Basic Biomechanics Team Ira 9Th Edition Susan J Hall Full Chapter

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ISTUDY
BA SIC
B IO M EC H A NI CS
N I N T H E D I T I O N
Su sa n J. H a l l , P h . D.
Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology
University of Delaware
ISTUDY
BASIC BIOMECHANICS
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ISTUDY
BRIEF CONTENTS
1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25
3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55
4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth
and Development 81
5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107
6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133
7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169
8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213
9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255
10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293
11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327
12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355
13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387
14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419
15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445
Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486
Glossary 489
Index 497
iii
ISTUDY
CONTENTS
1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
Biomechanics: Definition and Perspective 2
What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists? 4
Professions that Rely on Knowledge of Biomechanics 10
Why Study Biomechanics? 11
Problem-Solving Approach 11
Quantitative and Qualitative Problems 11
Solving Qualitative Problems 12
Formal versus Informal Problems 13
Solving Formal Quantitative Problems 13
Units of Measurement 14
Summary 16
Introductory Problems 16
Additional Problems 17
Laboratory Experiences 19
2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25

Forms of Motion 26
Linear Motion 26
Angular Motion 26
General Motion 27
Mechanical Systems 27
Standard Reference Terminology 28
Anatomical Reference Position 28
Directional Terms 29
Anatomical Reference Planes 30
Anatomical Reference Axes 31
Joint Movement Terminology 31
Sagittal Plane Movements 31
Frontal Plane Movements 32
Transverse Plane Movements 35
Other Movements 37
Spatial Reference Systems 37
Analyzing Human Movement 38
Prerequisite Knowledge for a Qualitative Analysis 39
Planning a Qualitative Analysis 40
Conducting a Qualitative Analysis 42
Tools for Measuring Kinematic Quantities 45
Video and Film 45
Summary 46
iv
ISTUDY
CONTENTS v
3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55

Basic Concepts Related to Kinetics 56
Inertia 56
Mass 57
Force 57
Center of Gravity 58
Weight 58
Pressure 60
Volume 60
Density 62
Torque 62
Impulse 63
Mechanical Loads on the Human Body 64
Compression, Tension, and Shear 64
Mechanical Stress 65
Torsion, Bending, and Combined Loads 66
The Effects of Loading 67
Repetitive versus Acute Loads 68
Tools for Measuring Kinetic Quantities 69
Vector Algebra 69
Vector Composition 70
Vector Resolution 71
Graphic Solution of Vector Problems 72
Trigonometric Solution of Vector Problems 72
Summary 74
4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth and Development 81

Composition and Structure of Bone Tissue 82
Material Constituents 82
Structural Organization 82
Types of Bones 84
Bone Growth and Development 85
Longitudinal Growth 86
Circumferential Growth 86
Adult Bone Development 87
Bone Response to Stress 87
Bone Modeling and Remodeling 87
Bone Hypertrophy 89
Bone Atrophy 89
Osteoporosis 91
Postmenopausal and Age-Associated Osteoporosis 92
Female Athlete Triad 93
Preventing and Treating Osteopenia and Osteoporosis 94
Common Bone Injuries 94
The Biomechanics of Bone Fractures 94
Epiphyseal Injuries 96
ISTUDY
vi CONTENTS
Summary 96
5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107

Joint Architecture 108
Immovable Joints 108
Slightly Movable Joints 109
Freely Movable Joints 109
Articular Cartilage 111
Articular Fibrocartilage 112
Articular Connective Tissue 112
Joint Stability 113
Shape of the Articulating Bone Surfaces 114
Arrangement of Ligaments and Muscles 114
Other Connective Tissues 115
Joint Flexibility 115
Measuring Joint Range of Motion 116
Factors Influencing Joint Flexibility 116
Flexibility and Injury 117
Techniques for Increasing Joint Flexibility 118
Neuromuscular Response to Stretch 118
Active and Passive Stretching 121
Ballistic, Static, and Dynamic Stretching 121
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 122
Common Joint Injuries and Pathologies 123
Sprains 123
Dislocations 123
Bursitis 123
Arthritis 124
Rheumatoid Arthritis 124
Osteoarthritis 124
Summary 125
6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133

Behavioral Properties of the Musculotendinous Unit 134
Extensibility and Elasticity 134
Irritability and the Ability to Develop Tension 135
Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle 136
Muscle Fibers 136
Motor Units 139
Fiber Types 140
Fiber Architecture 142
Skeletal Muscle Function 145
Recruitment of Motor Units 145
Change in Muscle Length with Tension Development 146
ISTUDY
CONTENTS vii
Roles Assumed by Muscles 147

Two-Joint and Multijoint Muscles 148
Factors Affecting Muscular Force Generation 149
Force–Velocity Relationship 149
Length–Tension Relationship 150
Stretch-Shortening Cycle 151
Electromyography 152
Electromechanical Delay 153
Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance 153
Muscular Strength 153
Muscular Power 156
Muscular Endurance 157
Muscle Fatigue 158
Effect of Muscle Temperature 158
Common Muscle Injuries 159
Strains 159
Contusions 159
Cramps 159
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 159
Compartment Syndrome 160
Summary 160
7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169

Structure of the Shoulder 170
Sternoclavicular Joint 170
Acromioclavicular Joint 170
Coracoclavicular Joint 171
Glenohumeral Joint 171
Scapulothoracic Joint 173
Bursae 173
Movements of the Shoulder Complex 174
Muscles of the Scapula 175
Muscles of the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Flexion at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Extension at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 178
Adduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 179
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Humerus 179
Horizontal Adduction and Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 180
Loads on the Shoulder 181
Common Injuries of the Shoulder 183
Dislocations 183
Rotator Cuff Damage 184
Rotational Injuries 185
Subscapular Neuropathy 185
Structure of the Elbow 186
Humeroulnar Joint 186
Humeroradial Joint 186
ISTUDY
viii CONTENTS
Proximal Radioulnar Joint 186

Carrying Angle 186
Movements at the Elbow 187
Muscles Crossing the Elbow 187
Flexion and Extension 187
Pronation and Supination 188
Loads on the Elbow 189
Common Injuries of the Elbow 192
Sprains and Dislocations 192
Overuse Injuries 192
What Research Tells Us about the Biomechanics
of Baseball Pitching 193
Structure of the Wrist 194
Movements of the Wrist 195
Flexion 195
Extension and Hyperextension 195
Radial and Ulnar Deviation 197
Structure of the Joints of the Hand 197
Carpometacarpal and Intermetacarpal Joints 197
Metacarpophalangeal Joints 197
Interphalangeal Joints 198
Movements of the Hand 198
Common Injuries of the Wrist and Hand 201
Summary 202
8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213

Structure of the Hip 214
Movements at the Hip 215
Muscles of the Hip 215
Flexion 215
Extension 217
Abduction 217
Adduction 218
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Femur 219
Horizontal Abduction and Adduction 219
Loads on the Hip 220
Common Injuries of the Hip 221
Fractures 221
Contusions 222
Strains 222
Structure of the Knee 222
Tibiofemoral Joint 222
Menisci 222
Ligaments 224
Patellofemoral Joint 225
Joint Capsule and Bursae 225
Movements at the Knee 225
Muscles Crossing the Knee 225
Flexion and Extension 225
ISTUDY
CONTENTS ix
Rotation and Passive Abduction and Adduction 227

Patellofemoral Joint Motion 227
Loads on the Knee 228
Forces at the Tibiofemoral Joint 228
Forces at the Patellofemoral Joint 228
Common Injuries of the Knee and Lower Leg 229
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 230
Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 231
Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries 231
Meniscus Injuries 231
Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome 232
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome 232
Shin Splints 233
Structure of the Ankle 233
Movements at the Ankle 233
Structure of the Foot 236
Subtalar Joint 236
Tarsometatarsal and Intermetatarsal Joints 236
Metatarsophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints 236
Plantar Arches 236
Movements of the Foot 237
Muscles of the Foot 237
Toe Flexion and Extension 237
Inversion and Eversion 237
Pronation and Supination 238
Loads on the Foot 239
Common Injuries of the Ankle and Foot 239
Ankle Injuries 240
Overuse Injuries 240
Alignment Anomalies of the Foot 240
Injuries Related to High and Low Arch Structures 242
What Research Tells Us about Barefoot Running 242
Summary 243
9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255

