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Gear Cutting Tools
Science and Engineering
Second Edition
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Gear Cutting Tools
Science and Engineering
Second Edition

Stephen P. Radzevich
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Radzevich, S. P. (Stepan Pavlovich), author.

Title: Gear cutting tools : science and engineering / Stephen P. Radzevich.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017010753| ISBN 9781138037069 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315178042 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Gear-cutting machines. | Gearing--Design and construction. | Metal-cutting tools--Design and construction--​
Mathematical models. | Machinery, Kinematics of--Mathematical models.
Classification: LCC TJ187 .R34 2018 | DDC 621.9/44--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017010753

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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This book is dedicated to my family.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contents

Preface...................................................................................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................................................................xix
Author........................................................................................................................................................................................xxi
Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................... xxiii
Syntax......................................................................................................................................................................................xxix

1. Brief Notes on the History of Methods of Machining Gears and of Design of Gear Cutting Tools................ 1
1.1 Early Accomplishments in the Design of Toothed Wheels and in Methods for Manufacture of Gears.... 2
1.2 Early Designs of Special-Purpose Cutting Tools for Producing Gear Teeth.................................................... 3
1.3 Gear Cutting Tools for the First Production Machines....................................................................................... 4
1.4 Evolution of Gear Cutting Tools for Production Machines............................................................................... 5
1.5 Development of the Skiving Internal Gear Process............................................................................................. 7
1.6 Development of the Rotary Gear Shaving Process.............................................................................................. 7
1.7 Grinding Hardened Gears....................................................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Gear Cutting Tools for Generating Bevel Gears................................................................................................... 8
1.9 Later Accomplishments in Design of Gear Cutting Tools for Generating Bevel Gears................................. 9
1.10 Generating Milling of Bevel Gears....................................................................................................................... 12

Section I Basics

2. Gears: Geometry of Tooth Flanks................................................................................................................................. 17

2.1 Basic Types of Gears............................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Analytical Description of Gear Tooth Flanks..................................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Tooth Flank of a Spur Involute Gear....................................................................................................... 21
2.2.2 Tooth Flank of a Helical Involute Gear................................................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Tooth Flank of a Straight Bevel Gear...................................................................................................... 24
2.2.4 Tooth Flank of a Skew Bevel Gear........................................................................................................... 24
2.3 Gear Tooth Surfaces That Allow for Sliding over Them................................................................................... 25

3. Principal Kinematics of Gear Machining Process..................................................................................................... 27

3.1 Relative Motions in Gear Machining Process..................................................................................................... 27
3.1.1 Elementary Relative Motions of the Work Gear and the Gear Cutting Tool.................................... 27
3.1.2 Feasible Relative Motions of the Work Gear and the Gear Cutting Tool........................................... 29
3.2 Rolling of Conjugate Surfaces............................................................................................................................... 30

4. Kinematics of Continuous Indexing Methods of Gear Machining Processes.................................................... 31

4.1 Vector Representation of Gear Machining Process............................................................................................ 31
4.2 Kinematic Relationships for Gear Machining Mesh......................................................................................... 36
4.3 Configuration of Vectors of Relative Motions..................................................................................................... 39
4.3.1 Principal Features of Configuration of Two Rotation Vectors............................................................. 39
4.3.2 Classification of Gear Machining Meshes.............................................................................................. 41
4.4 Kinematics of Gear Machining Processes........................................................................................................... 43

Section II Form Gear Cutting Tools

5. Gear Broaching Tools...................................................................................................................................................... 47

5.1 Kinematics of Gear Broaching Process................................................................................................................ 47
5.2 Generating Surface of a Gear Broach................................................................................................................... 47

vii
viii Contents

5.3 Cutting Edges of Gear Broaching Tools............................................................................................................... 48

5.3.1 Rake Surface of Finishing Teeth of Gear Broach.................................................................................. 49
5.3.1.1 Conical Rake Surface............................................................................................................... 49
5.3.1.2 Rake Surface in the Form of Screw Archimedean Surface................................................ 50
5.3.2 Clearance Surface of Gear Broach Teeth................................................................................................ 50
5.4 Chip Removal Diagrams........................................................................................................................................ 51
5.5 Sharpening of Gear Broaches................................................................................................................................ 52
5.6 Novel Concept of Precision Gear Broaching Tool for Machining Helical Involute Gears........................... 57
5.7 Application of Gear Broaching Tools................................................................................................................... 59
5.7.1 Broaching Internal Gears......................................................................................................................... 59
5.7.2 Broaching External Gears........................................................................................................................ 61
5.8 Shear-Speed Cutting............................................................................................................................................... 62
5.8.1 Principle of Shear-Speed Cutting of Gears............................................................................................ 62
5.8.2 Profiling of Form Tools for Shear-Speed Cutting of Gears................................................................. 63
5.8.2.1 Descriptive Geometry-Based Method for Profiling of Form Tools.................................. 63
5.8.2.2 Analytical Profiling of the Form Tool................................................................................... 64
5.8.3 Application of Shear-Speed Cutting....................................................................................................... 66
5.9 Rotary Broaches: Slater Tools................................................................................................................................ 66
5.10 Broaching Bevel Gear Teeth.................................................................................................................................. 68
5.10.1 Principle of Revacycle Process of Cutting Gear Teeth......................................................................... 68
5.10.2 Revacycle Cutting Tools........................................................................................................................... 70
5.10.3 Profiling Cutter for Machining Straight Bevel Gears by Using Revacycle Process........................ 71
5.10.3.1 Profiling the Finishing Teeth of Revacycle Gear Cutter..................................................... 71
5.10.3.2 Shape of Roughing Teeth of Revacycle Gear Cutter........................................................... 74
5.10.4 Application of Revacycle Process of Cutting Gear Teeth.................................................................... 75

6. End Mill Gear Cutters..................................................................................................................................................... 77

6.1 Kinematics of Gear Cutting with End Mill Cutter............................................................................................. 77
6.2 Generating Surface of End Mill Gear Cutter....................................................................................................... 77
6.2.1 Equation for Generating Surface of End Mill Cutter for Machining Spur Involute Gears............ 78
6.2.2 Equation for Generating Surface of End Mill Cutter for Machining Helical Involute Gears........ 80
6.2.3 Elements of Intrinsic Geometry of Generating Surface of End Mill Gear Cutter........................... 83
6.3 Cutting Edge of End Mill Gear Cutter................................................................................................................. 83
6.3.1 Rake Surface of Mill Cutter for Machining Involute Gears................................................................ 84
6.3.1.1 Rake Surface in a Form of Plane............................................................................................ 84
6.3.1.2 Rake Surface in the Form of Screw Archimedean Surface................................................ 85
6.3.2 Clearance Surface of Mill Cutter for Machining Involute Gears....................................................... 86
6.3.3 Cutting Edge Geometry of End Mill Gear Cutter................................................................................ 88
6.3.3.1 Rake Surface Is a Plane........................................................................................................... 89
6.3.3.2 Rake Surface Is a Screw Surface............................................................................................ 91
6.4 Accuracy of Gear Tooth Flanks Machined by End Mill Cutters...................................................................... 93
6.4.1 Background of Approach......................................................................................................................... 93
6.4.2 Cusps on Tooth Flanks of Spur Gear..................................................................................................... 93
6.4.3 Cusps on Tooth Flanks of Helical Gear................................................................................................. 94
6.4.3.1 Normal Curvature of Helical Gear Tooth Flank in Direction of Feed Motion Fc........... 95
6.4.3.2 Calculation of Deviation of Machined Tooth Flank of Helical Gear
from Its Desired Shape............................................................................................................ 95
6.5 Application of End Mill Gear Cutters.................................................................................................................. 96

7. Disk Mill Gear Cutters.................................................................................................................................................... 99

7.1 Kinematics of Gear Cutting by Disk Mill Cutter................................................................................................ 99
7.2 Generating Surface of Disk Mill Gear Cutter................................................................................................... 100
7.2.1 Equation for Generating Surface of Disk Mill Gear Cutter for Machining Spur Involute Gear.......100
7.2.2 Equation for Generating Surface of Disk Mill Cutter for Machining Helical Involute Gears...... 102
7.2.3 Elements of Intrinsic Geometry of the Generating Surface of Disk Mill Gear Cutter................... 103
Contents ix

7.3 Cutting Edge of Disk Mill Gear Cutter.............................................................................................................. 105

7.3.1 Rake Surface of Disk Mill Gear Cutter for Machining Involute Gears............................................ 105
7.3.2 Clearance Surface of Disk Mill Gear Cutter for Machining Involute Gear..................................... 106
7.4 Profiling of Disk Mill Gear Cutters.................................................................................................................... 107
7.4.1 Use of Descriptive Geometry-Based Method of Profiling................................................................. 107
7.4.2 Analytical Profiling of Disk Mill Gear Cutters................................................................................... 109
7.4.2.1 Important Intermediate Conclusion...................................................................................... 112
7.5 Cutting Edge Geometry of Disk Mill Gear Cutter............................................................................................113
7.6 Disk Mill Cutters for Roughing of Gears...........................................................................................................116
7.7 Accuracy of Gear Tooth Flanks Machined by Disk Mill Gear Cutters..........................................................119
7.8 Application of Disk Mill Gear Cutters............................................................................................................... 121

8. Nontraditional Methods of Gear Machining by Form Cutting Tools................................................................. 129

8.1 Plurality of Single Parametric Motions.............................................................................................................. 129
8.2 Implementation of Single Parametric Motions for Designing Form Gear Cutting Tool............................ 130
8.2.1 End Mill Gear Cutter............................................................................................................................... 131
8.2.2 Disk Mill Gear Cutter.............................................................................................................................. 131
8.2.3 Face Mill Gear Cutter.............................................................................................................................. 132
8.2.4 Enveloping Round Broach for Cutting Spur and Helical Gears....................................................... 133
8.2.5 Enveloping Round Broach for Machining Straight Bevel Gears...................................................... 134
8.3 Diversity of Form Tools for Machining a Given Gear..................................................................................... 135
8.3.1 Machining of Worm on Lathe................................................................................................................ 135
8.3.2 Milling of Involute Worm....................................................................................................................... 137
8.3.3 Thread Whirling...................................................................................................................................... 139
8.3.4 Grinding of Involute Worm.................................................................................................................... 140
8.4 On Classification of Form Gear Cutting Tools.................................................................................................. 142

Section III Cutting Tools for Continuous Indexing Methods of Generating

Gear Teeth: Parallel-Axes Gear Machining Mesh
9. Rack Cutters for Planing of Spur and Helical Gears.............................................................................................. 145
9.1 Generating Surface of Rack Cutter..................................................................................................................... 145
9.1.1 Equation for Generating Surface of Rack Cutter................................................................................. 145
9.2 On the Variety of Feasible Tooth Profiles of Rack Cutters.............................................................................. 148
9.3 Cutting Edge of Rack Cutter................................................................................................................................ 150
9.3.1 Rake Surface of Rack Cutter................................................................................................................... 150
9.3.1.1 Rake Plane Is Perpendicular to Generating Straight Lines of Surface T.......................... 150
9.3.1.2 Rake Plane Is at the Helix Angle to Generating Straight Lines of Surface T.................. 151
9.3.2 Clearance Surface of Rack Cutter Tooth............................................................................................... 151
9.4 Profiling of Rack Cutter Teeth............................................................................................................................. 152
9.4.1 Profiling of Rack Cutter Teeth by Using DG-Based Methods........................................................... 152
9.4.2 Analytical Profiling of Rack Cutter Teeth............................................................................................ 153
9.5 Cutting Edge Geometry of Rack Cutter............................................................................................................. 154
9.5.1 Calculation of Cutting Tool Geometry for Lateral Cutting Edges.................................................... 154
9.5.2 Possible Improvements in the Geometry of Lateral Cutting Edges of Rack Cutters..................... 156
9.5.2.1 Modifications of Rake Surface................................................................................................ 156
9.5.2.2 Modifications of Clearance Surface....................................................................................... 158
9.6 Chip Thickness Cut by Cutting Edges of Rack Cutter Tooth......................................................................... 159
9.7 Accuracy of Planed Gear..................................................................................................................................... 163
9.7.1 Fulfillment of the Fifth Condition of Proper Part Surface Generation.......................................... 163
9.7.2 Fulfillment of the Sixth Condition of Proper Part Surface Generation......................................... 165
9.8 Application of Rack Cutters..................................................................................................................................167
9.9 Potential Improvements in Methods of Gear Cutting and Designs of Rack Gear Cutters.........................167
x Contents

