, I decided not to let this
occasion slip, and I wrote to the Queen herself, asking if she would
be kind enough to set aside an hour in which I might give a
performance, at her own convenience and whenever she chose.
I should never, indeed, have supposed it possible to ask her to
come to the Hippodrome. One of her maids of honour answered the
note, saying that Her Majesty’s stay was of limited duration, and that
she had already accepted too many invitations to undertake any new
engagements.
After that I thought no more of the Queen.
Arriving at a matinee one Thursday, I noticed in front of the
Hippodrome quite an impressive line of carriages, all displaying the
royal insignia.
“The Queen has sent some one to my matinee,” I thought. “She
wants to know whether my dances are really worth seeing. If I make
a pleasant impression the Queen will perhaps some day ask me to
dance before her.”
I went into my dressing-room. I had nearly finished my
preparations when the manager rushed in post haste calling out:
“It’s four o’clock and the Queen has been waiting since half-past
two.”
“What! The Queen is here! Why didn’t you inform me sooner?”
He was too unnerved to make a lengthy explanation. I hurried
down and two minutes later I was on the stage.
In the middle of my dance the Queen arose and left the theatre
with all her attendants. I saw her rise and go!
I thought the floor would open and engulf me. What had I done to
offend her? Was she indignant that I had made her wait? Was this
her way of punishing me for my discourtesy, or did my dances
displease her? What was I to think?
I went home in utter despair.
I had just realised one of my dearest wishes, that of dancing
before the Queen. Never had I experienced such dejection. I should
have preferred a thousand times that she had not come.
I learned afterward at the theatre that a telephone message had
come shortly after noon to the effect that the Queen wished to see
Loie Fuller, but that she would have to leave at four o’clock.
The manager, who had supposed that the Queen was coming to
see the Hippodrome, had not attached any importance to the
intimation regarding me, and did not even take the trouble to find out
whether I was there or not.
Next morning all the papers recorded that the Queen of England
had come to the Hippodrome, despite her many appointments and
engagements made some time earlier, and so forth and so forth.
There was not a word about me.
However, as I had written to the Queen to ask her to come it
seemed to me that I ought to excuse myself for my apparent
discourtesy. I wrote to her accordingly, telling her how distressed I
was at my failure to appear earlier—a failure that would not have
occurred if some one had come to apprise me. I regretted that the
message had not been forwarded to me instead of to the manager.
That same evening one of my friends came to tell me that she
had written the day before to one of the Queen’s maids of honour,
whom she knew personally, asking her to come and see me dance
at the Hippodrome.
Photo Lafitte
THE DANCE OF THE BUTTERFLY
“That will make your new dances celebrated all over the world,”
said my friend. “The Queen will come, I am certain of it, if it is at all
possible.”
Overcome with surprise, I looked at my friend, and exclaimed:
“Well, then, that is why she came this afternoon!”
“Has she already come to see you? I should not have expected
such promptness.”
“She came to the matinee.”
And I told my friend the whole story in detail.
She still could not understand why the Queen had left so hastily,
and enquired into the reason.
Presently everything was explained.
The Queen had agreed to visit a painter’s studio at half-past
three and then, at four o’clock, to call upon M. and Mme. Loubet.
Nevertheless she remained at the Hippodrome until ten minutes past
four. The King went alone to the studio and the Queen arrived late at
the President’s house.
After that I fully appreciated her kindness, her patience. I still feel
endless gratitude to her for having waited so long, for not having left
the theatre without seeing, if it was only for a moment, Loie Fuller
and her dances.
As for the manager, he is still convinced that the Queen did not
come to see Loie Fuller, but the Hippodrome, and only the
Hippodrome.
XVI
OTHER MONARCHS
I SHALL always remember with great pleasure my six hundredth