Structure of the Spine 256
Vertebral Column 256
Vertebrae 257
Intervertebral Discs 258
Ligaments 262
Spinal Curves 263
Movements of the Spine 264
Flexion, Extension, and Hyperextension 265
Lateral Flexion and Rotation 266
Muscles of the Spine 266
Anterior Aspect 266
Posterior Aspect 268
Lateral Aspect 271
Loads on the Spine 272
ISTUDY
x CONTENTS
Common Injuries of the Back and Neck 278

Low Back Pain 278
Soft-Tissue Injuries 280
Acute Fractures 280
Stress Fractures 280
Disc Herniations 281
Whiplash Injuries 282
Summary 283
10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293

Linear Kinematic Quantities 294
Distance and Displacement 295
Speed and Velocity 296
Acceleration 301
Average and Instantaneous Quantities 304
Kinematics of Projectile Motion 305
Horizontal and Vertical Components 305
Influence of Gravity 305
Influence of Air Resistance 306
Factors Influencing Projectile Trajectory 307
Projection Angle 308
Projection Speed 309
Relative Projection Height 311
Optimum Projection Conditions 312
Analyzing Projectile Motion 313
Equations of Constant Acceleration 315
Summary 320
11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327

Observing the Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 328
Measuring Angles 328
Joint Angles and Body Segment Orientations 329
Tools for Measuring Body Angles 331
Instant Center of Rotation 331
Angular Kinematic Relationships 331
Angular Distance and Displacement 332
Angular Speed and Velocity 335
Angular Acceleration 339
Angular Motion Vectors 341
Average versus Instantaneous Angular Quantities 341
Relationships Between Linear and Angular Motion 341
Linear and Angular Displacement 341
Linear and Angular Velocity 342
Linear and Angular Acceleration 344
Summary 347
ISTUDY
CONTENTS xi

12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355

Newton’s Laws 356
Law of Inertia 356
Law of Acceleration 356
Law of Reaction 357
Law of Gravitation 358
Mechanical Behavior of Bodies in Contact 359
Friction 360
Momentum 365
Impulse 366
Impact 369
Work, Power, and Energy Relationships 372
Work 372
Power 373
Energy 373
Conservation of Mechanical Energy 375
Principle of Work and Energy 376
Summary 379
13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387

Equilibrium 388
Torque 388
Resultant Joint Torques 391
Levers 394
Anatomical Levers 397
Equations of Static Equilibrium 399
Equations of Dynamic Equilibrium 400
Center of Gravity 403
Locating the Center of Gravity 404
Locating the Human Body Center of Gravity 405
Stability and Balance 408
Summary 411
14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419

Resistance to Angular Acceleration 420
Moment of Inertia 420
Determining Moment of Inertia 422
Human Body Moment of Inertia 423
Angular Momentum 424
Conservation of Angular Momentum 426
ISTUDY
xii CONTENTS
Transfer of Angular Momentum 427

Change in Angular Momentum 430
Angular Analogues of Newton’s Laws of Motion 433
Newton’s First Law 433
Newton’s Second Law 434
Newton’s Third Law 434
Centripetal Force 435
Summary 437
15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

The Nature of Fluids 446
Relative Motion 446
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 448
Fluid Properties 448
Buoyancy 449
Characteristics of the Buoyant Force 449
Flotation 449
Flotation of the Human Body 450
Drag 452
Skin Friction 453
Form Drag 454
Wave Drag 456
Lift Force 458
Foil Shape 458
Magnus Effect 462
Propulsion in a Fluid Medium 464
Propulsive Drag Theory 464
Propulsive Lift Theory 465
Stroke Technique 465
Summary 466
Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486
Glossary 489
Index 497
ISTUDY
PREFACE
T he ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics has been significantly updated and

redesigned from the previous edition. As the interdisciplinary field of biomechan-
ics grows in both breadth and depth, it is important that even introductory textbooks
reflect the nature of the science. Accordingly, the text has been revised, expanded,
and updated, with the objectives being to present relevant information from recent
research findings and to prepare students to analyze human biomechanics.
The approach remains an integrated balance of qualitative and quantitative exam-
ples, applications, and problems designed to illustrate the principles discussed. The
ninth edition also retains the important sensitivity to the fact that some beginning
students of biomechanics possess weak backgrounds in mathematics. For this reason,
it includes numerous sample problems and applications, along with practical advice
on approaching quantitative problems.
O RGA N I ZATI O N
Each chapter follows a logical and readable format, with the introduction of new con-
cepts consistently accompanied by practical human movement examples and applica-
tions from across the life span and across sport, clinical, and daily living activities.
N EW CO NTE NT HI GHLI GHT S
New content has been added to provide updated scientific information on relevant
topics. All chapters have been revised to incorporate the latest information from the
biomechanics research literature, and numerous new sport and clinical applications
and examples are included. Topics added or expanded include articular cartilage
repair, electromechanical delay, facet joint structure and function, hamstrings
strains, barefoot running, baseball pitching, stand-up paddle boarding, bone health
in microgravity, swimming technique, uses of exoskeletons, and careers utilizing
biomechanics.
Balanced Coverage
Biomechanics is a field that analyzes the mechanical aspects of biological organisms.
In this book focused on human biomechanics, anatomical and mechanical factors, as
well as functional applications are covered. The integrated approach to coverage of
these areas taken in previous editions is continued in this ninth edition.
Applications Oriented
All chapters in this new edition contain discussion of a broad range of updated hu-
man movement applications, many of which are taken from the recent biomechanics
research literature. Special emphasis has been placed on examples that span all ages
and address clinical and daily living issues, as well as sport applications.
Laboratory Experiences
The integrated laboratory manual at the end of each chapter includes a number of
updates. xiii
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xiv PrEfaCE
P E DAGOG ICAL FEAT U RES
In addition to the sample problems, problem sets, laboratory experiences, end-of-chapter

key terms lists, and lists of websites, the book contains other pedagogical features from
previous editions. These include key concepts, marginal definitions, sample problems,
chapter summaries, introductory and additional problems, references, and appendices.
A NCI LL ARIES
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ISTUDY
xvi PrEfaCE
AC K NOWLED GMEN T S
I wish to extend appreciation to the following reviewers:

Marion Alexander
University of Manitoba
Marcus William Barr
Ohio University
Mark Geil
Georgia State University
A. Page Glave
Sam Houston State University
Nicholas Hanson
Western Michigan University
Alex Jordan
Concordia University
Eric E. LaMott
Concordia University, St. Paul
Jean McCrory
West Virginia University
Michael Nolan
Missouri Baptist University
Jacob Sosnoff
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Mitchell Stephenson
University of Montana Western
Michael Torry
Illinois State University
Matthew Wagner
Sam Houston State University
Finally, I also very much appreciate the excellent suggestions I have received over the
nine editions of this book from numerous students and colleagues.
Susan J. Hall
Professor Emerita,
Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology
University of Delaware
ISTUDY
PrEfaCE xvii
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C H A P T E R
What Is Biomechanics?
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Define the terms biomechanics, statics, dynamics, kinematics, and kinet-

1
ics, and explain the ways in which they are related.
Describe the scope of scientific inquiry addressed by biomechanists.
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative approaches for analyzing

human movement.
Explain how to formulate questions for qualitative analysis of human

movement.
Use the 11 steps identified in the chapter to solve formal problems.
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ISTUDY
2 BaSIC BIOMECHaNICS
hy do some golfers slice the ball? How can workers avoid developing low
W back pain? What cues can a physical education teacher provide to help
students learn the underhand volleyball serve? Why do some elderly individuals
tend to fall? We have all admired the fluid, graceful movements of highly skilled
performers in various sports. We have also observed the awkward first steps of a
young child, the slow progress of an injured person with a walking cast, and the
hesitant, uneven gait of an elderly person using a cane. Virtually every activity
class includes a student who seems to acquire new skills with utmost ease and a
student who trips when executing a jump or misses the ball when attempting to
catch, strike, or serve. What enables some individuals to execute complex
movements so easily, while others appear to have difficulty with relatively simple
movement skills?
Although the answers to these questions may be rooted in physiological, psy-
chological, or sociological issues, the problems identified are all biomechanical in
nature. This book will provide a foundation for identifying, analyzing, and solving
problems related to the biomechanics of human movement.
Learning to walk is an ambitious
task from a biomechanical
perspective. Ariel Skelley/Getty Images
B I O MEC HAN ICS: D EFIN IT ION
A ND P E RSPECT IVE
•Courses in anatomy, The term biomechanics combines the prefix bio, meaning “life,” with the field
physiology, mathematics, of mechanics, which is the study of the actions of forces. The international com-
physics, and engineering munity of scientists adopted the term biomechanics during the early 1970s to
provide background describe the science involving the study of the mechanical aspects of living or-
knowledge for ganisms. Within the fields of kinesiology and exercise science, the living organ-
biomechanists.
ism most commonly of interest is the human body. The forces studied include
biomechanics both the internal forces produced by muscles and the external forces that act on
application of mechanical
principles in the study of living
the body.
organisms
Anthropometry is the study of the

size, shape, and composition of the
body segments. Anthropometric
characteristics may predispose an
athlete to success in one sport and
yet be disadvantageous for
participation in another. Left: Fuse/
Corbis/Getty Images; Right: Comstock/
Getty Images
ISTUDY
CHaPTEr 1: WHaT IS BIOMECHaNICS? 3
Biomechanics FIGURE 1-1