10. Gear Shaper Cutters I: External Gear Machining Mesh........................................................................................ 171

10.1 Kinematics of Gear Shaping Operation............................................................................................................. 171
10.2 Generating Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter........................................................................................................ 173
10.3 Cutting Edges of Shaper Cutter Teeth................................................................................................................ 175
10.3.1 Rake Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter................................................................................................... 175
10.3.1.1 Geometry of Rake Surface of Spur Gear Shaper Cutter................................................... 175
10.3.1.2 Geometry of Rake Surface of Helical Gear Shaper Cutter................................................176
10.3.2 Clearance Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth............................................................................... 177
10.4 Profiling of Gear Shaper Cutter Teeth................................................................................................................ 178
10.4.1 Features of Profiling of Shaper Cutters for Machining Noninvolute Shapes................................. 180
10.5 Critical Distance to the Nominal Plane Section of Shaper Cutter Tooth...................................................... 181
10.6 Cutting Edge Geometry of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth.................................................................................... 183
10.6.1 Angle of Inclination of Lateral Cutting Edge.................................................................................... 183
10.6.2 Rake Angle of Lateral Cutting Edge.................................................................................................. 184
10.6.3 Clearance Angle of Lateral Cutting Edge.......................................................................................... 185
10.6.4 Improvement in the Geometry of Lateral Cutting Edge................................................................. 186
10.6.4.1 Enhancement of the Geometry of Rake Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth............. 186
10.6.4.2 Enhancement of the Geometry of Clearance Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth.... 188
10.7 Desired Corrections to Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth Profile.............................................................................. 189
10.8 Thickness of Chip Cut by Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth...................................................................................... 190
10.9 Accuracy of Gears Cut by Gear Shaper Cutter................................................................................................. 194
10.9.1 Fulfillment of the Fifth Condition of Proper Part Surface Generation.......................................... 194
10.9.2 Fulfillment of the Sixth Condition of Proper Part Surface Generation......................................... 196
10.10 Application of Gear Shaper Cutters................................................................................................................... 197
10.10.1 Design of Gear Shaper Cutters............................................................................................................ 197
10.10.2 Special Features of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth Profile..................................................................... 199
10.10.3 Gear Shaper Cutters for Machining Helical and Herringbone Gears.......................................... 200
10.10.4 Gear Shaper Cutters of Special Designs............................................................................................ 201
10.10.4.1 Gear Shaper Cutters Having an Improved Cutting Edge Geometry......................... 201
10.10.4.2 Precision Gear Shaper Cutters.......................................................................................... 204
10.10.4.3 Shaper Cutters for Machining Hardened Gears............................................................ 205
10.10.5 Typical Gear Shaping Operations....................................................................................................... 206
10.10.6 Grinding of Worn Gear Shaper Cutters............................................................................................. 207
10.10.6.1 Grinding on Clearance Surfaces...................................................................................... 207
10.10.6.2 Grinding on Rake Surfaces............................................................................................... 209

11. Gear Shaper Cutters II: Internal Gear Machining Mesh....................................................................................... 213
11.1 Kinematics of Shaping Operation of Internal Gear......................................................................................... 213
11.2 Design of Gear Shaper Cutters.............................................................................................................................214
11.2.1 Generating Surface of Gear Shaper Cutters.......................................................................................214
11.2.2 Profiling of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth............................................................................................... 215
11.2.3 Cutting Edge Geometry of Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth.................................................................... 215
11.3 Thickness of Chip Cut by Gear Shaper Cutter Tooth.......................................................................................216
11.4 Accuracy of Shaped Internal Gears.................................................................................................................... 219
11.4.1 Elimination of Interference of Internal Work Gear and Gear Shaper Cutter Teeth.................... 219
11.5 Enveloping Gear Shaper Cutters........................................................................................................................ 220
11.6 Application of Gear Shaper Cutters................................................................................................................... 221

Section IV Cutting Tools for Continuous Indexing Methods of Generating

Gear Teeth: Intersected-Axes Gear Machining Mesh
12. Gear Shapers with Tilted Axis of Rotation............................................................................................................... 229
12.1 Kinematics of Gear Shaping Operation with Shaper Cutter Having a Tilted Axis of Rotation................ 229
12.2 Determination of Generating Surface of Gear Shaper Cutter with Tilted Axis of Rotation...................... 231
Contents xi

12.3 Illustration of Capabilities of External Intersecting-Axis Gear Machining Mesh....................................... 236

12.3.1 Shaping Straight Bevel Gears................................................................................................................. 236
12.3.2 Shaping Face Gears.................................................................................................................................. 237

13. Gear Cutting Tools for Machining Bevel Gears...................................................................................................... 239

13.1 Principal Elements of Kinematics of Bevel Gear Generation......................................................................... 239
13.2 Geometry of the Interacting Tooth Surfaces..................................................................................................... 241
13.2.1 Principal Elements of the Geometry of Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Flank....................................... 241
13.2.2 Generating Surface of the Gear Cutting Tool...................................................................................... 242
13.2.3 Geometry of Approximated Tooth Flank of Generated Bevel Gear................................................ 244
13.3 Peculiarities of Generating of Straight Bevel Gears with Offset Teeth......................................................... 246
13.3.1 Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool............................................................................................. 246
13.4 Generating Straight Bevel Gear Teeth................................................................................................................ 248
13.4.1 Generating of the Plane Ta by Straight Motion of the Cutting Edge................................................ 248
13.4.2 Machining of Straight Bevel Gears....................................................................................................... 248
13.4.3 Gear Cutting Tools for Machining Straight Bevel Gears................................................................... 249
13.4.3.1 Major Design Parameters of the Cutting Tool for Machining of Straight Bevel Gears......249
13.4.3.2 Cutting Tool Geometry............................................................................................................ 251
13.5 Peculiarities of Straight Bevel Gear Cutting..................................................................................................... 253
13.6 Milling of Straight Bevel Gears........................................................................................................................... 254
13.6.1 Peculiarities of Gear Machining Operation......................................................................................... 254
13.6.2 Design of Interlocking Milling Cutters................................................................................................ 255
13.6.3 Specific Features of the Shape of Finished Bevel Gear Flanks.......................................................... 255
13.7 Milling of Bevel Gears with Curved Teeth....................................................................................................... 256
13.7.1 Peculiarities of the Gear Machining Operation.................................................................................. 257
13.7.2 Design of Gear Cutters............................................................................................................................ 258
13.8 Grinding of Spiral Bevel Gear Cutter Heads.................................................................................................... 261
13.9 Computer Numerical Control Milling of Spiral Bevel Gear Tooth Flank.................................................... 262
13.10 Grinding of Spiral Bevel Gear Tooth Flank...................................................................................................... 262
13.11 Lapping of Spiral Bevel Gear Tooth Flank........................................................................................................ 263

14. Gear Shaper Cutters Having a Tilted Axis of Rotation: Internal Gear Machining Mesh.............................. 267
14.1 Principal Kinematics of Internal Gear Machining Mesh................................................................................ 267
14.2 Peculiarities of Gear Cutting Tool Design......................................................................................................... 267
14.2.1 Shaping of Internal Gear......................................................................................................................... 267
14.2.2 Shaping of Spur Gear by Enveloping Shaper Cutter.......................................................................... 269
14.2.3 Shaping of External Recessed Tooth Forms by Enveloping Shaper Cutter..................................... 270

Section V Cutting Tools for Continuous Indexing Methods of Generating

Gear Teeth: Crossed-Axes Gear Machining Mesh

Section V-A Design of Gear Cutting Tools: External Gear Machining Mesh
15. Generating Surface of the Gear Cutting Tool........................................................................................................... 277
15.1 Kinematics of External Crossed-Axes Gear Machining Mesh....................................................................... 277
15.2 Auxiliary Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool........................................................................................ 280
15.3 Examples of Possible Types of Auxiliary Generating Surfaces of Gear Cutting Tools............................... 284
15.4 Generation of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool.......................................................................... 284
15.4.1 Design Parameters of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool............................................... 284
15.4.1.1 Envelope to Successive Positions of a Plane with a Screw Motion................................... 285
15.4.1.2 Principal Elements of the Geometry of Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool......... 287
xii Contents

15.4.2 Equation of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool................................................................. 289

15.4.3 Setting Angle of Gear Cutting Tool...................................................................................................... 291
15.4.4 Complementary Equations..................................................................................................................... 292
15.5 Use of DG-Based Methods for Determining the Design Parameters of the Generating Surfaces
of a Gear Cutting Tool.......................................................................................................................................... 294
15.5.1 Base Helix Angle ψb.c of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool........................................... 294
15.5.2 Base Diameter db.c of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool................................................. 295
15.6 Possible Types of Generating Surfaces of Gear Cutting Tools........................................................................ 296
15.6.1 Generating Surface of the Gear Cutting Tool with a Zero Profile Angle........................................ 296
15.6.2 Conical Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool.............................................................................. 297
15.6.3 Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool with Asymmetric Tooth Profile..................................... 301
15.6.4 Generating Surfaces of Gear Cutting Tools Featuring Torus-Shaped Pitch Surfaces.................... 302
15.7 Constraints on the Design Parameters of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool........................... 304

16. Hobs for Machining Gears........................................................................................................................................... 305

16.1 Transformation of the Generating Surface into the Workable Gear Cutting Tool....................................... 305
16.2 Geometry and Generation of Rake Surface of a Gear Hob............................................................................. 308
16.2.1 Geometry of Rake Surface...................................................................................................................... 308
16.2.2 Generation of Rake Surface.................................................................................................................... 311
16.2.2.1 Generation of a Rake Surface in the Form of a Plane...........................................................311
16.2.2.2 Generation of a Screw Rake Surface...................................................................................... 312
16.2.2.3 Peculiarities of Generation of a Screw Rake Surface of a Multistart Hob........................ 313
16.2.2.4 Methods for Generation of Intermittent Rake Surface of Special-Purpose Gear Hob..... 315
16.3 Geometry and Generation of Clearance Surfaces of Gear Hobs.....................................................................316
16.3.1 Equation of Desired Clearance Surface of Hob Tooth........................................................................ 317
16.3.2 Generation of the Clearance Surface of Hob Tooth............................................................................. 320
16.3.2.1 Cutting of Relieved Clearance Surfaces of Hob Teeth........................................................ 320
16.3.2.2 Grinding of the Relieved Clearance Surfaces of Hob Teeth............................................... 324
16.4 Accuracy of Hobs for Machining of Involute Gears........................................................................................ 332
16.4.1 Preliminary Remarks............................................................................................................................... 332
16.4.2 Accuracy of an Involute Gear Hob as a Function of Its Design Parameters................................... 333
16.4.2.1 Analytical Description of Desired Lateral Cutting Edge.................................................... 333
16.4.2.2 Analytical Description of Actual Lateral Cutting Edge...................................................... 334
16.4.2.3 Machining Surface of an Involute Hob................................................................................. 334
16.4.2.4 Deviation of the Actual Machining Surface from the Desired Generating Surface
of an Involute Hob................................................................................................................... 335
16.4.3 Impact of Pitch Diameter on the Accuracy of Gear Hob.................................................................... 340
16.4.3.1 Peculiarities of the Relative Motion of Work Gear and Hob............................................. 340
16.4.3.2 Principal Design Parameters of Involute Hob..................................................................... 342
16.4.3.3 Elements of Kinematic Geometry of Involute Hob............................................................. 345
16.5 Design of Gear Hobs............................................................................................................................................. 350
16.5.1 Design Parameters of Gear Hob............................................................................................................ 350
16.5.2 Tooth Profile of Gear Hob....................................................................................................................... 354
16.5.3 Precision Involute Hobs with Straight Lateral Cutting Edges.......................................................... 357
16.5.3.1 Principal Design Parameters of Precision Involute Hob.................................................... 359
16.5.3.2 Method for Resharpening Precision Involute Hob............................................................. 364
16.5.3.3 Involute Hob for Machining Gear with a Modified Tooth Profile.................................... 366
16.5.4 Examples of Nonstandard Designs of Involute Hobs........................................................................ 370
16.5.4.1 Cylindrical Hobs of Nonstandard Design............................................................................ 370
16.5.4.2 Conical Gear Hobs....................................................................................................................374
16.5.4.3 Toroidal Gear Hobs.................................................................................................................. 378
16.6 Cutting Edge Geometry of Gear Hob Tooth..................................................................................................... 379
16.6.1 Penetration Curve and the Machining Zone in Gear Hobbing Process.......................................... 379
16.6.1.1 Parameters of the G/Hpc Penetration Curve......................................................................... 380
16.6.1.2 Partitioning of the Machining Zone...................................................................................... 381
Contents xiii