appearance in Paris.
I was then dancing at the Athénée. The whole house had been
bought up by students. When I came on the stage each spectator
threw a bunch of violets at me. It took five minutes to gather up the
flowers.
When I had finished dancing, a fresh avalanche of flowers poured
upon the stage. During the performance I received from my
admirers, along with an album of sketches signed with names,
several of which are now famous, an exquisite statuette representing
me in a characteristic attitude.
When I was ready to leave the theatre, the students took my
horses out of the shafts and drew my carriage themselves. At the
Madeleine the crowd was so dense that the police warned us to
stop. But as soon as they had learned that it was “La Loie” in whose
honour the triumphal procession was decreed, we had permission to
go our way without interruption. The young men drew my carriage all
the way to Passy, where I lived. They conscientiously awakened all
the inhabitants with their outcries.
Finally we reached the house. I did not know what I was going to
do with these boys, but they themselves solved the problem without
delay.
After they had rung the bell and as soon as my gate had swung
on its hinges they emitted a shout all together, and started to run
away as if possessed. I could hear them for a long time afterwards,
shouting: “Vive l’art! Vive La Loie!”
I have often wondered whether the police were as lenient on their
return.
In Marseilles, at the time of the Colonial Exposition, one of the
commissioners of fine arts asked me if I would not like to perform
out-of-doors.
That was one of my dearest wishes, and I consented readily.
Preparations were made at once for my performance, which was
to be given in the same place where we had admired the King of
Cambodia’s dancers. The stage was built opposite to the Grand
Palais.
The director of the Exposition had placed behind the platform
some great plants, in order that I might be relieved against a
background of green foliage, which would be particularly favourable
to the brilliancy of the figures in the foreground. Below the stage
were two little ponds, with sparkling fountains.
The evening of my first appearance arrived. I was feverishly
impatient.
Nothing had been done to advertise it to the public of Marseilles,
for we regarded this first evening as a kind of rehearsal, which we
should repeat a week later, if it met with success. It was only this
next performance that we expected to announce formally.
It was a starlight night. There were at least thirty thousand visitors
at the Exposition.
The lights were put out and the crowd rushed towards the
platform. In spite of its impromptu character the performance was a
remarkable success, and the committee decided from this time on to
continue to give outdoor performances.
During the second evening, just as the lights were about to be
extinguished, a man came and said to me as I was on my way to the
stage:
“Just look, before they put the lights out, at the human wave
curling at your feet.”
I had never seen anything like it.
After the electric lights had been shut off I began to dance. The
rays of light enveloped me. There was a movement in the crowd,
which reverberated in echoes like the mutterings of a storm.
Exclamations followed, “Ohs” and “Ahs,” which fused into a sort
of roar, comparable to the wailing of some giant animal.
You can hardly imagine anything like it. It seemed to me that on
my account alone this spectacle was presented by all this moving
crowd before me.
A calm ensued. The orchestra, not a very large one, seemed to
me utterly ineffective in such a space. The audience, which was
seated on the other side of the fountains, certainly could not hear it.
The first dance came to its close. The extinguishing of my lighting
apparatus left us, the public and me, in utter darkness. The uproar of
the applause became something fantastic in the dead of night. It was
like the beating of a single pair of hands, but so powerful that no
noise in the world could be compared with it.
I danced four times, and the different sensations expressed by
the audience were most remarkable. They gave me the most vivid
impression I have ever experienced. It was something immense,
gigantic, prodigious.
That day I had a feeling that the crowd was really the most
powerful of monarchs.
There are other monarchs as well as kings and crowds. Certain
emotions are kings, too.
At Nice, at the Riviera Palace Hotel, I noticed one day at a table
near mine a young man of distinguished appearance whose glance
met my own several times successively, almost, one would fancy, in
spite of himself. During the following days we surveyed each other
again and again at meal times, but without progressing further
towards acquaintance.
I had a number of friends with me. He was alone. Gradually my
heart went out to him, although we had never exchanged a word. I
did not know who he was, and I had no notion of seeking his
acquaintance. Yet his brown eyes and his type of personality, calm
and simple, exerted a sort of fascination over me. A week later I
discovered, to my great confusion, that I was perpetually haunted by
his eyes and that I could not forget his smile.
One evening there was a ball at the hotel. I was invited, of
course.
As I have already said, I had a great many friends there. All at
once, in a corner, I noticed my neighbour of the dining-hall. He spoke
to no one. He was not dancing. I began to feel sorry to see him so
entirely alone. My sympathy went out more than ever towards him.
Some days later I was engaged for a performance that was to
take place at the hotel in honour of a Russian grand duke, two kings
and an empress.
I remember that Patti was in the front row. When I appeared
before this choice assembly, a single figure persisted in detaching
itself from the rest of the crowd. It was the figure of my unknown
young man. Who could he be to be noted thus, in the role of an
invited guest, among these princes and princesses? He rested his
elbow on the back of his chair. His hand was under his chin. His legs
were crossed with easy negligence. He looked at me continuously.
Everybody applauded over and over again. He alone did not lift a
finger.
Who was this man? Why did his countenance haunt me? Why
did he watch me so insistently? Why did he not join in the applause?
The next day, on the verandah, I was comfortably seated in a
rocking-chair, all the while wondering who my handsome dark man
could be. Coming back to earth I saw him there by my side,
ensconced in one of those odd willow seats that enclose you as in a
sentry box.
His eyes again met mine. We did not speak, but both of us
experienced a deep desire to exchange greetings. Just at that
moment the hotel manager came up and began to talk to us. Then,
observing that we were not acquainted, he introduced us. I learned
then that he was son of an industrial leader of international standing