Biomechanics uses the principles
of mechanics for solving problems
related to the structure and
function of living organisms.
Mechanics
Function
Structure
Biomechanists use the tools of mechanics, the branch of physics involving mechanics
analysis of the actions of forces, to study the anatomical and functional aspects of branch of physics that analyzes
the actions of forces on particles
living organisms (Figure 1-1). Statics and dynamics are two major subbranches of and mechanical systems
mechanics. Statics is the study of systems that are in a state of constant motion,
that is, either at rest (with no motion) or moving with a constant velocity. statics
branch of mechanics dealing
Dynamics is the study of systems in which acceleration is present. with systems in a constant state
Kinematics and kinetics are further subdivisions of biomechanical study. What of motion
we are able to observe visually when watching a body in motion is termed the
dynamics
kinematics of the movement. Kinematics involves the study of the size, sequenc- branch of mechanics dealing
ing, and timing of movement, without reference to the forces that cause or result with systems subject to
from the motion. The kinematics of an exercise or a sport skill execution is also acceleration
known, more commonly, as form or technique. Whereas kinematics describes the kinematics
appearance of motion, kinetics is the study of the forces associated with motion. study of the description of
Force can be thought of as a push or pull acting on a body. The study of human motion, including considerations
of space and time
biomechanics may include questions such as whether the amount of force the
muscles are producing is optimal for the intended purpose of the movement. kinetics
Although biomechanics is relatively young as a recognized field of scientific study of the action of forces
inquiry, biomechanical considerations are of interest in several different scientific
disciplines and professional fields. Biomechanists may have academic back-
grounds in zoology; orthopedic, cardiac, or sports medicine; biomedical or bio-
mechanical engineering; physical therapy; or kinesiology, with the commonality
being an interest in the biomechanical aspects of the structure and function of
living things.
The biomechanics of human movement is one of the subdisciplines of
kinesiology, the study of human movement. Although some biomechanists study kinesiology
topics such as ostrich locomotion, blood flow through constricted arteries, or study of human movement
micromapping of dental cavities, this book focuses primarily on the biomechanics
of human movement from the perspective of the movement analyst.
Biomechanics is also a scientific branch of sports medicine. Sports medicine is sports medicine
an umbrella term that encompasses both clinical and scientific aspects of exercise clinical and scientific aspects of
sports and exercise
and sport. The American College of Sports Medicine is an example of an organi-
zation that promotes interaction between scientists and clinicians with interests in
sports medicine–related topics.
ISTUDY
What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists?

As expected given the different scientific and professional fields represented,
biomechanists study questions or problems that are topically diverse. For example,
•In research, each new zoologists have examined the locomotion patterns of dozens of species of animals
study, investigation, or walking, running, trotting, and galloping at controlled speeds on a treadmill to deter-
experiment is usually mine why animals choose a particular stride length and stride rate at a given speed.
designed to address a They have found that running actually consumes less energy than walking in small
particular question or
animals up to the size of dogs, but running is more costly than walking for larger ani-
problem.
mals such as horses (2). One of the challenges of this type of research is determining
how to persuade a cat, a dog, or a turkey to run on a treadmill (Figure 1-2).
Both animals and humans appear to select a style of gait—walking or running,
short steps or long steps, and step frequency—based on the energetic effectiveness
of the particular movement pattern. Accordingly, a particular gait is generally
selected because its energetic cost is less than that of alternative gaits (1). Among
humans, the energy cost of running increases with running speed, as well as with
the amount of weight being carried by the runner. Expressed as oxygen uptake
(VO2) at a given submaximal running velocity, this energy cost is known as run-
Biomechanists have studied ning economy. Running economy is based on a complex interaction of biomechan-
numerous aspects of running. ical, metabolic, neuromuscular, and cardiorespiratory factors (11). Interestingly,
Sergey Nivens/Shutterstock researchers have shown that barefoot or minimally shod running is more econom-
ical than running in running shoes, possibly due to enhanced storage and return
of elastic energy in the Achilles tendon (9).
The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sponsors
another multidisciplinary line of biomechanics research to promote understand-
ing of the effects of microgravity on human anatomy and physiology. Of concern
is the fact that astronauts who have been out of the earth’s gravitational field for
just a few days have returned with muscle atrophy, cardiovascular and immune
system changes, and reduced bone density, mineralization, and strength, especially
in the lower extremities.
FIGURE 1-2
Research on the biomechanics of
animal gaits poses some interesting
problems.
ISTUDY
An astronaut exercising on the

International Space Station.
Source: NASA
Since those early days of space flight, biomechanists have designed and built a
number of exercise devices for use in space to attempt to counteract the negative
effects of being outside of the Earth's gravitational field. Some of this research
has focused on the design of treadmills for use in space that load the bones of the
lower extremity with deformations and strain rates that are optimal for stimulat-
ing new bone formation. Other approaches involve combining voluntary muscle
contraction with electrical stimulation of the muscles to maintain muscle mass
and tone. Although astronauts on the International Space Station spend 25% of
each working day participating in a complex, multi-modal countermeasure exer-
cise program, questions still remain about the effectiveness of the current proto-
col for astronaut support during extended space missions (7).
Maintaining sufficient bone-mineral density is also a topic of concern here on
Earth. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone mineral mass and strength are so
severely compromised that daily activities can cause bone pain and fracturing. This
condition is found in most elderly individuals, with earlier onset in women, and is
becoming increasingly prevalent throughout the world with the increasing mean
age of the population. Approximately 50% of women experience one or more oste-
oporotic fractures after age 50, and after age 60, about 90% of all fractures in both
men and women are osteoporosis related (4). The most common fracture site is the
vertebrae, with the presence of one fracture indicating increased risk for future
vertebral and hip fractures. Biomechanists are exploring exercise interventions to
prevent or curtail loss of bone mineral mass and reduce the likelihood of osteopo-
rotic fractures. This topic is explored in depth in Chapter 4.
ISTUDY
Another problem area challenging biomechanists who study the elderly is