16.6.2 Cutting Edge Geometry of Hob Tooth in the Tool-in-Use Reference System................................. 383
16.6.2.1 Tool-in-Use Reference System in Gear Hobbing Operation............................................... 383
16.6.2.2 Geometrical Parameters of Hob Cutting Edge in the Tool-in-Use Reference System.... 385
16.6.2.3 Possibility of Improving Hob Design on the Premise of the Results
of Investigation of the Cutting Edge Geometry................................................................... 389
16.7 Constraints on the Parameters of Modification of the Hob Tooth Profile.................................................... 390
16.7.1 Applied Reference Systems.................................................................................................................... 391
16.7.2 Kinematics of the Elementary Gear Drive........................................................................................... 391
16.7.3 Calculation of the Maximum Allowed Value of the Modification of Tooth Profile
of Involute Hob........................................................................................................................................ 392
16.7.4 Normalized Deviation Δm of the Tooth Profile of Hobbed Gear...................................................... 395
16.7.5 Peculiarities of Involute Hobs with Reduced Addendum................................................................. 396
16.7.6 Illustrative Examples of the Calculation.............................................................................................. 398
16.7.6.1 Calculation of the Actual Value of the Deviation Δ............................................................ 398
16.7.6.2 Calculation of the Allowed Interval for the Hob Normal Profile Angle......................... 398
16.7.6.3 Calculation of the Allowed Rounding of an Involute Hob Tooth Corner....................... 398
16.8 Application of Hobs for Machining Gears........................................................................................................ 398
16.8.1 Peculiarities of Gear Hobbing Operation............................................................................................. 399
16.8.2 Peculiarities of Machining of Worm Gears and Worms.................................................................... 402
16.8.3 Feed Motion in Gear Hobbing Operation............................................................................................ 403
16.8.4 Cycles of Gear Hobbing Operations..................................................................................................... 406
16.8.5 Minimum Hob Travel Distance............................................................................................................. 408
16.8.5.1 Hobbing Time as a Function of the Hob Total Travel Distance......................................... 409
16.8.5.2 Impact of the Hob Idle Distance on the Minimal Neck Width of the Hobbed
Cluster Gear.............................................................................................................................. 409
16.8.5.3 Selection of a Proper Value of the Setting Angle of the Hob............................................. 409
16.8.5.4 Calculation of the Shortest Allowed Hob Idle Distance......................................................411
16.8.5.5 Impact of Tolerance onto the Shortest Possible Hob Idle Distance....................................414
16.8.5.6 Calculation of the Shortest Allowable Approach Distance of the Hob............................ 419
16.8.5.7 Designing of a Hob Featuring a Prescribed Value of the Setting Angle......................... 420
16.8.6 Peculiarities of Generating Grinding of Gears.................................................................................... 423

17. Gear Shaving Cutters.................................................................................................................................................... 425

17.1 Transformation of the Generating Surface into a Workable Gear Shaving Cutter...................................... 425
17.1.1 Generating Surface of Shaving Cutter.................................................................................................. 425
17.1.2 Rake Surface of the Cutting Teeth of a Shaving Cutter...................................................................... 425
17.1.3 Clearance Surface of the Cutting Teeth of a Shaving Cutter............................................................. 426
17.1.4 Inclination Angle of the Cutting Edges of a Shaving Cutter............................................................. 426
17.2 Design of Gear Shaving Cutters......................................................................................................................... 430
17.2.1 Design Parameters of a Shaving Cutter................................................................................................ 430
17.2.2 Serrations on the Tooth Flanks of a Shaving Cutter........................................................................... 431
17.2.3 Resharpening of Shaving Cutter........................................................................................................... 433
17.2.3.1 Example..................................................................................................................................... 436
17.3 Axial Method of Gear Shaving Process............................................................................................................. 437
17.3.1 Kinematics of Axial Method of Gear Shaving Process...................................................................... 437
17.3.2 Cutting Speed in the Axial Method of Rotary Shaving of Gear....................................................... 437
17.3.2.1 Impact of the Crossed-Axes Angle........................................................................................ 438
17.3.2.2 Impact of the Traverse Motion............................................................................................... 439
17.3.2.3 Impact of Profile Sliding.......................................................................................................... 439
17.3.2.4 Resultant Formula for Cutting Speed in Axial Gear Shaving........................................... 444
17.4 Diagonal Method of the Gear Shaving Process................................................................................................ 444
17.4.1 Kinematics of the Diagonal Method of the Gear Shaving Process.................................................. 445
17.4.1.1 Multistroke Diagonal Shaving............................................................................................... 445
17.4.2 Traverse Angle in Diagonal Method of the Rotary Shaving of Involute Gear............................... 445
17.4.3 Cutting Speed in the Diagonal Method of the Rotary Shaving of a Gear....................................... 446
xiv Contents

17.4.4 Optimization of the Kinematics in Diagonal Method of Rotary Shaving of Gears....................... 447
17.4.4.1 Concept of the Synthesis......................................................................................................... 447
17.4.4.2 Local Topology of the Contacting Tooth Flanks.................................................................. 449
17.4.4.3 Applied Coordinate Systems.................................................................................................. 450
17.4.4.4 Geometry of Contact of the Tooth Flanks G and T............................................................. 451
17.4.4.5 Favorable Design Parameters of a Shaving Cutter and of the Kinematics of the Rotary
Shaving Operation............................................................................................................................... 454
17.5 Tangential Method of the Gear Shaving Process............................................................................................. 455
17.5.1 Kinematics of Tangential Method of Gear Shaving Process............................................................. 455
17.5.2 Cutting Speed in Tangential Method of Rotary Shaving of Gear.................................................... 456
17.5.3 Tangential Shaving of Shoulder Gear: DG-Based Approach............................................................ 456
17.5.3.1 Maximum Allowed Outer Diameter of a Shaving Cutter.................................................. 457
17.5.3.2 Minimum Required Overlap of the Work Gear and Shaving Cutter............................... 459
17.5.3.3 Minimum Required Face Width of Shaving Cutter............................................................ 462
17.5.4 Tangential Shaving of Shoulder Gear: Analytical Approach............................................................ 462
17.5.4.1 Optimal Design Parameters of Shaving Cutter................................................................... 462
17.5.4.2 Influence of Overlap of the Shaving Cutter over the Work Gear onto the Accuracy
of the Finished Tooth Flanks.................................................................................................. 464
17.6 Plunge Method of Gear Shaving Process.......................................................................................................... 466
17.6.1 Kinematics of Plunge Method of Gear Shaving Process.................................................................... 467
17.6.2 Cutting Speed in Plunge Method of Rotary Shaving of Gears......................................................... 467
17.6.3 Plunge Gear Shaving Process................................................................................................................ 468
17.6.4 Plunge Shaving of Topologically Modified Gears.............................................................................. 468
17.6.4.1 Geometry of a Topologically Modified Gear Tooth Flank................................................. 468
17.6.4.2 Geometry of the Desirable Topologically Modified Tooth Flank of Shaving Cutter..... 470
17.6.4.3 Grinding a Topologically Modified Tooth Flank of the Shaving Cutter.......................... 471
17.6.5 Fulfillment of Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Proper Part Surface Generation
When Designing a Shaving Cutter for Plunge Shaving of Gears..................................................... 473
17.6.5.1 Circular Mapping of Tooth Flanks of a Work Gear and the Shaving Cutter.................. 473
17.6.5.2 Shaving Cutter of a Special Design for Plunge Shaving of Precision Gears....................474
17.7 Advances in the Design of the Shaving Cutter................................................................................................. 476
17.7.1 Elements of the Geometry of the Cutting Edges................................................................................. 476
17.7.1.1 Shaving Cutter with a Nearly Optimal Angle of Inclination of the Cutting Edges....... 476
17.7.1.2 Shaving Cutter with a Constant Inclination Angle within the Cutting Edges............... 477
17.7.2 Utilization of Features of the Generating Surface of Involute Shaving Cutter............................... 478
17.7.2.1 Precision Involute Shaving Cutter with Straight Cutting Edges....................................... 478
17.7.2.2 Shaving Cutter for Finishing Modified Tooth Flank of a Gear......................................... 479
17.8 Peculiarities of the Gear Shaving Process......................................................................................................... 480
17.8.1 Shaving Cutter Selection......................................................................................................................... 480
17.8.2 Requirements for Preshaved Work Gear.............................................................................................. 480
17.8.3 Manufacturing Aspects of Gear Shaving Operation.......................................................................... 480
17.8.4 Modification of Tooth Form and Shape................................................................................................ 482
17.8.5 Shaving of Worm Gear............................................................................................................................ 482
17.8.6 Abrasive Gear Shaving (Gear Honing)................................................................................................. 484

18. Examples of Implementation of the Classification of Gear Machining Meshes............................................... 485

18.1 Hob for Tangential Hobbing of Gears................................................................................................................ 485
18.2 Hob for Plunge Gear Hobbing............................................................................................................................ 485
18.3 Hobbing of Face Gear........................................................................................................................................... 485
18.4 Worm-Type Gear Cutting Tool with Continuous Helix-Spiral Cutting Edge.............................................. 486
18.5 Cutting Tools for Scudding Gears...................................................................................................................... 489
18.5.1 Essentials of the Gear Scudding Process.............................................................................................. 490
18.5.2 Design Concept of a Precision Cutting Tool for Gear Scudding Process........................................ 490
18.5.3 Application of the Gear Scudding Process.......................................................................................... 491
Contents xv

18.6 Shaper Cutter with Tilted Axis of Rotation for Shaping Cylindrical Gears................................................. 491
18.6.1 Kinematics of Shaping a Helical Gear with the Straight Tooth Shaper Cutter............................... 491
18.6.2 Principal Elements of Design of the Gear Cutting Tool..................................................................... 492
18.6.3 Possibility of Application of the Gear Shaper Cutter with a Tilted Axis of Rotation.................... 492
18.7 Gear Cutting Tool for Machining a Worm in the Continuously Indexing Method.................................... 492
18.8 Rack Shaving Cutters........................................................................................................................................... 493
18.8.1 Rack-Type Shaving Cutter...................................................................................................................... 494
18.8.2 Kinematics of the Rack Shaving Process.............................................................................................. 494
18.9 Tool for Burnishing Gear Teeth.......................................................................................................................... 495
18.10 Conical Hob for the Palloid Method of Gear Cutting...................................................................................... 496
18.10.1 Preamble.................................................................................................................................................... 496
18.10.2 Design of the Conical Hob...................................................................................................................... 497
18.10.3 Kinematics of the Palloid Gear Hobbing Process............................................................................... 497
18.10.4 Peculiarities of Design of a Conical Hob for Machining Work Gears with Crowned Teeth........ 498