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Green Approaches to Biocomposite

Materials Science and Engineering 1st

Microorganisms in Sustainable Agriculture Food and the

Microbiology for Food and Health: Technological

Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering Guang

Interdisciplinary Engineering Sciences-Concepts and

Smart Materials Integrated Design Engineering

Biosurfaces a materials science and engineering

Anesthesiology David Longnecker Et Al.

Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering

Prakash Chandra Gope

A volume in the Advances

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Position-Sensitive Gaseous Photomultipliers Research and Applications

701 E. Chocolate Ave., Hershey, PA 17033

Preface. ............................................................................................................... xiv

Natural Fibers for the Production of Green Composites. ....................................... 1 ; ;

Xiaolei Zhang, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Jun Li, University of Strathclyde, UK

Siddharth Jain, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, India

Processing Technologies for Green Composites Production................................ 24 ; ;

Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Garvit Joshi, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India ; ;

Concurrent Design of Green Composites............................................................. 48

Muhd Ridzuan Mansor, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia ; ;

S. M. Sapuan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Mohd Azli Salim, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

Mohd Zaid Akop, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

M. T. Musthafah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

M. A. Shaharuzaman, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia ; ;

Effect of Bamboo Hybridization and Staking Sequence on Mechanical

Piyush P. Gohil, The M. S. University of Baroda, India

Kundan Patel, CHARUSAT, India; ;

Vijaykumar Chaudhary, CHARUSAT, India ; ;

Ronak Ramjiyani, CHARUSAT, India ; ;

Estimation of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Epoxy-Based Green

Supriyo Roy, Birla Institute of Technology, India

Sumit Bhowmik, National Institute of Technology, India; ;

J. Paulo Davim, University of Aveiro, Portugal ; ;

Kaushik Kumar, Birla Institute of Technology, India ; ;

Fabrication and Processing of Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced .

S. H. Sheikh Md. Fadzullah, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, ;

Zaleha Mustafa, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia

Green Composites and Their Properties: A Brief Introduction.......................... 148 ; ;

Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Prakash Chandra Gope, College of Technology, India ; ;

Xiaolei Zhang, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Siddharth Jain, University of Alberta, Canada

Rajneesh Dabral, Graphic Era Hill University, India ; ;

Rice Husk Reinforcement in Polymer Composites. ........................................... 165

Sanjay Sharma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessment for the Production of Green

Siddharth Jain, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

Xiaolei Zhang, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

Banana Fiber Reinforcement and Application in Composites: A Review. ........ 201 ; ;

Abhinav Shandilya, Federal Mogul Goetze India Ltd., India ; ;

Ayush Gupta, College of Engineering Roorkee, India

Deepak Verma, Graphic Era Hill University, India

Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Composites. ............................................................. 228

Irem Sanal, Atlim University, Turkey