mobility impairment. Age is associated with decreased ability to balance, and
older adults both sway more and fall more than young adults, although the reasons
for these changes are not well understood. Falls, and particularly fall-related hip
fractures, are extremely serious, common, and costly medical problems among
the elderly. Each year, falls cause large percentages of the hip, wrist, and vertebral
fractures, head injuries, and lacerations in the United States. Research teams are
investigating the biomechanical factors that enable individuals to avoid falling, the
characteristics of safe landings from falls, the forces sustained by different parts
Biomechanists are designing of the body during falls, and strategies for preventing falls.
prosthetics that allow amputees to Research by clinical biomechanists has resulted in improved gait among chil-
compete in running events at a
high level. sportpoint/Shutterstock
dren with cerebral palsy, a condition involving high levels of muscle tension and
spasticity. The gait of the individual with cerebral palsy is characterized by excessive
knee flexion during stance. This problem is treated by surgical lengthening of the
hamstring tendons to improve knee extension during stance. In some patients,
however, the procedure also diminishes knee flexion during the swing phase of
gait, resulting in dragging of the foot. After research showed that patients with
this problem exhibited significant co-contraction of the rectus femoris with the
hamstrings during the swing phase, orthopedists began treating the problem by
surgically attaching the rectus femoris to the sartorius insertion. This creative,
biomechanics research–based approach has enabled a major step toward gait nor-
malization for children with cerebral palsy.
Research by biomechanists has also resulted in improved gait for children
and adults with below-knee amputations. Ambulation with a prosthesis creates
an added metabolic demand, which can be particularly significant for elderly
amputees and for young active amputees who participate in sports requiring
aerobic conditioning. In response to this problem, researchers have developed
an array of lower-limb and foot prostheses that store and return mechanical en-
ergy during gait, thereby reducing the metabolic cost of locomotion. Studies
have shown that the more compliant prostheses are better suited for active and
fast walkers, whereas prostheses that provide a more stable base of support are
generally preferred for the elderly population. Researchers are currently devel-
oping a new class of “bionic” prosthetic feet that are designed to better imitate
Occupational biomechanics normal gait (13).
involves study of safety factors in Occupational biomechanics is a field that focuses on the prevention of work-related
activities such as lifting. Ian Hooton/ injuries and the improvement of working conditions and worker performance. Re-
Science Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo searchers in this field have learned that work-related low back pain can derive not only
from the handling of heavy materials but from unnatural postures, sudden and unex-
pected motions, and the characteristics of the individual worker (10).
Biomechanists have also contributed to performance improvements in selected
sports through the design of innovative apparel and equipment. Much of this work
has utilized experimental chambers called wind tunnels that involve controlled sim-
ulation of the air resistance actually encountered during particular sports. Examples
include the aerodynamic helmets, clothing, and cycle designs used in competitive
cycling, and the ultrasmooth suits worn in other competitive speed-related events,
such as swimming, track, skating, and skiing. Wind tunnel experiments have also
been conducted to identify optimal body configuration during events such as ski
jumping (3). Sport biomechanists have also directed efforts at improving the biome-
chanical, or technique, components of athletic performance.
Aerodynamic cycling equipment
has contributed to new world One rather dramatic example of performance improvement partially attribut-
records. Jose Angel Astor Rocha/ able to biomechanical analysis is the case of four-time Olympic discus champion
Shutterstock Al Oerter. Mechanical analysis of the discus throw requires precise evaluation of
ISTUDY
the major mechanical factors affecting the flight of the discus. These factors
include the following:
1. The speed of the discus when it is released by the thrower.
2. The projection angle at which the discus is released.
3. The height above the ground at which the discus is released.
4. The angle of attack (the orientation of the discus relative to the prevailing air
current).
By using computer simulation techniques, researchers can predict the needed com-
bination of values for these four variables that will result in a throw of maximum
distance for a given athlete. High-speed cameras can record performances in great Biomechanists have analyzed the
detail, and when the recording is analyzed, the actual projection height, velocity, factors contributing to optimum
performance in events like the
and angle of attack can be compared to the computer-generated values required for discus throw. Robert Daly/age
optimal performance. At the age of 43, Oerter bettered his best Olympic perfor- fotostock
mance by 8.2 m. Although it is difficult to determine the contributions of motiva-
tion and training to such an improvement, some part of Oerter’s success was a
result of enhanced technique following biomechanical analysis (5). Most adjust-
ments to skilled athletes’ techniques produce relatively modest results because their
performances are already characterized by above-average technique.
Some of the research produced by sport biomechanists has been done in •The USOC began funding
conjunction with the Sports Medicine Division of the United States Olympic sports medicine research in
Committee (USOC). Typically, this work is done in direct cooperation with the 1981. Other countries began
national coach of the sport to ensure the practicality of results. USOC-sponsored sponsoring research to
research has yielded much new information about the biomechanical characteris- boost the performance of
elite athletes in the early
tics of elite performance in various sports. Because of continuing advances in
1970s.
scientific analysis equipment, the role of sport biomechanists in contributing to
performance improvements is likely to be increasingly important in the future.
The influence of biomechanics is also being felt in sports popular with both
nonathletes and athletes, such as golf. Computerized video analyses of golf swings
designed by biomechanists are commonly available at golf courses and equipment
shops. The science of biomechanics can play a role in optimizing the distance and
accuracy of all golf shots, including putting, through analysis of the kinematics
and kinetics of the motion (8).
•Impact testing of
protective sport helmets is
Other concerns of sport biomechanists relate to minimizing sport injuries carried out scientifically in
through both identifying dangerous practices and designing safe equipment and engineering laboratories.
apparel. The complexity of safety-related issues increases when the sport is equip-
ment-intensive. Evaluation of protective helmets involves ensuring not only that
the impact characteristics offer reliable protection but also that the helmet does
not overly restrict wearers’ peripheral vision.
An added complication is that equipment designed to protect one part of the
body may actually contribute to the likelihood of injury in another part of the
musculoskeletal system. Modern ski boots and bindings, while effective in protect-
ing the ankle and lower leg against injury, unfortunately contribute to severe bend-
ing moments at the knee when the skier loses balance. Recreational Alpine skiers
consequently experience a higher incidence of anterior cruciate ligament tears
than participants in any other sport (12). Injuries in snowboarding are also more
frequent with rigid, as compared to pliable, boots, although more than half of all
snowboarding injuries are to the upper extremity (12).
An area of biomechanics research with implications for both safety and per-
Alpine ski boots can contribute to
formance is sport shoe design. Today sport shoes are designed both to prevent the potential for knee injury when
excessive loading and related injuries and to enhance performance. Because the a skier loses balance. Ingram
ground or playing surface, the shoe, and the human body compose an interactive Publishing/Alamy Stock Photo
ISTUDY
Tools th at E n h an ce Hu man Bio mech an ical