Section V-B Design of Gear Cutting Tools: Quasi-Planar Gear Machining Mesh

19. Gear Cutting Tools for Machining Bevel Gears...................................................................................................... 503

19.1 Design of a Gear Cutting Tool for Plunge Method of Machining of Bevel Gears....................................... 503
19.1.1 Kinematics................................................................................................................................................ 503
19.1.2 Possible Designs of Tools for Machining Bevel Gears....................................................................... 503
19.2 Face Hob for Cutting Bevel Gear........................................................................................................................ 504
19.3 More Possibilities for Designing Gear Cutting Tools Based on Quasi-Planar Gear Machining Meshes.... 505

Section V-C Design of Gear Cutting Tools: Internal Gear Machining Mesh

20. Gear Cutting Tools with an Enveloping Generating Surface............................................................................... 509

20.1 Gear Cutting Tools with a Cylindrical Generating Surface............................................................................ 509
20.1.1 Generating Surface of an Internal Cylindrical Gear Cutting Tool................................................... 509
20.1.2 Solution to the Inverse Problem of Part Surface Generation............................................................. 509
20.1.3 Examples of Gear Cutting Tools with an Enveloping Cylindrical Generating Surface.................511
20.2 Gear Cutting Tools with a Conical Generating Surface.................................................................................. 513
20.2.1 Generating Surface of an Enveloping Conical Gear Cutting Tool.................................................... 513
20.2.2 Examples of Gear Cutting Tools with an Enveloping Conical Generating Surface........................514
20.3 Gear Cutting Tools with a Toroidal Generating Surface................................................................................. 515
20.3.1 Generating Surface of an Enveloping Toroidal Gear Cutting Tool................................................... 515
20.3.2 Examples of Gear Cutting Tools with Enveloping Toroidal Generating Surface........................... 517

21. Gear Cutting Tools for Machining Internal Gears.................................................................................................. 519

21.1 Principal Design Parameters of Gear Cutting Tool for Machining Internal Gear...................................... 519
21.1.1 Geometry of Tooth Flank of Internal Gear.......................................................................................... 519
21.1.2 Kinematics of Machining an Internal Gear......................................................................................... 519
21.1.3 Determination of the Generating Surface of Gear Cutting Tool for Machining Internal Gear... 519
21.2 Examples of Gear Cutting Tools for Machining Internal Gear...................................................................... 520

Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................... 523
Appendix A: Elements of Vector Calculus....................................................................................................................... 525
Appendix B: Elements of Differential Geometry of Surfaces...................................................................................... 529
Appendix C: Change of Surface Parameters.................................................................................................................... 539
Appendix D: Elements of Coordinate System Transformations................................................................................. 541
xvi Contents

Appendix E: Conditions of Proper Part Surface Generation........................................................................................ 553

Appendix F: Engineering Formulas for the Specification of Gear Tooth Flank....................................................... 557
Appendix G: Cutting Edge Geometry: Definition of the Major Parameters............................................................. 559
Appendix H: Perfect Crossed-Axes Gearing with Line Contact between Tooth Flanks of the Gear
and Pinion............................................................................................................................................................................... 569
Notation................................................................................................................................................................................... 579
Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................................ 581
References............................................................................................................................................................................... 585
Index......................................................................................................................................................................................... 593
Preface
Gear Cutting Tools: Science and Engineering, Second Edition
is intended for mechanical engineers and manufactur-
ing engineers who are interested in the scientific basis as
well as in the practical aspects of the advances in gear
machining.
This book is neither a textbook nor a manual. It com-
bines science and engineering. The reader will find
enough material to understand the geometry of gear
cutting tools, as well as the kinematics of a gear machin-
ing processes.
This book deals with the science of surface generation.
The investigation of surface generation process offers an
excellent context and motivation for exploring the per-
vasive ties between kinematics and geometry.
The discussion in the book is based on the DG/K-based
approach of part surface generation. This term is derived
from two terms, namely, differential geometry (DG) and
kinematics (K) of multiparametric motion in Euclidean
space E3. The author is the key developer of the DG/K-
based approach of part surface generation. More details
of the approach are disclosed in some of his earlier
published works [142,154,158,159,161,162,165,167,177,180,
and others].
So far, when designing gear cutting tools, and when
developing novel methods of cutting gears, gear cut-
ting tool designers are governed mostly by common
sense, by accumulated experience, and by empiricism.
The lack of scientific approach is a significant obstacle
to attain the most efficient designs of gear cutting tools.
To the author’s knowledge, this book represents the
first attempt to disclose the details of designing the
most favorable gear cutting tools based on the funda-
mental scientific theory. Most, but not all, important
topics in the field of gear cutting tool design are covered
in this book. However, this area of gear engineering is
too broad, and there remains plenty of room for further
improvements in this field.
Special-purpose gear cutting tools for machining non-
circular gears are not considered in this book. However,
the approach that is disclosed in this work can be
extended to the area of mechanical engineering as well.
xvii
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Acknowledgments
The author would like to share the credit for any suc-
cess of this gear handbook to plentiful discussions on
the subject with numerous representatives of the gear
community both domestic and international.
The contribution of many friends and colleagues
in overwhelming numbers cannot be individually
acknowledged, and as much as our benefactors have
contributed, even their kindness and help must go
unrecorded.
Special thanks go to Jonathan W. Plant, senior editor
for mechanical, aerospace, nuclear and energy engi-
neering, who strongly supported this project.
Many thanks also to other CRC staff, for the compre-
hensive support during the publication process, as well
as to those at CRC Press who took over the final stages
and who will have to cope with the marketing and sales
of the fruit of my efforts.
xix
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Author
Dr. Stephen P. Radzevich is a
professor of mechanical engi-
neering and a professor of
manufacturing engineering.
He received his MSc in 1976,
PhD in 1982, and Dr.(Eng)Sc in
1991, all in mechanical engi-
neering. Dr. Radzevich has
extensive industrial experi-
ence in gear design and man-
ufacture. He has developed
numerous software packages
dealing with computer-aided design and computer-
aided machining of precise gear finishing for a variety
of industrial sponsors. His main research interest is the
kinematic geometry of part surface generation, with a
particular focus on precision gear design, high-power
density gear trains, torque share in multiflow gear
trains, design of special-purpose gear cutting/finishing
tools, and design and machine (finish) of precision gears
for low-noise and noiseless transmissions of cars, light
trucks, and so on.
Dr. Radzevich has spent over 40 years developing
software, hardware, and other processes for gear design
and optimization. Besides his work for the industry,
he trains engineering students at universities and gear
engineers in companies.
Dr. Radzevich has authored and coauthored over
30 monographs, handbooks, and textbooks. The mono-
graphs Generation of Surfaces (RASTAN, 2001), Kinematic
Geometry of Surface Machining (CRC Press, 2007; sec-
ond edition, 2014), CAD/CAM of Sculptured Surfaces on
Multi-axis NC Machine: The DG/K-Based Approach (M&C
Publishers, 2008), Gear Cutting Tools: Fundamentals of
Design and Computation (CRC Press, 2010), Precision
Gear Shaving (Nova Science, 2010), Dudley’s Handbook of
Practical Gear Design and Manufacture (CRC Press, 2012),
Geometry of Surfaces: A Practical Guide for Mechanical
Engineers (Wiley, 2013), Dudley’s Handbook of Practical
Gear Design and Manufacture, 3rd Edition, (CRC
Press, 2016), High-Conformal Gearing: Kinematics and
Geometry, (CRC Press, 2015), Generation of Surfaces:
Kinematic Geometry of Surface Machining, (CRC Press,
2014), are among his recently published volumes. He
also authored and coauthored over 300 scientific papers
and holds over 250 patents on inventions in the field
(United States, Japan, Russia, Europe, Canada, Soviet
Union, South Korea, Mexico, and others).
xxi
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Introduction

Simplex sigillum veri. (Simplicity is the seal of truth.) The development of the scientific classification of kine-
matic schemes of gear machining is among the major
Latin proverb goals to be disclosed in the book. The identification of
the proper place of all known gear cutting tool designs
This book deals with cutting tools used for machining in the developed classification is another important
of gears. Gears are produced in enormous quantities—­ goal of the book. Ultimately, the identification of areas
billions of gears are produced every year. While the auto- where there is plenty of room for further development
motive industry ranks as the primary consumer of gears, in the field of designing favorable gear cutting tools is
numerous other industries also require huge amounts of the third major goal of the book. However, the primary
gears: construction machinery, agricultural machinery, aims of this book are not just limited to these goals.
aerospace industry, to name a few.
The gear cutting process is costly. The cost of gear
cutting tools exceeds 50% of the total cost of the gear
machining operation. If we place cost savings in the
production of every gear in the range of just 10¢, then
Historical Background
total cost savings could reach hundreds of millions
of dollars! This constitutes an appealing incentive for This book surveys and assesses the considerable body
engineers and scientists to turn their attention to the of research on gears and gear machining processes that
gear machining process and the design of gear cutting has accumulated to date. It is not the aim of the author,
tools used in the machining of gears. who has been actively involved in this field of research
In writing this book, the author has tried to expand for more than 40 years, to develop all possible designs of
the theory and fill various gaps. gear cutting tools. That huge task is not within the scope
The approach used in the text is mainly analytical. of this text. However, the potential disclosure of all pos-
However, geometric interpretations are given, and in sible conceptual designs of gear cutting tools is another
places, synthetic reasoning is also applied. Furthermore, major goal of this book.
the author has largely limited himself to the mathemat-
ics of algebraic geometry, vector and matrix algebra, and
elementary calculus. Special mathematical methods are
avoided even in the final chapters.
The use of powerful computers makes it reasonable
Uniqueness of This Publication
not to derive equations in their final form (as they are
often bulky), but just outline the major steps with which This book is unique for many reasons.
a problem can be solved. Most of the material used in this book is new and can-
At this point, it is fitting to recall the old Chinese proverb not be found elsewhere.
“The beginning of wisdom is to call things by their correct This is the second edition of the first work in English
names.” Unfortunately, even among gear specialists, there solely dedicated to the favorable design of gear cutting
is some ambiguity in the terms used to describe gears and tools. The treatment is rigorous and elegant, focusing on
gear-related parameters. In this work, to the extent possi- the mathematical development of the subject apart from
ble, we follow conventional terminology. When necessary, any particular applications. This book is also unique in
the definition of new terms is provided. the sense that most of the material was developed by
The development of the scientific classification of kine- the author.
matic schemes of gear machining process and the illus- The discussion starts with general concepts and prob-
tration of the classification with practical designs of gear lems and then solely specializes gradually to more sim-
cutting tools and advanced methods of gear machining ple cases. The kinematics of the gear machining mesh
are the two reasons, among others, that highly moti- is the key point for the proper understanding of the
vated the author to write this text. disclosed approach. Eventually, it can be understood

xxiii
xxiv
that by just playing with two rotation vectors,* one can
develop a novel method of gear machining as well as
a novel gear cutting tool design for this purpose (play-
ing with two rotation vectors ωg and ωc along with one
or two additional vectors of prime motion, feed motion,
etc.).
Numerous examples and an extensive bibliography
further enhance the usefulness of the book.
Because of its generality and lucid style, this classic
work will be invaluable not only to specialists in gear
cutting tool design but also to those working in general
areas of mechanical/manufacturing engineering.
Intended Audience
Since a perusal of the table of contents may also leave the
reader wondering whether this volume was intended as
a textbook, a research monograph, or a historical trea-
tise, some explanatory remarks are perhaps in order.
There was, in fact, no conscious intent to aim for any of
these—but what has transpired suggests that it is com-
bination of all of three. Gear experts working in vari-
ous industries and in academia, as well as university
students (senior graduate, graduate, and postgraduate
students), are the intended audience of the book.
Organization of This Book
For the readers’ convenience, the book is divided into five
parts. Sections I through IV are composed of a few chap-
ters. Section V, is subdivided into three sections. Each
of the sections relates to gear cutting tools designed
on the basis of (1) external gear machining mesh,
(2) quasi-­planar gear machining mesh, and (3) internal
gear machining mesh.
The content of each chapter is briefly outlined in the
following:
Chapter 1: Early accomplishments in the design of
toothed wheels, as well as in the methods of and means
for manufacture of gears are covered in the first chapter
* Angular velocity is considered in this book as a vector along the
axis of rotation that is pointed in a direction defined by the right-
hand screw rule. It is understood here and in the following that
rotations ωg and ω P are not vectors in nature. Therefore, special
care is required when treating rotations as vectors. In particular,
when coordinate system transformation is analytically described
by means of matrices, the order of the matrices in the matrix prod-
uct is predetermined by the order of the elementary coordinate sys-
tem transformations; that is, the order of the matrices in the matrix
product cannot be altered.
Introduction
of the book. This includes, but is not limited to, discus-
sion of early designs of special-purpose cutting tools
to produce gear teeth, gear cutting tools for the first
production machines, and evolution of gear cutting
tools for production machines. This discussion fol-
lows the development of novel methods of and means
for machining of gears, that is, of skiving of internal
gears, rotary gear shaving, grinding of hardened gears,
and gear cutting tools for generating bevel gears, and
others.
Section I. Basics
Fundamental issues of gear cutting tools are covered in
this section of the book. The discussion encompasses the
types of gears to be machined, the analytical represen-
tation of gear tooth flanks, the types of relative motions
of the work gear, and the gear cutting tool in the gear
machining process. The section ends with a brief con-
sideration of the linear transformation methods that are
practical in designing gear cutting tools.
The first part of the book is composed of three chap-
ters, namely, Chapters 2 through 4.
Chapter 2: The geometry of tooth flanks of common
types of gears is discussed in the second chapter. Along
with numerous practical examples of gear designs,
equations for the tooth flanks of spur, helical, straight
bevel, and helical bevel gears are derived there. The
derived equations illustrate the powerful method that
can be used to derive an equation for the tooth flank
of any given design. An analytical description of the
desired gear tooth flank is a good starting point for the
gear cutting tool designer.
Chapter 3: General aspects of the kinematics of gear
machining processes are considered in Chapter 3. The
analysis is focused mostly on two issues: (1) possible
types of relative motions in the gear machining pro-
cess, including, but not limited to, elementary relative
motions of the work gear and the gear cutting tool and
(2) rolling of the conjugate surfaces over each other. In
particular, the readers’ attention is drawn to the practi-
cal applications of special types of motions under which
a surface allows sliding over itself.
Chapter 4: This chapter focuses on the kinematics of
the special methods of gear machining processes. The
methods are referred to as the continuous indexing meth-
ods of gear machining processes. The vector represen-
tation of the gear machining mesh and the kinematic
relationships for the gear machining mesh are covered
in this chapter. Based on the in-depth analysis of princi-
pal features of configuration of the rotation vectors that
specify the gear machining mesh, a scientific classifica-
tion of types of gear machining meshes is developed.
The classification is the key for the development of
novel designs of gear cutting tools and new methods of
Introduction
machining gears. Major steps for the transformation of
kinematics of the gear machining mesh into the corre-
sponding kinematics of the gear machining process are
considered.
Section II. Form Gear Cutting Tools
Gear cutting tools featuring the generating surface that
is either congruent to tooth surfaces of the gear to be
machined or makes line contact with the tooth flank
of the work gear are discussed in this part of the book.
The kinematics of the gear machining processes used
for this purpose of form gear cutting tools is the sim-
plest possible. However, the simple kinematics of sur-
face machining often entails the necessity in the cutting
tools of very complex designs.
The second part of the book comprises four chapters,
namely, Chapters 5 through 8.
Chapter 5: The design of cutting tools for broaching
gears is the subject of this chapter. The consideration
begins with the analysis of the kinematics of the gear
broaching process and is followed by the generation of the
generating surface of the gear cutting tool, the transforma-
tion of the generating surface into a workable gear cutting
tool, the cutting edge geometry, and the chip removal dia-
grams. Both analytical methods and DG-based methods
of analysis (that is, descriptive geometry-based methods)
are widely used in this chapter. Sharpening of gear
broaches is an issue of particular consideration. The
discussion of gear broaching tools ends with a detailed
disclosure of the concept of precision gear broaching
tools for machining involute gears and with application
issues of gear broaching tools.
The concept of broaching is the cornerstone of other
methods of gear cutting. These methods include, but are
not limited to, (1) Shear-Speed cutting of gears, (2) rotary
broaching with Slater tools, (3) the Revacycle method of
gear cutting, and so forth. The principles of gear cutting
tool designs for these methods of gear machining are
also covered in this chapter.
Chapter 6: Design methods of end-type mill cutters for
machining spur and helical gears are discussed in this
chapter. At the outset, the kinematics of gear cutting
process with end-type mill cutter is discussed. This is
followed by an analytical description of the secondary
generating surface of the end-type mill cutter and by an
investigation of the cutting edge geometry. The analysis
makes it possible to calculate the cutting edge angles at
any point of interest within the cutting edge. The accu-
racy of milled gears is discussed from the perspective of
the geometry of interacting surfaces and the kinematics
of the gear cutting process. The application of the end-
type mill cutters is considered at the end of the chapter.
Chapter 7: Disk-type mill cutters and their design and
analysis are discussed in this chapter. This is followed
xxv
by an analytical description of the generating surfaces
of mill cutters designed for machining of spur and heli-
cal gears. Next, the intrinsic geometry of generating
surfaces of the mill cutters is investigated. Considered
together, an equation of the secondary generating sur-
face of the mill cutter, an equation of the rake surface,
and an equation of the clearance surface of the mill cut-
ter tooth allow for the analytical representation of the
cutting edge of the cutting tool. Profiling of mill cutters
is considered from the perspective of implementing
both the DG-based methods and the analytical meth-
ods in profiling of form cutting tools. The cutting edge
geometry of the disk-type mill cutter is analyzed using
analytical elements of vector algebra and calculus. The
peculiarities of mill cutter designs for roughing of gears
are considered. Accuracy issues are investigated from
the perspective of the fulfillment/violation of the con-
ditions of proper part surface generation. The chapter
ends with a discussion of the principal features of the
practical application of disk-type mill cutters for cutting
spur and helical gears.
Chapter 8: The investigation of the kinematics of gear
machining operations makes it possible to develop novel
gear machining methods as well as novel gear cutting
tool designs. All possible methods of gear cutting are
referred to as nontraditional methods of gear machining
with form cutting tools.
The consideration begins with the systematic investi-
gation of all possible types of single-parametric motions.
Analysis reveals that novel schematics of gear cutting
with (1) end-type mill cutters, (2) disk-type mill cutters,
(3) face gear mill cutters, (4) with rotary broaches, and
so forth can be developed. In particular, various meth-
ods and cutting tools of various designs intended for
machining worms are considered. In closing, a possibil-
ity of classifying form gear cutting tools is discussed.
Section III. Cutting Tools for Continuous
Indexing Methods of Generating Gear Teeth:
Parallel-Axes Gear Machining Mesh
Gear cutting tool designs and gear cutting methods fea-
turing parallel axes of the work gear and of the gear cut-
ting tool are investigated in this part of the book. This
section begins with a discussion of the kinematics of
the parallel-axes gear machining mesh, which is the key
issue for the proper understanding of design and opera-
tion of gear cutting tools of many designs.
The third part of the book is composed of three chap-
ters, namely, Chapters 9 through 11.
Chapter 9: Rack cutters for planing gears is the sim-
plest example of generating gear cutting tools featuring
parallel-axes gear machining mesh. The geometry and
kinematics of machining of gears with rack cutters are
analyzed. For profiling of rack cutters, the use of the
xxvi
graphical method that is based on the wide implemen-
tation of DG-based methods and analytical methods is
recommended. Methods of vector algebra are used to
investigate the cutting edge geometry of rack cutters.
Based on the results of the analysis, improvements are
made in the geometry of the lateral cutting edges. Chip
thickness cut by cutting edges of the rack cutter tooth is
analyzed. The accuracy of the tooth flanks of machined
gears is analyzed from the perspective of using the
approach that is commonly referred to as the kinematic
geometry of surface machining. The application of rack cut-
ters and the potential gear cutting methods and rack-
type gear cutting tool designs are discussed in the final
two sections.
Chapter 10: The design of shaper cutters and methods
of shaping of external gears are investigated in Chapter
10. The external parallel-axes gear machining mesh is
complemented with the cutting motion. In this way,
the kinematics of the gear shaping process is derived.
Analytical description of the generating surface of the
shaper cutter, types of the rake surface, and geometry
of the clearance surface are discussed. Methods of vec-
tor algebra are used to investigate the cutting edge
geometry of shaper cutters. Valuable improvements in
the cutting edge geometry are discovered based on the
results of the research. Elements of the kinematics of
gear meshing are used for the analytical description of
thickness of chip cut by the shaper cutter tooth, as well
as for the analytical description of the deviations of the
machined gear tooth surface from the desired geometry
of the gear tooth flanks. The analysis is focused on veri-
fying whether the fifth and sixth conditions of proper
part surface generation are satisfied. Issues relating to
the application of gear shaper cutters cover both con-
ventional and special-purpose designs of gear shaper
cutters for machining spur and helical gears. As an
example, typical operations of gear shaping are briefly
described. Methods of grinding of the rake and clear-
ance surfaces of gear shaper cutters are discussed at the
end of the chapter.
Chapter 11: The design of gear cutting tools that are
used in the parallel-axes internal gear machining mesh
is discussed in this chapter. The gear machining mesh
is complemented with the primary motion. the design
procedure encompasses (1) the generation of the gener-
ating surface of the cutting tool, (2) the profiling of the
gear shaper cutters, and (3) the exploration of the cutting
edge geometry of the gear shaper cutter. The calculation
of the thickness of chip cut by the gear shaper cutter
tooth and the accuracy of the shaped internal gears are
also covered in this chapter. Because the same parallel-
axes internal gear machining mesh is not only limited
to the shaping of internal gears, but can also be applied
for the design purposes of enveloping shaper cutters for
machining external gears, the related issues are briefly
Introduction
discussed in the chapter. Some important issues relat-
ing to the practical application of the gear shaper cutters
are discussed at the end of the chapter.
Section IV. Cutting Tools for Continuous
Indexing Methods of Generating Gear Teeth:
Intersected-Axes Gear Machining Mesh
Gear cutting tool designs and gear cutting methods fea-
turing intersecting axes of the work gear and the gear
cutting tool are investigated in this part of the book. The
discussion starts with the investigation of the kinemat-
ics of the intersecting-axes gear machining mesh, which is
the key issue for the proper understanding of the design
and operation of gear cutting tools of many designs.
The fourth part of the book is composed of three
chapters, namely, Chapters 12 through 14.
Chapter 12: Gear shapers with a tilted axis of rota-
tion are examples of gear cutting tools designed based
on the principle of the external intersecting axis gear
machining mesh. The kinematics of the intersecting-
axes gear machining mesh is complemented with an
additional primary motion (motion of cut) of the cut-
ting tool to be designed. In this way, the kinematics of
the gear machining process using gear shaper cutters
with a tilted axis of rotation is derived. For the particu-
lar kinematics of gear cutting, the generating surface of
the gear shaper cutter with a tilted axis of rotation is
derived. The capabilities of the external gear machin-
ing mesh are illustrated with several cases of its applica-
tions in gear cutting tool design.
Chapter 13: The design of gear cutting tools for machin-
ing bevel gears is discussed in this chapter. Gear cutting
tools are designed using a round rack that is properly
meshing with the gear to be machined. The discussion
begins with the analysis of the principal elements of the
kinematics of bevel gear generation. The geometry of
the interacting surfaces, namely, the involute straight
bevel gear flank and the generating surface of the gear
cutting tool, along with the geometry of tooth flanks
of the generated gears, is analyzed. The generation of
straight bevel gears with offset teeth is also covered in
this chapter. The discussed geometrical and kinemati-
cal aspects are used for the comprehensive investiga-
tion of methods of planing and milling of straight bevel
gears and milling of bevel gears having curved teeth.
The design of gear cutting tools used for this purpose
is discussed along with the corresponding methods of
gear machining. It is stressed here that most bevel gears
are a type of practical approximation to the desired geo-
metrically accurate tooth geometry.
Chapter 14: The possibility of designing gear cut-
ting tools based on an internal intersected-axes gear
machining mesh is discussed in this chapter. Shaping of
internal gears using the gear shaper cutter with a tilted
Introduction
axis of rotation and cutting of external gears with envel-
oping gear shaper cutters with a tilted axis of rotation
are good examples in this concern. Shaping of external
recessed tooth forms using an enveloping shaper cutter
is one more opportunity to utilize an internal intersecting-
axes gear machining mesh for the purposes of design-
ing gear cutting tools. However, gear machining meshes
of this type have not been subjected to a comprehensive
investigation as yet.
Section V. Cutting Tools for Continuous
Indexing Methods of Generating Gear Teeth:
Crossed-Axes Gear Machining Mesh
Most gear cutting tools designs are based on the con-
tinuous generating principle. Spatial gear machining
mesh is simulated when machining a gear using these
gear cutting tools. The huge numbers of known as well
as of possible designs of gear cutting tools result in the
discussion to consider them in three sections which are
devoted to (1) external gear machining mesh, (2) quasi-
planar gear machining mesh, and (3) internal gear
machining mesh.
The fifth part of the book is composed of three sec-
tions, namely, Sections V-A through V-C.
Section V-A: Design of Gear Cutting Tools:
External Gear Machining Mesh
Gear cutting tool designs based on the principle of
external spatial gear machining mesh are considered in
this section. The section starts with the investigation of
the possible types of generating surfaces of gear cutting
tools. Designs of gear hobs, shaver cutters, etc., are con-
sidered in subsequent chapters.
This section is composed of four chapters, namely,
Chapters 15 through 18.
Chapter 15: The generation principles of the generat-
ing surfaces of gear cutting tools are investigated in this
chapter. The discussion begins with the analysis of the
kinematics of the external spatial gear machining mesh.
Possible types of auxiliary generating surfaces together
with practical methods of their generation are consid-
ered. The generation of the gear cutting tool surface is
based on the possible types of auxiliary generating sur-
faces. Equations of generating surfaces are derived, and
design parameters of the surfaces are calculated. For
the analysis, DG-based methods (descriptive geometry-
based methods) and analytical methods are used. Next,
various types of generating surfaces are constructed.
They include, but are not limited to, conventional cylin-
drical generating surface, cylindrical generating surface
with zero profile angle, conical generating surfaces,
generating surfaces featuring asymmetrical tooth pro-
file, and surfaces with a torus-shaped pitch surface. The
xxvii
chapter ends with a brief discussion of the geometrical
and kinematical constraints on the design parameters of
the generating surface of gear cutting tools.
Chapter 16: Hobs are a perfect example of gear cutting
tool design based on the external spatial gear machining
mesh. The geometry of the generating surface of gear
hobs along with geometry of the rake and clearance sur-
faces are analyzed. Generation methods for the rake and
clearance surfaces of hob teeth are also considered. The
derived equations for the working surfaces of the gear
hob enable an in-depth analysis of the accuracy of hobs
for machining of involute gears. Numerous advanced
designs of hobs for machining gears are discussed as
examples of implementation. The cutting edge geometry
of gear hobs is analytically described in the tool-in-use
reference system. To satisfy the necessary conditions of
proper part surface generation in a gear machining pro-
cess, constraints on the parameters of modification of
the hob tooth profile are investigated. The discussion is
followed by several numerical examples of calculation of
the design parameters of hobs. The obtained results can
be enhanced to application in the area of designing of
hobs for machining noninvolute profiles. Applications
of hobs for machining gears are discussed from the per-
spective of the analytical research on the geometry and
kinematics of the gear hobbing process.
Chapter 17: Gear shaving cutters represent another
type of gear cutting tool designed on the premise of
spatial external gear machining mesh. The procedure
of designing a shaving cutter begins with the trans-
formation of the generating surface into the workable
gear shaving cutter. Peculiarities of the geometry of the
rake surface, the clearance surface, and the cutting edge
geometry are discussed. Issues on the design parame-
ters of a shaving cutter, design features of the serrations,
and resharpening of shaving cutters are considered.
Four basic methods for gear shaving—(1) axial shav-
ing, (2) diagonal shaving, (3) tangential shaving, and
(4) plunge shaving—are discussed from the perspective
of the kinematic geometry of surface machining. The
discussion ends with an analysis of the advance designs
of gear shaving cutters and practical issues relating to
the implementation of gear shaving processes for shav-
ing precision gears.
Chapter 18: Examples illustrating the capabilities of
the external crossed-axes gear machining mesh are dis-
cussed in this chapter. These examples can be divided
into two sections. The design of gear cutting tools and
methods for machining cylindrical gears are considered
in the first section. Hobs for tangential hobbing, hobs for
plunge hobbing, hobs for machining face gears, continu-
ous generating cutting of worms, gear cutting tools for
scudding process, and gear shaper cutters with a tilted
axis of rotation for machining cylindrical gears along
with rack-type gear shaper cutters are also discussed in
xxviii
the first section. The design of gear cutting tools and
methods for machining conical gears are discussed in
the second section. Discussion in this section is limited
to special-purpose tools for burnishing of gears by sur-
face plastic deformation and conical hobs of the Palloid
method of gear cutting.
Section V-B: Design of Gear Cutting Tools:
Quasi-Planar Gear Machining Mesh
The design of gear cutting tools based on the principle
of the kinematics of quasi-planar gear machining mesh
is discussed in this section. The section begins with
a detailed analysis of the vector representation of the
kinematics of quasi-planar gear machining mesh.
This section is composed of just one chapter, namely,
Chapter 19.
Chapter 19: This chapter is devoted to cutting tools for
machining bevel gears. Gear cutting tool designs for
novel gear cutting methods are discussed. Topics include
cutting tools for plunge cutting of bevel gears, face hobs
for continuous indexing method of gear cutting, as well
as possible directions for further development.
Section V-C: Design of Gear Cutting Tools:
Internal Gear Machining Mesh
This final section deals with designs of gear cutting
tools that use internal spatial gear machining mesh.
Again, the consideration begins with a detailed analysis
of the kinematics of the internal spatial gear machin-
ing mesh. For this purpose, the vector representation of
internal spatial gear machining mesh is widely used.
Introduction
This section of the book is composed of two chapters,
namely, Chapters 20 and 21.
Chapter 20: Designs of gear cutting tools with an envel-
oping generating surface are discussed in this chapter.
Gear cutting tools with cylindrical, conical, and toroi-
dal generating surfaces are covered in this chapter. The
discussion includes the analytical determination of the
generating surface itself, as well as some aspects relat-
ing to the accuracy of the machined gears. This is fol-
lowed by examples of related gear cutting tool designs.
Chapter 21: The kinematics and design of gear cutting
tools is briefly discussed in this last chapter. The prin-
cipal design parameters of gear cutting tools are deter-
mined. The consideration is followed by examples of
novel designs of gear cutting tools for machining inter-
nal gears.
It took the author years to bring the book to completion.
It is inevitable that a study of this nature will lean
toward greater emphasis on the author’s own contribu-
tions, if only because they share his perspective on the
subject matter. Nevertheless, an effort has been made to
summarize the key ideas (if not the technical details) of
all the most significant developments in the field and
give pointers to many others.
A book of this size is likely to contain omissions and
errors. If you have any constructive suggestions, please
communicate them to Dr. S. Radzevich (radzevich@usa​
.com).
Stephen P. Radzevich
Sterling Heights, Michigan
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ENTRANCE TO THE “AFIN” OR RESIDENCE OF THE ALAFIN OF OYO,
SHOWING TYPICAL YORUBA THATCHING.