Functio n
Exoskeletons are devices that attach externally to the human body to assist
with movement capabilities. Their purposes range from enabling individuals
with paralyzed limbs to move to increasing human functionality above normal
in strength or speed. Exoskeletons may be either active or passive. Active de-
vices are electrically powered with a tethered electrical cord or a portable
power source. Passive devices utilize springs or counterweights to store and
return mechanical energy to the user without increasing mechanical work. Pas-
sive exoskeletons are typically cheaper and lighter than active devices.
Active exoskeletons are used for a broad range of medical applications. Pro-
grammed to move the body segments through controlled ranges of motion at
certain speeds, these sophisticated devices can stimulate restoration of motor
function in individuals with neurological disorders and stroke patients, as well as
assist with rehabilitation of injuries. Portable active exoskeletons can also pro-
vide supportive assistance with gait to people with disabilities and elderly adults
to better enable participation in activities of daily living.
A more involved procedure enables individuals with paralysis to control an exo-
skeleton to move one or more body segments. A surgeon implants electrodes in
the brain or a muscle and the tiny electrical signals generated are channeled to an
amplifying device and ultimately to a computer that controls the exoskeleton. The
user must first go through a training program to learn to generate brain (EEG) or
muscle (EMG) signals that match the desired movement of the exoskeleton. In the
case of a quadriplegic learning to control a multi-limb exoskeleton, the user must
learn to control a virtual character on a computer display as a first step in being
able to send appropriate signals from the brain to control the exoskeleton.
There are also occupational uses for active exoskeletons. Workers whose jobs
involve heavy lifting, precise positioning of a heavy load, or repetitive movement
tasks can use a powered upper and/or lower extremity exoskeleton to help sup-
port the load, thus extending productive time and lessening injury potential. Exo-
skeletons in the workplace offer a combination of the mechanical strength and
stability of a robot with the motor control function of the human brain.
Without the need for an electrical power source, passive exoskeletons are
lighter and less cumbersome than active exoskeletons but have a much narrower
range of applications. Primarily developed for reducing the energy cost of walk-
ing and running, these devices are completely portable. Passive exoskeletons
have been shown to reduce metabolic cost during locomotion at the hip and
ankle by 19.8% and 11%, respectively (6).
An active exoskeleton with power source in a back pack. Ivan Chudakov/Shutterstock
ISTUDY
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preserving the old village intact. Eventually there will have to be a
ring-road round all old cities, like Oxford, which stand at the
intersection of important highways, or the concentration of traffic at
the centre will become unmanageable.
We have hardly grown accustomed yet to the great new arterial
roads, though several are already in use. They seem to me to
represent one of our highest achievements in civil engineering as
they sweep majestically through cuttings and over embankments
with an uninterrupted width of a hundred feet or more. In some ways
they are the biggest thing we have in England, out of scale with our
doll’s-house villages and landscapes, and out of character with our
little winding lanes. It will be years before the trees that line them
turn them into magnificent avenues, but by that time we shall have
learned to accept them and even to admire them. Presumably we
shall see an end of telegraph-poles soon, and that will be all to the
good. But there are other things that engineers might bear in mind.
The great road that runs south-west from Birmingham to the Lickey
Hills, a noble highway in width, is disfigured by tramway poles and
wires. Is that necessary in 1927? Surely the petrol-engine, which has
done much to spoil the country, can atone for some of its crimes
here by taking the place of electrically driven vehicles?
In Birmingham, as in the narrow streets of Ipswich, and—still worse
—in the beautiful Wharfedale valley, is to be seen a more frightful
abortion, the “trackless tram.” There has been a proposal to extend
this hideous system in Wharfedale on a broad highway cutting
across some fine country. Surely motor-buses could serve every
purpose that the lumbering trackless tram fulfils.
The new arterial roads start with a clean sheet: it is to be hoped that
it will remain clean. Recently the Minister of Transport addressed a
circular to local authorities, reminding them that, under the powers
conferred on them by the Advertisement Regulation Act of 1907,
they could take action in respect of unsightly advertisements along
the great new arteries, and urging them to do so. One distinct
advantage of modern road-construction is that the dust nuisance has
practically ceased to exist. Another innovation that has recently
appeared is a small black and white “lighthouse” at every important
crossing. The Ministry of Transport might institute a competition for
designs for these useful but not always beautiful accessories.
The question of road-development is inextricably bound up with the
larger question of town-planning, on which I have touched already in
another connection. Before approaching the vital matter of
controlling the design of individual buildings, we must consider this
wider aspect. The fact is that town-planning enthusiasts are
disappointed with the progress made since the passing of the 1909
Act. We had hoped for more far-reaching results. The nation as a
whole has failed to realise the importance of this question or the
great responsibility that legislation has put upon all local authorities.
Whether from the point of view of appearance, of health, or of mere
business, town-planning is the only national method of providing for
the future.
It is futile to write letters to The Times about lost opportunities:
common-sense would have saved the situation in nearly every case,
for town-planning is idealised common-sense. People who have
bought a house in a half-developed suburb wake up one morning to
find a shop rising on the opposite side of their road. They pack up
their furniture and flit to another half-built district a mile further out;
and then it happens again. So they keep on moving, at considerable
expense to themselves. They lose all interest in local affairs, indeed
they never stay long enough to acquire such an interest, and nobody
gains by their journeys except the removal contractor. But in a town-
planned district an area is set apart for dwelling-houses, another for
shops, another for factories. The position of each area is determined
by local conditions, by the “lie of the land,” by the prevailing wind,
and by the situation of railways and roads. There is a place for
everything, and everything is in its place. This branch of town-
planning is called “zoning.” Sites are reserved for municipal
buildings, for schools, churches, cinemas and all the other
requirements of our complex life. Roads are planned wide where
heavy traffic is anticipated, narrow elsewhere. Thus in a properly
planned area there is no need for large sums to be paid out of the
rates for compensation when a road has to be made or widened,
because the land for the road has been earmarked in advance. A
man who erects a shop in a new street runs no risk of having made
an error of judgment in selecting his site: he knows that this will be
the main shopping street and no other. Thus town-planning is good
business, but like many other movements for reform its inception
was due to far-sighted dreamers. However, it has not yet caught hold
of the popular imagination, and, in the recent case of the East Kent
coalfield, where, if ever, there was a crying need for its adoption, the
imaginative enterprise of some leading Men of Kent seems to have
started the movement which made it possible. This last example
shows admirably how town-planning may be utilised to save the
countryside. In one sense East Kent could not be saved: coal had
been found there, and was too valuable to be neglected, for, after all,
we cannot afford to throw away any of our natural resources at the
present time. Yet it was unthinkable that this lovely district, the cradle
of our race and the playground of half London, should be allowed to
become a second Black Country. So everything that can be done will
be done to preserve Canterbury and Sandwich and other priceless
relics of antiquity, to save trees, to prevent the blackening of the
fields by smoke and the disfigurement of the landscape by tall
chimneys, above all to avoid any repetition of those squalid black
villages that have driven miners to desperation in other colliery
districts. This is one of the ways in which town-planning can serve
the nation.
The development of a modern town is inevitably centrifugal; it
spreads and sprawls outwards along the main roads into the country
unless that tendency be checked. Every mile that it grows outwards
means a few minutes’ extra time for travelling to and from work,
congestion increases at the centre, and the country—as a place for
recreation—is driven further and further away. A feeling that this
system is essentially wrong has resulted in some well-meant efforts
to create “Satellite Towns,” of which Letchworth and Welwyn are
examples. They are satellites to London in the sense that London is
within hail for emergencies: thus Harley Street is a useful resort in
some cases, while the sanctuary of the British Museum Reading
Room satisfies bookworms, and Oxford Street contents the other
sex. But the main object of the promoters was to remove industries
and workers bodily into the country, so that labour might be carried
on in pleasant surroundings, never more than a few minutes’ walk
from green fields. The intention is to limit the ultimate population of
these towns to 30,000-50,000. When that figure is reached, another
centre will be started. So far, neither town has grown very rapidly,
and industry has been slow to move out, in spite of the heavy cost of
carrying on business in London. But the “Satellite Town,” a
praiseworthy attempt to secure the amenities of the old country town
for modern workers, is a factor to be reckoned with in the future. The
new L.C.C. town at Becontree in Essex is being properly laid out on
rational town-planning lines, but is to be purely residential, for people
working in London, so does not constitute a “Satellite Town.” A
remarkably successful scheme for providing something better than
the ordinary haphazard suburb, which normally deteriorates with the
certainty of clockwork, is to be seen in the Hampstead Garden
Suburb. This will never deteriorate appreciably, because its residents
are guaranteed against any interference with their amenities. It is laid
out scientifically, not merely exploited on short-sighted commercial
methods.
But though so much can be done by means of town-planning, that
new power has not yet been utilised to any appreciable extent in
regard to controlling the actual design of buildings. The high level of
design achieved at Hampstead and Welwyn is due to private control
exercised by a Company, but Ruislip, Bath, and—quite recently—
Edinburgh, have adopted the clause in the Town-Planning Act which
allows an authority to prescribe the “character” of buildings, and thus
to veto any design which, in their opinion, is likely to conflict with the
amenities of the place.
There was, as we all know, a great development of municipal
housing after the War. It was encouraged, subsidised, and even
controlled to some extent by the State, which still continues its work
in that direction, though in a greatly modified form. The houses
erected under these auspices have been subjected to a great deal of
criticism, much of it both ignorant and ill-natured. Let us recall the
circumstances. A vast number of dwellings had to be provided in a
great hurry for men who had every claim on the nation’s gratitude.
Through no fault of their own they were homeless. For a variety of
reasons these houses were very expensive, even allowing for the
general rise in prices. There was a wave of idealism in the air, and
the authorities had taken opinions from every reliable source as to
the type of house required: these were to be “homes for heroes,”
with a bath h. and c. A book of designs was prepared in Whitehall for
the guidance of local authorities and their architects. These designs
met with general approval among competent critics, but with some
derision from the general public, who greeted the “homes for heroes”
as “rabbit-hutches” or “boxes.” That was because they were devoid
of trimmings and built in small groups instead of in long rows. There
are housing-schemes good and bad, but most people who
understand architecture and who are prepared to wait a few years,
till hedges and trees have given these simple buildings their proper
setting, consider that the new houses generally represent an
advance on anything done hitherto. Simplicity in building is, within
limits, a virtue, especially in the country.
The design of these houses was entrusted to architects to an extent
never approached previously; sometimes they were the work of
private practitioners, sometimes of young architects employed under
the direction of the local surveyor, sometimes by the local surveyor
or engineer himself. The degree of ability in design possessed by
these several functionaries is naturally reflected in their products. In
that queer book Antic Hay, Mr. Aldous Huxley makes an eccentric
architect, “Gumbril Senior,” voice his views on the design of artisan
houses: “I’m in luck to have got the job, of course, but really, that a
civilised man should have to do jobs like that. It’s too much. In the
old days these creatures built their own hovels, and very nice and
suitable they were too. The architects busied themselves with
architecture—which is the expression of human dignity and
greatness, which is man’s protest, not his miserable acquiescence.”
But Gumbril Senior was a visionary, and most architects feel that
they can do much to save England in her present plight. The trouble
is that they are allowed to do so little.
It is equally possible to expect a reasonably high standard of design
in the other buildings erected under a local authority: its schools,
libraries, and so on. Nor ought one to find unworthy architecture
produced by any Government Department, whether it be a post-
office, a telephone-exchange, a military barracks, or a coastguard
station on a lonely cliff. There was a time when every post-office and
police-station bore the marks of red-tape, but of late there has been
a noteworthy change for the better. Again and again one sees with
pleasure a village post-office or telephone-exchange which
harmonises perfectly with the old village street. No longer are the
designs stereotyped; local tradition and local colouring are
considered. As time passes we may hope to witness the
disappearance of the hideous sheds and huts that survive to remind
us of the War, now so long ended.
Apart from national and municipal architecture, the design of which
must be assumed to be in competent hands, there is a great deal of
building carried out by large corporate bodies who have it in their
power to insist on good design, and above all on design which
accords with local surroundings. Among these are railway
companies, banks, “multiple” shops, and brewery companies. Among
many of these various undertakings there seems to be positively an
architectural renaissance at work, and real imagination is being
displayed at last. The Underground Railways in and round London
are employing clever artists to design their stations and notices and
posters, some of the other railways are providing really attractive
houses for their employees, and both public-houses and banks in the
country-towns are slowly beginning to take on the colour of their
environment. There are two other types of commercial undertaking
which might well follow this excellent example: the cinema
companies and the garage proprietors. Between them they continue
to furnish us with a plentiful stock of eyesores all over the country,
mainly because they are striving to attract notice and because they
always forget to take their hats off to the village street. If the Council
for the Preservation of Rural England can do anything to teach them
better manners they will effect a real service to England.
Occasionally one sees an attractive petrol-station: a few pounds
spent in prizes would produce a crop of good designs from