Take, for example, the land question. If there is one thing upon
which all the most experienced Nigerian administrators are agreed it
is the absolute essentiality, for the future of the people of the country,
that their use and enjoyment of the land should be secured, not only
against a certain type of European capitalist who covets this rich soil
for his own schemes, and, under the pretence of industrial
expansion, would cheerfully turn the native agriculturist, farmer, and
trader into a “labourer,” but against the class of native who, for his
own ends, for speculative purposes mainly, seeks to undermine
native law and to change the right of user upon which native land
tenure is based, into that of owner at the expense of the community
at large. More especially does this become a question of vital
importance to native communities where, as in Yorubaland, you have
a comparatively dense population which under the pax Britannica is
bound to increase at a very rapid rate, and thus requires every inch
of land for its own future uses. But as matters stand at present, we
cannot, in the Egba district, which, being nearer to Lagos, is more
accessible to certain undesirable influences, both European and
native, and to the infiltration of European laws and customs
regulating the tenure of land, take effective measures to counteract
these influences. We could, of course, if we chose, not in the Egba
district only, but throughout Yorubaland. But there has been a
lamentable reluctance both at home and in the Protectorate to
foresee and cope with a predicament which all realize, which some
from a natural bent of mind inclining them to favour the substitution
everywhere of direct for indirect rule, and others who are of the same
way of thinking but from motives of self-interest may secretly rejoice
at, but which the officials whose hearts are really in the country and
who have sufficient experience to understand the endless and
disastrous embarrassments that the disintegration of native law
relating to land would produce, deeply deplore. What has been the
result? The Egbas are beginning to buy and to sell land among
themselves in absolute violation of their own customs and laws,
thereby laying up for their country a heritage of trouble and inserting
the thin edge of the wedge of their own undoing by letting in the land
monopolist and speculator. This, according to all its professions and
to its actions in some specific circumstances, for which it is to be
warmly commended, is, in the view of the Administration, inimical to
the public interest of the Protectorate. What is springing up in
Abeokuta to-day will spread to the other districts to-morrow—nay, is
doing so.
 Take another example. The welfare of an agricultural community
demands, for many reasons scientifically substantiated, that a stop
should be put to the reckless destruction of timbered areas such as
has been proceeding all over Yorubaland. This is inherently a public
interest, and the Forestry Officer in the discharge of his duties is
merely a servant of the public. But in the Western Province, for the
same reasons, we cannot or are unwilling to put our case to the
native authorities for the protection of the people against themselves
with the same moral force as in the case of the other two provinces.
We are confined, or think we are confined, to simple persuasion.
Now, persuasion by the Forestry Officer alone is one thing, and
persuasion by the Forestry Officer supported by direct
representations from the Executive at Lagos is a very different thing.
It is the latter form of persuasion that has been absent, and very
great credit is due alike to the Forestry Officers and to a
Commissioner trusted by the native rulers, Mr. W. A. Ross, as well
as to the intelligence of those native rulers themselves, that in the
Oyo district both State and communal reserves have been created,
the latter of great extent including the entire valley of the Ogun. But
in the Abeokuta and Ibadan districts persuasion has failed hitherto to
secure any really tangible results. It is almost unnecessary to point
out that the interests of the population do not suffer merely indirectly
and potentially, but directly thereby. Not only does Southern Nigeria
import quantities of timber from Europe when the country should
itself provide for all requirements, but even so primitive a necessity
as firewood is beginning to make itself felt round such towns as Ede,
Abeokuta, and Ibadan.
In these problems the policy of the Southern Nigeria
Administration has been to leave the matter to the native authorities,
in other words, to let the land question slide down a perilous
declivity, and to allow the question of forestry preservation to be left
to the unsupported efforts of the Forestry Department. If this policy of
non-interference had been consistently applied in other directions an
intelligible case, at least, might be made out for it. But the facts are
notoriously otherwise. To mention but one instance. Two years ago
pressure was put upon the Ibadan authorities to vote unpopular
licensing regulations in the interests of temperance, and one of the
incidents subsequently arising out of it was the stoppage of the
Bale’s stipend by the Acting Resident with the concurrence of the
Executive at Lagos! Only last February a Bill called the “Foreign
Jurisdiction Ordinance, 1911,” was passed through the Lagos
Legislative Council, which provides for the extension of the laws of
the colony to the Protectorate of Yorubaland (except Abeokuta)
without the native authorities being even consulted, the Attorney-
General adopting, in effect, the extraordinary position that the
Government could take no account of “agreements, understandings,
or letters” (concluded or written by previous Governors) with the
native chiefs! If the native chiefs realized what the logical outcome of
the Ordinance might mean for them, by an Executive in Lagos, which
adopted the legal argument quoted, there would be ferment from one
end of Yoruba to the other.
It must be clear from what precedes that the time has come when
the whole position of the Yoruba States in relation to the paramount
Power should be reconsidered. The railway and other agencies are
causing the country to move forward very fast, and conditions are
being evolved through the attempt to drive in two directions at once,
which can only lead, if not to the ultimate annexation of Yorubaland,
then to what would, if possible, be even worse—viz. the
strangulation by successive stages of every effective agency in
native government, leaving the chiefs and their councils mere
puppets in the hands of the Lagos Legislative Council. Now neither
of these courses is, I am convinced, desired by the Imperial
Government. The drift is, nevertheless, apparent to all that have
eyes to see and ears to hear. There is a strong party in Lagos
favouring direct rule. There is a combination of distinct influences—in
many respects working unconsciously—making for the break-up of
native land tenure and the undermining of native authority. There is
the increasing danger of leaving the land question unregulated and
the difficulty attending the adoption of adequate measures for forest
preservation.
Only one course would appear open to the authorities if they
desire to stop the dry rot. The first step would consist in getting the
Native Councils—i.e. the Chiefs in Council—of all the districts in the
Western Province to pass an identical measure of national land
preservation which would become known as the Yoruba Land Act.
Inalienability of land is the cardinal principle of Yoruba land tenure.
The preamble of the measure would define Yoruba law and custom
in regard to land. The body of the measure would declare to be
illegal all buying and selling of land, either between natives and
natives or between natives and non-natives, and would establish
limitations of area and time for the holding of leased lands by private
individuals or associations, with provision for revision of rentals at
specified periods. The need of such a measure should be
recognized and the action proposed sanctioned by the Secretary of
State, and the matter should be represented to the native authorities
with all the additional weight which in their eyes it would under those
circumstances possess. It cannot be doubted that were the measure
fully and thoroughly explained to the Native Councils and its urgency
in the interests of their people emphasized, little or no trouble would
be experienced in ensuring its adoption. In the improbable event of
difficulties arising it would be the plain duty of the Administration to
overcome them. The Administration should be able to count in a
matter of this kind upon the support of every patriotic educated
Yoruban. The second step would be more far-reaching—viz. the
general reconstruction of the machinery of national government over
the whole province, and the welding together under the headship of
the Alafin of Oyo—the “King and Lord of Yorubaland,” as he is
described in the British Treaty—working with a Council
representative of all Yorubaland, of the separate districts which
internal anarchy and external aggression between them have
caused to fall away from the central authority. The existing Councils
of the various districts would, of course, remain, but we should have
what we have not at present, a true “Yoruba Council,” a strong
central native Government through which the development, the
progress, and the common welfare of the country could proceed on
definite, ordered, national lines.
This would be Empire-building of the real kind. It would not be
unattended with difficulty. It would require time, much tact, and,
above all, full and frank exposition and explanation. But it is feasible
of accomplishment, and by a policy of this kind alone can one of the
most interesting and promising races of Western Africa hope to
reach, under our supreme direction, its full development. The
elements necessary to the success of such policy exist. They do not
need to be created, but only to have their vitality revived and their
course adjusted and guided.
 PART III
NORTHERN NIGERIA
 CHAPTER I
THE NATURAL HIGHWAY TO THE UPLANDS OF THE NORTH