architects. One hesitates to offer any advice to the builders of
churches of any kind, but here again one asks no more than decent
respect for the spirit of old England.
The toughest nut to crack in all this matter of design is, however, the
question of the shop and the dwelling-house, under which head I
include, as a matter of courtesy, the bungalow. An Englishman’s
house is his castle, and he resents any interference with the rights of
the subject. Is it reasonable to impose on him any restriction as to
the outward appearance of his home, in regard to its design, its
colour, or the materials of which it is composed? It is true that he has
to submit to local building by-laws which prescribe the thicknesses of
walls, size of timbers, precautions to be taken against fire, and many
matters concerned with health. Often he has to place his house a
specified distance back from the road, behind what is called a
“building-line.” But the local authority is not empowered to interfere in
any matter of æsthetics, unless it adopts the Town-Planning Act and
enforces the clause, already mentioned, relating to the “character” of
buildings.
But such “interference” is not unknown in the case of leasehold
property. Many owners of large estates insert clauses in leases
prescribing the materials to be used in building, the size of house to
be erected, perhaps the tints to be used in painting, and almost
always insist that painting is to be done every so many years. They
may also require that no garages, sheds, or other excrescences are
to be added to the building without the permission of their surveyor. It
is quite reasonable to suggest that these restrictions might be
increased to achieve the purpose we have in mind. Thus the
frequent instances that we see of a row of stucco dwellings being
distempered different colours, and thereby destroying the effect of a
balanced architectural scheme, might be avoided. The present ruling
autocrat in Italy has recently introduced a measure to deal with this
very point, and tenants of houses in a street have to distemper their
external walls the same colour at the same time. Much of the
“restless” appearance of modern streets and terraces is due to a
neglect of this obvious procedure. A concerted appeal to large
owners of property to safeguard the amenities of their estates by
further action on various lines might lead to great improvement, and
something might even be done in the same direction by restrictive
covenants in conveyances of freehold land.
Much has been said lately about the necessity for the control of the
speculative builder who continues to provide most of the smaller
houses and bungalows and shops in this country, and this is the
most difficult problem of all. Such control must obviously have the
sanction of the law to be effective, and therefore must be ultimately
vested in the local authorities, for it is impossible to imagine that
Whitehall is to be held responsible for the approval of every plan in
the country. As I have already pointed out, the rural districts present
the most urgent case for our attention, and here control is most
difficult of all. In a great city like Manchester or Leeds a local Fine Art
Committee might be formed of people competent enough and
disinterested enough to exercise this very delicate function in a
statesmanlike way, without fear or favour. Edinburgh, Bath and
Oxford have already led the way: towns like Cambridge, Coventry,
and Canterbury would be well advised to follow suit. Birmingham has
an Advisory Art Committee without statutory powers.
But imagine the Rural District Council of Nether Footlesby dealing
with a design by Sir Felix Lutfield, r.a., for a large country-house in
their area, for it must be remembered that control of design would
apply to houses great and small, designed by architects great and
small as well as by people who were not architects. These worthy
men might reject his plans because they disliked the appearance of
the chimneys; or Councillor Trapp, a plumber by calling, might have
a grievance against Sir Felix owing to an unfortunate difference of
opinion arising from a previous association in building. It is evident
that such a position is unthinkable. Nor would the situation be
materially improved if the two auctioneer-architects practising in
Nether Footlesby, the retired art-mistress living in the village, and the
Vicar of the parish, were entrusted with this responsible task. It
needs little imagination to realise that a small advisory committee of
this calibre would be nearly as dangerous and quite as futile as the
Rural District Council itself. Even if control were administered on a
county basis, there are small counties in England where it would be
difficult to enlist a committee of men whose decisions would be
readily accepted by the bigwigs of the architectural profession. It
seems to me that a very carefully drafted scheme of control might be
organised for most of the large cities and perhaps half the counties
of England, though even then the situation would bristle with
difficulties, but for the more scattered districts—where at least an
equal number of mistakes is being made—the problem seems
insoluble. The London Society and the Birmingham Civic Society are
the sort of bodies that might be trusted to frame a scheme, but even
they would experience many setbacks before they obtained statutory
powers. Much good work in the direction of controlling unwise
development in France has been done by the local Syndicats
d’initiative, bodies which exist to preserve the amenities of each town
or district. A study of the methods used in France, and of measures
adopted recently in Italy, would doubtless be helpful in our own case.
Failing control of this kind, it has been suggested that the builder
must be “brought to his senses,” in the diplomatic words of a writer in
The Times of January 7th, 1927. But, so long as the builder
continues to sell his houses without any difficulty and at a
considerable profit, he may not see any reason for admitting that he
is deficient in sense. Who, for instance, is to be empowered to stop
him decorating his gables with a ludicrous parody of half-timbering,
made of inch boards which warp in the sun? The small builder
obtains many of his designs from printed books or from weekly
journals, and the following authentic extract from a recent publication
shows how it is done:
“Having a plot of land 80-ft. frontage by 120-ft., I should be
pleased if some reader would submit a plan and elevation-
sketch of a detached house, something attractive, dainty,
and very arresting.”
The words I have italicised explain some of our present troubles. The
desire of the builder and of his client, for the “very arresting” house
causes many of the incongruous additions to our landscape.
Something might be done, as the President of the R.I.B.A. has
suggested, to supply the builder with stock designs of good
character, adapted to the needs of each locality; for, as I have noted
before, the use of copybooks in the eighteenth century produced
houses which if sometimes dull were at least dignified and often
charming. But a process of very slow conversion will be necessary
before we can hope to rid the public of this desire for “very arresting”
buildings.
In the control of design would have to be included restrictions on
colour and material so far as is reasonable, but it is quite
impracticable nowadays to insist that a man building a house in a
Yorkshire dale must employ the traditional stone walls and stone
slates: it is doubtful if anybody will ever legally prevent him using the
pink asbestos-cement tiles that clash so violently with the dull tones
of the landscape. Similarly, it is idle to expect that a modern factory
building should be erected to harmonise perfectly with rural
surroundings: one can only ask that its designer may bear in mind
the spirit of the place, and treat it as tenderly as circumstances
permit. But we may reasonably press for further action in the
abatement of factory smoke and domestic smoke, for that nuisance
spreads forty or fifty miles away from industrial areas, and cities like
Leicester—where smoke is hardly visible—are few and far between.
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society has long worked towards this
end, and its arguments are familiar to most people. Its supporters
are convinced that smoky chimneys are wasteful as well as
unhealthy and unpleasant. But it seems certain that we can eliminate
a large part of our coal-smoke by utilising electric power far more
extensively than we now do, by harnessing our rivers and by utilising
all the waste water-power that is running from reservoirs to towns in
aqueducts and pipes.
It has been suggested lately that much of the ugliness of colliery
districts might be mitigated by judicious planting of trees on pit-
banks. But smoke is one factor that prevents this, for it blackens and
stunts all vegetation. Then the recent coal-strike showed that in any
such emergency gleaners would soon be at work on the banks,
grubbing for coal among the tree-roots. Lastly, even if trees did grow
in such inhospitable soil, there is some doubt whether they would be
tenderly treated by those for whose benefit they were planted.
It has been pointed out, earlier in this chapter, that Acts of
Parliament have already empowered local authorities to remove
unsightly hoardings and advertisements of all kinds, so that it only
remains now for public opinion to press them to proceed in this
admirable work. The author of Nuntius, in this series of essays,
prophesies that advertising will not become more aggressive, adding
that a sign which spoils a beautiful landscape is a very ineffective
advertisement and hence that the “few existing” (sic) will soon
disappear. Let us hope so. But one hesitates to accept his earlier
statement that, if there were no hoardings on empty sites, these
would become rubbish dumps. At all events, the recent action of the
petrol combines in removing their hideous advertisements nearly all
over the countryside represents a great victory for public opinion. On
the whole, advertising is becoming more artistic, possibly more
restrained. But house-agents continue to be terrible sinners in this
respect. Close to my home is an avenue, still miraculously
preserving its beauty, though surely doomed. But at the end of it is a
group of seven enormous hoardings erected cheek-by-jowl by rival
agents and completely spoiling a fine vista. I cannot see that any
hardships would be inflicted on those Philistine touts if all agents’
boards were restricted to a maximum size of 2 square feet. Those
who wished could still read them, others need not. There are many
little details of design in village streets—the inn-signs, the lettering of
street-names, the lamp-standards—capable of improvement on
simple lines. In this connection one may mention the work of the
Rural Industries Bureau which, among its other activities in
encouraging the rustic craftsman, has endeavoured to find
employment for the village blacksmith on simple wrought-iron
accessories in common use and has prepared a selection of designs
for his guidance.
Some day a genius may show us how to make wireless masts less
unsightly, or perhaps we may be able to discard them altogether as
science advances. But this innovation has not greatly spoiled our
villages, nor does it seem probable that air travel will much affect the
appearance of the countryside: a few more aerodromes perhaps,
and on them, it is to be hoped, a more attractive type of building. The
air lighthouse or beacon will spring up here and there; another
subject for the ambitious young architect in competition.
But though it is now evident that a very great deal may be done for
the preservation of rural England by the exercise of legislative
powers which local authorities already possess, and by pressure on
corporate bodies and private landowners of the best type, the
ultimate success of the new crusade will depend on its ability to
influence public opinion. Two kinds of opinion are involved, that of
the country dwellers themselves, and that of the urban invaders of
the countryside. Probably most young people now employed in
remote villages and on farms would give their skin to get away from
what they regard as the monotony of rural life, and one must
sympathise with that view. The introduction of wireless and cinemas
will make their existence less irksome, and the phenomenal increase
of motor-bus facilities allows them to travel cheaply and frequently to
the nearest town, with its shops and bright streets. But none of these
things will teach them to prize the country, rather the reverse, for
many of the films they see show them uglification at its worst—in the
ricketty shacks of Western America. It might be possible to teach
them to admire their own heritage by occasional lectures at the
village institutes on town-planning and architecture; not the
architecture of great cathedrals and of foreign buildings like the
Parthenon, but the simple homely architecture of the village church,
the village barn, and the village cottage. A competent lecturer
accustomed to such an audience, avoiding like the plague all
sentimental talk about the glory of country life, might explain the
beauty of old bridges and mills, the simple skill of old craftsmen, in
such a way that his hearers would be less anxious to substitute
suburban vulgarities for everything that their rude forefathers of the
hamlet had made. Recently there was organised, in my own village,
an exhibition of drawings, engravings, maps, old documents, etc.,
illustrating the history and development of the district. It was visited
by a large number of people, including many children, and
undoubtedly it aroused much interest in things that had hitherto
passed unnoticed.
The urban motorist, whether he travels in a Rolls-Royce or a
charabanc, often provides an equally difficult problem. He may be a
superior person of great wealth, who avoids the hackneyed resorts
of trippers because he objects to the sight of beer-bottles and paper
bags on the heather, but, as a humorous artist recently reminded us,
he probably goes to a more secluded common and instructs his
chauffeur to leave the champagne bottles and disembowelled
lobsters under a gorse-bush there, for he has the soul and breeding
of the tripper, and litter does not offend him. The beach X—— in
Romney Marsh, already mentioned, was littered from end to end with
newspapers, cigarette packets, and confectioners’ debris, when last I
saw it.
Untidiness, ugliness, lack of respect for history and beauty, an
insane craze for speed in getting from one futile pursuit to another,
blatant advertisement, sordid commercialism—these are some of the
things we have borrowed from American life to vulgarise our own.
But when Americans come over to England, the thing that impresses
them most—far more than anything we can do in our towns—is the
harmony and peace of the English village and the English
countryside. They feel in their bones that there we “have them beat.”
It is simply heart-breaking, to those of us who know how future
uglification may be avoided and how much of the blundering of the
past may be remedied, to see the process of deterioration steadily
continuing. With more of brains and less of greed, more of public
spirit and less of vested interests, rural England may yet be saved.
SOME ADDRESSES
The Council for the Preservation of Rural England,
33, Bloomsbury Square, W.C. 1.
The Garden Cities and Town Planning Association,
3, Gray’s Inn Place, W.C. 1.
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings,
20, Buckingham Street, W.C. 2.
The Commons and Footpaths Preservation Society,
7, Buckingham Palace Gardens, S.W. 1.
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society,
The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or
Natural Beauty,
The Scapa Society for the Prevention of Disfigurement in
Town and Country,
The Rural Industries Intelligence Bureau,
20, Eccleston Street, S.W. 1.
TO-DAY AND
TO-MORROW
Each, pott 8vo, boards, 2/6 net
THIS series of books, by some of the most distinguished
English thinkers, scientists, philosophers, doctors, critics,
and artists, was at once recognized as a noteworthy
event. Written from various points of view, one book
frequently opposing the argument of another, they provide
the reader with a stimulating survey of the most modern
thought in many departments of life. Several volumes are
devoted to the future trend of Civilization, conceived as a
whole; while others deal with particular provinces. It is
interesting to see in these neat little volumes, issued at a
low price, the revival of a form of literature, the Pamphlet,
which has been in disuse for many years.
Published by
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
Broadway House: 68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C. 4.
FROM THE REVIEWS

Times Literary Supplement: “An entertaining series.”
Spectator: “Scintillating monographs.”
Observer: “There seems no reason why the brilliant To-day
and To-morrow Series should come to an end for a
century of to-morrows. At first it seemed impossible for the
publishers to keep up the sport through a dozen volumes,
but the series already runs to more than two score. A
remarkable series....”
Nation: “We are able to peer into the future by means of that
brilliant series [which] will constitute a precious document
upon the present time.”—T. S. Eliot.
Manchester Dispatch: “The more one reads of these
pamphlets, the more avid becomes the appetite. We hope
the list is endless.”
Irish Statesman: “Full of lively controversy.”
Daily Herald: “This series has given us many monographs of
brilliance and discernment.... The stylistic excellences of
this provocative series.”
Field: “We have long desired to express the deep admiration
felt by every thinking scholar and worker at the present
day for this series. We must pay tribute to the high
standard of thought and expression they maintain. As
small gift-books, austerely yet prettily produced, they
remain unequalled of their kind. We can give but the
briefest suggestions of their value to the student, the
politician, and the voter....”
Japan Chronicle: “While cheap prophecy is a futile thing,
wisdom consists largely in looking forward to
consequences. It is this that makes these books of
considerable interest.”
New York World: “Holds the palm in the speculative and
interpretative thought of the age.”
VOLUMES READY
Daedalus, or Science and the Future. By J. B. S. Haldane,
Reader in Biochemistry, University of Cambridge. Seventh
impression.
“A fascinating and daring little book.”—Westminster
Gazette. “The essay is brilliant, sparkling with wit and
bristling with challenges.”—British Medical Journal.
“Predicts the most startling changes.”—Morning Post.
Callinicus, a Defence of Chemical Warfare. By J. B. S.
Haldane. Second impression.
“Mr. Haldane’s brilliant study.”—Times Leading Article.
“A book to be read by every intelligent adult.”—
Spectator. “This brilliant little monograph.”—Daily News.
Icarus, or the Future of Science. By Bertrand Russell,
f.r.s. Fourth impression.
“Utter pessimism.”—Observer. “Mr. Russell refuses to
believe that the progress of Science must be a boon to
mankind.”—Morning Post. “A stimulating book, that
leaves one not at all discouraged.”—Daily Herald.
What I Believe. By Bertrand Russell, f.r.s. Third
impression.
“One of the most brilliant and thought-stimulating little
books I have read—a better book even than Icarus.”—
Nation. “Simply and brilliantly written.”—Nature. “In
stabbing sentences he punctures the bubble of cruelty,
envy, narrowness, and ill-will which those in authority
call their morals.”—New Leader.
Tantalus, or the Future of Man. By F. C. S. Schiller, D.Sc.,
Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Second
impression.
“They are all (Daedalus, Icarus, and Tantalus) brilliantly
clever, and they supplement or correct one another.”—
Dean Inge, in Morning Post. “Immensely valuable and
infinitely readable.”—Daily News. “The book of the
week.”—Spectator.
Cassandra, or the Future of the British Empire. By F. C. S.
Schiller, D.Sc.
“We commend it to the complacent of all parties.”—
Saturday Review. “The book is small, but very, very
weighty; brilliantly written, it ought to be read by all
shades of politicians and students of politics.”—
Yorkshire Post. “Yet another addition to that bright
constellation of pamphlets.”—Spectator.
Quo Vadimus? Glimpses of the Future. By E. E. Fournier
d’Albe, D.Sc., author of “Selenium, the Moon Element,”
etc.
“A wonderful vision of the future. A book that will be
talked about.”—Daily Graphic. “A remarkable
contribution to a remarkable series.”—Manchester
Dispatch. “Interesting and singularly plausible.”—Daily
Telegraph.
Thrasymachus, the Future of Morals. By C. E. M. Joad,
author of “The Babbitt Warren,” etc. Second impression.
“His provocative book.”—Graphic. “Written in a style of
deliberate brilliance.”—Times Literary Supplement. “As
outspoken and unequivocal, a contribution as could well
be imagined. Even those readers who dissent will be
forced to recognize the admirable clarity with which he
states his case. A book that will startle.”—Daily
Chronicle.
Lysistrata, or Woman’s Future and Future Woman. By
Anthony M. Ludovici, author of “A Defence of
Aristocracy,” etc. Second Impression.
“A stimulating book. Volumes would be needed to deal,
in the fullness his work provokes, with all the problems
raised.”—Sunday Times. “Pro-feminine, but anti-
feministic.”—Scotsman. “Full of brilliant common-
sense.”—Observer.
Hypatia, or Woman and Knowledge. By Mrs. Bertrand
Russell. With a frontispiece. Third impression.
An answer to Lysistrata. “A passionate vindication of the
rights of women.”—Manchester Guardian. “Says a
number of things that sensible women have been
wanting publicly said for a long time.”—Daily Herald.
Hephaestus, the Soul of the Machine. By E. E. Fournier
d’Albe, D.Sc.
“A worthy contribution to this interesting series. A
delightful and thought-provoking essay.”—Birmingham
Post. “There is a special pleasure in meeting with a
book like Hephaestus. The author has the merit of really
understanding what he is talking about.”—Engineering.
“An exceedingly clever defence of machinery.”—
Architects’ Journal.
The Passing of the Phantoms: a Study of Evolutionary
Psychology and Morals. By C. J. Patten, Professor of
Anatomy, Sheffield University. With 4 Plates.
“Readers of Daedalus, Icarus and Tantalus, will be
grateful for an excellent presentation of yet another
point of view.”—Yorkshire Post. “This bright and bracing
little book.”—Literary Guide. “Interesting and original.”—
Medical Times.
The Mongol in our Midst: a Study of Man and his Three
Faces. By F. G. Crookshank, m.d., f.r.c.p. With 28
Plates. Second Edition, revised.
“A brilliant piece of speculative induction.”—Saturday
Review. “An extremely interesting and suggestive book,
which will reward careful reading.”—Sunday Times.
“The pictures carry fearful conviction.”—Daily Herald.
The Conquest of Cancer. By H. W. S. Wright, m.s., f.r.c.s.
Introduction by F. G. Crookshank, m.d.
“Eminently suitable for general reading. The problem is
fairly and lucidly presented. One merit of Mr. Wright’s
plan is that he tells people what, in his judgment, they
can best do, here and now.”—From the Introduction.
Pygmalion, or the Doctor of the Future. By R. McNair
Wilson, m.b.
“Dr. Wilson has added a brilliant essay to this series.”—
Times Literary Supplement. “This is a very little book,
but there is much wisdom in it.”—Evening Standard. “No
doctor worth his salt would venture to say that Dr.
Wilson was wrong.”—Daily Herald.
Prometheus, or Biology and the Advancement of Man. By H.
S. Jennings, Professor of Zoology, Johns Hopkins
University.
“This volume is one of the most remarkable that has yet
appeared in this series. Certainly the information it
contains will be new to most educated laymen. It is
essentially a discussion of ... heredity and environment,
and it clearly establishes the fact that the current use of
these terms has no scientific justification.”—Times
Literary Supplement. “An exceedingly brilliant book.”—
New Leader.
Narcissus: an Anatomy of Clothes. By Gerald Heard. With
19 illustrations.
“A most suggestive book.”—Nation. “Irresistible.
Reading it is like a switchback journey. Starting from
prehistoric times we rocket down the ages.”—Daily
News. “Interesting, provocative, and entertaining.”—
Queen.
Thamyris, or Is There a Future for Poetry? By R. C.
Trevelyan.
“Learned, sensible, and very well-written.”—Affable
Hawk, in New Statesman. “Very suggestive.”—J. C.
Squire, in Observer. “A very charming piece of work, I
agree with all, or at any rate, almost all its
conclusions.”—J. St. Loe Strachey, in Spectator.
Proteus, or the Future of Intelligence. By Vernon Lee, author
of “Satan the Waster,” etc.
“We should like to follow the author’s suggestions as to
the effect of intelligence on the future of Ethics,
Aesthetics, and Manners. Her book is profoundly
stimulating and should be read by everyone.”—Outlook.