A casual visitor provided by private kindness with the hospitality of

a stern-wheeler and not, therefore, exposed to the discomforts
(soon, it is to be hoped, to be a thing of the past, with the completion
of railway communications between Lagos and Zungeru) with which
an inexcusably inefficient service of river-boats afflicts the unhappy
official on his way to Northern Nigeria, packed like a sardine, and
feeding as best he can, may be pardoned for finding much of
captivating interest in 400 miles of leisurely steaming, with many a
halt en route, from Forcados to Baro, the starting-point of the
Northern Nigerian Railway to Kano. The heat of the afternoons, the
myriad insect visitors which are heralded by the lighting of the lamps,
blacken the cloth and invade every part of the person accessible to
their attentions, the stifling nights, spent, may be, at anchor under
the lee of perpendicular banks; these are trifles not worthy of
mention by comparison with the rewards they bring. Kaleidoscopic
varieties of scenic effects enchant the eye as hour follows hour and
day follows day on the bosom of this wonderful Niger, passing from
serpentine curves so narrow that the revolving paddles seem in
imminent danger of sinking into the bank itself or snapping against
some one of the many floating snags, to ever broadening and
majestic proportions with vistas of eternal forest, of villages nestling
amid banana groves, of busy fishermen flinging their nets, of
occasional dark massive heads lifted a brief second from the deeps
to disappear silently as they arose, of brilliant blue kingfishers darting
hither and thither. Now the river flows through some natural
greenhouse of palms and ferns, whose nodding fronds are reflected
in the still green waters, now past a fringe of matted creepers gay
with purple convolvulus pierced at intervals with the grey upstanding
hole of the silk cotton tree. Here its course is broken by long
stretches of fine hummocky sand across whose shining surface stalk
the egret and the crane, the adjoining rushes noisy with the cackle of
the spur-winged geese. Here it glides expanding between open
plains bordered with reeds, only to narrow once more as the plain
heaves upward and the tall vegetable growth gives way to arid
granite outcrops, ascending towards the far horizon into high
tablelands. If at dawn the Niger veils its secrets in billowy mists of
white, at sunset the sense of mystery deepens. For that, I think, is
the principal charm of this great highway into the heart of Negro
Africa, the sense of mystery it inspires. Cradled in mystery, for two
thousand years it defied the inquisitiveness of the outer world,
guarded from the north by dangerous shoals and rapids; hiding its
outlet in a fan-shaped maze of creeks. To-day when its sanctuaries
are violated, its waters churned and smitten by strange and ugly
craft, it is still mysterious, vast and unconquered. Mysterious that
sombre forest the gathering shades encompass. Mysterious that tall
half-naked figure on yonder ledge, crimson framed in the dying sun,
motionless and statuesque. Mysterious that piercing melancholy
note which thrills from the profundities beyond, fading away in
whispers upon the violet and green wavelets lapping against the side
of the boat. Mysterious those rapid staccato drumbeats as unknown
humanity on one shore signals to unseen humanity on the other.
Mysterious the raucous cry of the crown-birds passing in long lines
to their resting-place in the marshes. Mysterious those tiny lights
from some unsuspected haunt of natural man that spring into life as
the sun sinks to slumber, and darkness, deep unfathomable
darkness, rushes over the land there to rest until a blood-red moon,
defining once again the line of forest, mounts the sky.
 OUTLINE MAP OF NORTHERN NIGERIA.

From the point of view of navigation and of commerce the Niger is

a most unsatisfactory and uncertain river to work. It can be
described, perhaps, as a river full of holes with shallows between
them. Its channels are constantly changing. It is full of sandbanks
which take on new shapes and sizes every year. The direction of the
water-flow below Samabri, where the bifurcation begins, is so
unreliable that within a few years the Nun has become virtually
useless, the Forcados gaining what the Nun has lost, while there are
recent indications that the process may again be altered in favour
once more of the Nun to the detriment of the Forcados. In the course
of the year the water level varies twenty-seven feet, the period of rise
being from June in an ascending scale until the end of September,
the fall then commencing, the river being at its lowest from
December to May. In the rainy season the banks are flooded in the
lower regions for miles around. In the dry season the banks tower up
in places fifteen feet above water level. Roughly speaking, the Niger
is navigable for steamers drawing five feet in June, six feet in July,
and so on up to twelve feet in the end of September; from November
to April for vessels drawing between four and five feet. But the
conditions of two consecutive years are seldom alike.
Government has done little or nothing to cope with these natural
difficulties. The Admiralty charts available to the captains of
steamers are ludicrously obsolete, and all wrong. No continuous
series of observations have been taken of the river, and no effort
made to tackle the problem of improving navigation. Four years ago,
by Sir Percy Girouard’s directions, soundings were, indeed, taken
over a distance of 350 miles from Burutu (Forcados) to Lokoja at the
junction with the Benue; with the result that only seven miles of
sand-bars were reported to require dredging in order to secure a six-
foot channel all the year round. The experienced merchant smiled.
He is a slightly cynical person, is the West African merchant who
knows his Niger. Anyhow he is still whistling for his six-foot channel.
One dredger, the best which money could buy, was purchased by
the Northern Nigerian Administration. It did a little dredging round
about Lokoja (and the merchants in the south declare that the
performance has made matters worse for them), has been used as a
passenger boat up the Benue, and is now, I believe, filling up the
swamps at Baro; but the six-foot channel still exists as an attractive
theory in the Government Blue Book. There is so much to praise,
administratively speaking, in Nigeria that one feels the freer to speak
bluntly of the failure of Government to handle this matter of Niger
navigation. It is one of the inevitable, one of the many deplorable,
results of dual control over a common territory; one of the
consequences of the long competition between the two rival
Administrations, each quite honestly playing for its own hand and
each quite satisfied that it alone can think imperially. The upshot has
been pernicious to the public interest. The river-service is shocking
from the point of view of efficiency, and enormously costly. The
steamers themselves are falling to pieces. There is no system of
public pilotage, or of lighting. Trading steamers must anchor at night,
which involves, in the aggregate, a great waste of time and money.
The two Administrations are so busy squabbling over their competing
railways and manœuvring to frame rates which will cut one another
out, that the great natural highway into the interior is utterly
neglected.
It is impossible that feelings of respect should not go out, not only
towards the official who labours under these conditions in the Niger
waterways but also towards the merchant building up in quiet,
unostentatious fashion the edifice of commercial enterprise upon
which, in the ultimate resort, the whole fabric of Administrative
activity reposes. I do not now speak of the heads of these powerful
trading firms in Europe, many of whom, by the way, have themselves
gone through the mill in their time. To them England is indebted for
the Imperial position she holds in Nigeria to-day, a fact which is too
apt to be forgotten. I refer to the men, mostly young, in charge of
trading stations on the banks of the Niger and its creeks, living a life
of terrible loneliness amid primitive surroundings in a deadly climate,
separated in many cases several days’ journey from another white
face, not nearly so well housed as the officials (I am describing
Southern Nigeria, be it remembered), and not, like them, helped by
the consciousness of power or stimulated by the wider horizon the
latter enjoy. Thrown entirely on their own resources, usually unfitted
by their previous life to face the privations and isolation of an
existence such as this, very hard-worked—their lot is not an enviable
one. No doubt the hardships they have to endure are incidental to a
career they freely choose, although often enough with little or no
previous comprehension of its character. No doubt the fibres of a
minority will be toughened by their experiences. No doubt these
hardships are infinitely less severe than those which the early
pioneers were compelled to undergo, many succumbing under the
process; but in that connection it should not be forgotten that the
latter had the incentive of carving out their fortunes with their own
hands, whereas the present generation out in Nigeria are not their
own masters. One cannot help reflecting upon the irony of the
contrast between the commiseration so freely lavished at home upon
the spiritual drawbacks of the Nigerian native, and the total lack of
interest displayed by the Church in the welfare of these young
fellows, many of them mere lads, exposed to all the moral
temptations of their savage environment in which only exceptional
natures will detect the broadening spiritual influences. What an
untold blessing would be a periodical visit to their African homes,
fronted by the silent river, invested by the tropical forest, from an
experienced, genial, sympathetic minister of God, who for a day or
two would share their lives and win their confidence.
There is another matter which should be raised. These young men
who come out from England—I refer to the English trading firms only,
not having inquired into the system prevailing among the Continental
firms—do so under a three years’ contract. This is an altogether
excessive period for the Niger. It should be cut down one half. Even
then it would be half as long again as the officials’ term of service.
Professors of tropical medicine and magnates at home may say
what they like about the improvement of health in the large European
settlements. The towns are one thing. The “bush” is quite another.
Speaking generally, the climate of Nigeria, and the conditions under
which four-fifths of white humanity have to live are such as combine,
even in favourable circumstances, to impose the severest strain,
both physical and mental, upon all but a select few. At the end of a
year’s continuous residence, the strain begins to make itself felt in a
multiplicity of ways. Not to acknowledge it, and not to make provision
for it, is, on the part of an employer, penny wise and pound foolish—
to put the matter on the lowest ground.
VIEW OF LOKOJA AND NATIVE TOWN FROM MOUNT PATTEY, LOOKING S.E.
—THE BENUE IN THE DISTANCE.

At Idah we leave Southern Nigeria. That bold bluff of red

sandstone crowned with grey-trunked baobabs and nodding palms—
black with roosting and repulsive vultures—which overhangs the
river at this point, stands out at the dying of the day, a sentinel
pointing to the north. Henceforth the appearance of the country
undergoes a remarkable transformation, more and more
accentuated with every hour’s steaming. High valleys, slopes and
tablelands; a sparser vegetation; masses of granite or red sandstone
vomited promiscuously from broken, arid plains and taking on
fantastic shapes; in the distance, mountain ranges and solitary
rounded eminences—on our right, King William’s range rising to
1200 feet, on our left, Mounts Jervis, Erskine, Soraxte, and many
others, varying from 400 to 1000 feet. The river curves, winds and
narrows, obstructed here and there by dangerous boulders, which
the falling waters bring into view. More substantial, better-thatched
huts appear upon the banks, and around them an increasing number
of robed Africans. Plantations of yams, and guinea corn set out on
parallel, raised ridges, attest a higher skill in cultivation. Cattle are
seen cropping the green stuffs near the water’s edge, and canoes
pass bearing cattle, sheep and goats to some neighbouring market.
We enter the spreading domain of Mohammedan civilization, and
before long we shall find ourselves in a new world, as our gallant
little vessel, none the worse for a narrowly averted collision and
grounding on a sandbank or two, casts anchor at Lokoja. Here
beneath the wooded heights of Mount Patte the wonderful prospect
afforded by the junction of the Niger and Benue unfolds itself, and
presently we shall mingle with robed and turbaned African humanity,
come from immense distances to this great market of the middle
Niger. The mangroves of the Delta, the awesome grandeur of the
forests, these are left far behind. We have entered the uplands of the
North.
 CHAPTER II
NORTHERN NIGERIA PRIOR TO THE BRITISH OCCUPATION

The political events of which Northern Nigeria was the scene last
century are well known, but a brief recapitulation of them is
necessary by way of introduction to the study of its present
conditions, the life of its people, and the accomplishments and
problems of the British Administration.
In the opening years of the nineteenth century, what is now
Northern Nigeria consisted of the shattered remnants of the once
famous Bornu Empire; of seven independent states more or less
(generally less) controlled by chieftains of the remarkable so-called
“Hausa” race, invaders of a thousand years before “out of the East,”
and of the aboriginal inhabitants whose origin is lost in the mists of
antiquity. Scattered throughout the region and constantly shifting
their habitat in response to the necessities of their calling, were
tribes of light-coloured straight-haired people, Fulani, nomadic
herdsmen and shepherds. From the ranks of these people, spread
over West Africa from the Senegal to the Chad, had sprung from
time to time political leaders, divines and men of letters who had
played a conspicuous part in the history of the old Niger civilizations.
The Hausa Chieftains had established a nominal authority over a
wide expanse of territory and were constantly at war with the
aborigines on their borders. It was not, however, for warlike feats, but
for their commerce, farming, cotton and leather industry; for the
spread of their language; for the great centres of human activity they
had formed and for the fertility and prosperity of the land which they
had made their home, that the Hausas were justly renowned all over
Western and Northern Africa. They had evolved no great imperial
dominion whose various parts acknowledged a central Head, such,
alternately, as Melle, Ghanata, Kanem and Bornu; but they had
leavened with their intelligence and fertilised with their industrial
achievements some of the naturally richest areas of tropical West
Africa, and they had earned for themselves in these respects a
widespread fame.
 It was at this period that a learned Fulani, Othman Fodio, fell foul
of the chieftain ruling over the most ancient and aristocratic of the
Hausa States, Gober. The latter, fearing for his authority, ordered all
the Fulani in his country to be slaughtered, with the result that
Othman found himself at the head of a numerous following.
Emerging successfully from the struggle, Othman preached a jihad,
confided sacred standards to his worthiest captains and despatched
them far and wide. The Hausa Chieftains were successively
overthrown and replaced by Fulani, and regions unassimilated
previously by the Hausas were occupied. Othman’s warriors even
crossed the Niger and invaded Yorubaland, a large part of which
they conquered and retained (Ilorin), the forest belt, Yoruba
resistance within it, and, probably, the tsetse fly proving an
insurmountable barrier to further progress southwards. Down the
Niger they advanced no further than the neighbourhood of Lokoja.
Othman adopted the title of Sarikin mussulmi, and during his life and
that of his son Bello, Hausaland experienced for the first time the
grip of a central, directing power. It is doubtful, however, if this
change in their rulers had much effect upon the mass of the
population, to whom dynastic convulsions mean very little, and it is
noteworthy that the Fulani conquerors possessed sufficient statecraft
to interfere but slightly with the complicated and efficient system of
administration and of taxation which the Hausas had introduced.
They took over the government of the towns from the Hausas, the
people in many instances assisting and welcoming them. The
general condition of the country remained pretty much what it had
been. Moreover—and this fact is significant in connection with the
arguments I shall presently adduce as regards the inspiring motive of
the Fulani uprising—such of the old Hausa families who by their
learning and piety had become invested with a special public sanctity
were not generally molested by the conquering Fulani. Thus the
Kauru, Kajura and Fatika families of Zaria, which had given birth to a
long line of Mallams, were preserved in all their authority and dignity
by Othman and his successors.
A period of comparative political quiet ensued. Othman issued
regulations, and caused them to be strictly enforced, inflicting the
severest punishments upon robbers and evil-doers generally. A
recrudescence of spiritual influence and of letters everywhere
manifested itself. Learned men flocked to Sokoto, where Othman
had built his capital, from West and North Africa. The trans-desert
trade revived. Security was so well established that Clapperton, who
visited the country during Bello’s reign, records the common saying
of the time that a woman could pass unmolested through the land,
even if she carried a casket of gold upon her head. With the death of
Bello the influence of the central power, enormously difficult to
maintain in any case owing to the greatness of the area and the
absence of ways of communication, declined. Administrative decay
gradually set in and extended with the years. Little by little the
authority of the Emir of Sokoto was openly questioned, in all save
spiritual matters. Allegiance slackened. Emirs quarrelled amongst
themselves. This or that chief acted on his own responsibility in
political affairs affecting the general weal, or entirely broke away
from control. The roads became infested with bands of highwaymen
whose proceedings differed in no way from the banditti of feudal
Europe. Rebellious chieftains formed robber strongholds. Military
operations degenerated into mere raiding for the capture and sale of
prisoners of war to replenish revenues from ordinary taxation which
the disturbed state of the country was causing to decrease.
There has probably been a natural tendency in recent years to
exaggerate the aggregate effect for evil upon the country which
accompanied the weakening of the Fulani dynasty. There is no proof
that the state of affairs was worse than what had obtained previous
to Othman’s jihad. It could hardly have been worse than the
condition of Western Europe at sundry stages in its history, when the
weakness of the paramount authority and the foraging and strife of
rival Barons combined to desolate the homesteads of the people and
lay waste the country side. Some notion of parallels in approaching
the events of West African history is very desirable, but not often
conspicuous. But there can be no doubt—the evidence of one’s own
eyes in ruined villages and once cultivated areas “gone to bush” is
conclusive—that when the alien Britisher arrived upon the scene as
a reforming political force, Northern Nigeria was once more urgently
in need of a power sufficiently strong to restore order. Such was the
condition of the Hausa States. In Bornu matters had gone from
disorder to chaos, culminating in the final tragedy of Rabeh’s
incursion, the slaughter of the Shehu and the sack of Kuka, the
capital.
There is no need here to describe the events which led to the
British occupation, or to narrate the circumstances attending it. We
have replaced the Fulani in supreme control of the destinies of
Northern Nigeria. We are there to stay. How are we carrying out our
self-imposed mission? What are the problems with which we have to
grapple? These are the questions to examine. But before doing so,
let us first see what manner of people they are over whom we rule
henceforth as over-lords. What is their mode of life, their principal
occupation, their character, and the material and spiritual influences
which direct their outlook and mould their existence?
 CHAPTER III
THE INDIGENOUS CIVILIZATION OF THE NORTH

An attempted reconstruction of the prehistoric period—considered

locally—of that portion of Western Central Africa, now known as
Northern Nigeria, would take up many chapters, and would be
largely founded upon conjecture. It suffices to say that in the course
of ages, through the influences of Moorish, Semitic, and probably
pre-Semitic Egyptian culture, fused in later times with Mohammedan
law, learning and religion, there has been evolved in this region a
civilization combining a curious mixture of Africa and the East, to
which no other part of the tropical or sub-tropical continent offers
even a remote parallel. And this is the more remarkable since these
territories have been separated from the east by inhospitable, mainly
waterless stretches, and from the north by vast and desolate sandy
wastes; while southwards the forest and the swamp cut them off
from all communication with the outer world by sea. The peoples
responsible for the creation of this civilization did not acquire the art
of building in stone, but, at a cost of labour and of time which must
have been gigantic (slave-labour, of course, such as built the
pyramids) they raised great cities of sun-dried clay, encompassing
them and a considerable area around, for purposes of cultivation and
food-supply, with mighty walls. These walls, from twenty to fifty feet
high and from twenty to forty feet thick at the base, in the case of the
larger cities, they furnished with ponderous and deep towered
entrances, protecting the gates with crenellated loop-holes and
digging deep moats outside. They learned to smelt iron and tin; to
tan and fabricate many leather articles durable and tasteful in
design; to grow cotton and fashion it into cloth unrivalled for
excellence and beauty in all Africa; to work in silver and in brass; to
dye in indigo and the colouring juice of other plants; to develop a
system of agriculture including (in certain provinces) irrigated
farming, which, in its highest forms, has surprised even experts from
Europe; to build up a great trade whose ramifications extend
throughout the whole western portion of the continent; to accumulate