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Basic Biomechanics [Team-IRA] 9th

Edition Susan J. Hall

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Cover Image: Extreme Sports Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25

3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55

4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth and Development 81

5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107

6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133

Roles Assumed by Muscles 147

7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169

Proximal Radioulnar Joint 186

8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213

Rotation and Passive Abduction and Adduction 227

9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255

Common Injuries of the Back and Neck 278

10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293

11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327

Introductory Problems 347

12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355

13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387

14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419

Transfer of Angular Momentum 427

15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

T he ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics has been significantly updated and

N EW CO NTE NT HI GHLI GHT S

P E DAGOG ICAL FEAT U RES

In addition to the sample problems, problem sets, laboratory experiences, end-of-chapter

• Rubric building and scoring

Test Builder in Connect

Remote Proctoring & Browser-Locking Capabilities

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I wish to extend appreciation to the following reviewers:

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After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Define the terms biomechanics, statics, dynamics, kinematics, and kinet-

Describe the scope of scientific inquiry addressed by biomechanists.

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative approaches for analyzing

Explain how to formulate questions for qualitative analysis of human

Use the 11 steps identified in the chapter to solve formal problems.

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Anthropometry is the study of the

Biomechanics FIGURE 1-1

What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists?

An astronaut exercising on the

Another problem area challenging biomechanists who study the elderly is

Tools th at E n h an ce Hu man Bio mech an ical

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FROM THE REVIEWS

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