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ADVANCES IN
SUPERCAPACITOR AND
SUPERCAPATTERY
ADVANCES IN
SUPERCAPACITOR AND
SUPERCAPATTERY
Innovations in Energy
Storage Devices
Edited by

NUMAN ARSHID
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, SIST, Fudan
University, Shanghai, P.R. China

MOHAMMAD KHALID
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group
(GAMRG), School of Science and Technology, Sunway
University, Selangor, Malaysia

ANDREWS NIRMALA GRACE

Centre for Nanotechnology Research, Vellore Institute of
Technology (VIT), Vellore, India
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors xi
Preface xv
Introduction xvii

1. Background of energy storage 1

Suresh Sagadevan, Mohd Rafie Johan, A.R. Marlinda, Omid Akbarzadeh,
Karuppasamy Pandian, M.M. Shahid, Faruq Mohammad and Jiban Podder
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Importance of energy storage 4
1.3 Batteries and capacitors 5
1.4 Fundamentals of energy storage 6
1.5 Electrochemical energy storage systems and materials 8
1.6 Status of energy storage technology development 10
1.6.1 Mechanical energy storage 11
1.6.2 Heat storage 15
1.6.3 Electrochemical energy storage 16
1.6.4 Electromagnetic energy storage 17
1.6.5 Chemical energy storage 18
1.6.6 Other storage 18
1.7 Challenges and prospects of energy storage technologies 18
1.7.1 Challenges of the energy storage application 18
1.7.2 Prospects of energy storage technology development 19
1.8 Energy storage systems costs and values 20
1.9 Technology frontiers 21
1.9.1 Improvements in traditional battery technology 21
1.9.2 Lithium-ion battery safety research 22
1.9.3 Solid-state battery R&D 23
1.9.4 Emerging battery systems 23
1.10 Conclusion 24
References 24

2. Fundamental electrochemical energy storage systems 27

Suresh Sagadevan, A.R. Marlinda, Zaira Zaman Chowdhury,
Yasmin Binti Abdul Wahab, Nor Aliya Hamizi, M.M. Shahid,
Faruq Mohammad, Jiban Podder and Mohd Rafie Johan

2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Background of energy storage 28

v
vi Contents

2.3 Electrochemical capacitors 29

2.4 Principle of energy storage in electrochemical capacitors 31
2.5 Charge storage mechanism in electrical dual layer condensers 31
2.6 Electrical double-layer capacitor 32
2.7 Pseudocapacitor 37
2.8 Types of pseudocapacitance 39
2.8.1 Underpotential deposition 39
2.8.5 Redox pseudocapacitance 40
2.8.3 Intercalation pseudocapacitance 41
2.9 Conclusion 41
References 42

3. Introduction to supercapattery 45
Arshid Numan, Yiqiang Zhan, Mohammad Khalid and Mohammad Hatamvand
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Charge storage mechanism in electrochemical energy storage systems 48
3.2.1 Electrical double-layer capacitive electrode 50
3.2.2 Pseudocapacitive electrode 50
3.2.3 Battery electrode 51
3.3 Difference between pseudocapacitive and battery-grade materials 52
3.3.1 Why pseudocapacitive materials are considered capacitive? 52
3.3.2 Confusion between pseudocapacitive and battery-grade materials 54
3.4 Conclusions 58
References 59

4. Conducting polymeric nanocomposite for supercapattery 63

Meenakshi Gusain, Irfan Ahmed and Yiqiang Zhan
4.1 Introduction to conducting polymers 63
4.2 Types of C-polymers 64
4.2.1 Based on conductivity 65
4.2.2 Based on structural backbone 66
4.3 Problems related to conducting polymers based electrodes 67
4.4 Polymer nanocomposite 71
4.4.1 In situ synthesis 72
4.4.2 Ex situ synthesis 72
4.4.3 Carbonaceous polymer nanocomposites 73
4.4.4 Chalcogenide polymer nanocomposite 74
4.4.5 Polymer/layered silicates nanocomposite 75
Contents vii

4.5 Nanocomposites of conducting polymer with various nanomaterials 77

4.5.1 Carbon-based nanocomposite materials 77
4.5.2 Metal oxide-based composites materials 79
4.5.3 MXene and transition metal dichalocogenides composites 80
4.6 Conclusion 86
4.7 Abbreviations 87
References 87

5. Carbonaceous nanocomposites for supercapattery 93

Andrews Nirmala Grace, Sandhya Venkateshalu and Subashini Gnanasekar

5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Carbonaceous electrode materials 95
5.2.1 Graphene and its composites 95
5.2.2 Carbon nanotube and its composites 98
5.2.3 Activated carbon and its composites 102
5.3 Summary and outlook 107
References 107

6. Binary metal oxides for supercapattery devices 111

Muhammad Zahir Iqbal and Abbas Khan
6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Binary metal oxides 114
6.2.1 Synthesis of binary metal oxides 115
6.2.2 Binary metal oxides for supercapattery applications 120
6.3 Summary and future outlook 131
References 133

7. Ternary nanocomposites for supercapattery 141

Javed Iqbal, Shahid Bashir, Mohammad Omaish Ansari, Rashida Jafer,
Asim Jilani, Sharifah Mohammad, K. Ramesh and S. Ramesh
7.1 Introduction 141
7.2 Noble metals 144
7.3 Metal oxides 145
7.3.1 Gold-containing ternary nanocomposites 147
7.3.2 Platinum-containing ternary nanocomposites 147
7.4 Carbonaceous materials 151
7.4.1 Carbon nanotubes 152
7.4.2 Graphene 155
viii Contents

7.5 Conducting polymers 158

7.5.1 Ternary composites of polyaniline 158
7.5.2 Ternary nanocomposites of polypyrrole containing noble metals 163
7.5.3 Ternary nanocomposites of polythiophene or other polymers
containing noble metals 164
7.6 Conclusions and future work 165
Acknowledgments 167
References 167

8. Metal/metal oxide thin film electrodes for supercapatteries 175

Mohammad Islam, Sofia Javed, Muhammad Aftab Akram and
Muhammad Usman
8.1 Hybrid supercapacitors or supercapatteries 175
8.1.1 Prerequisites for a supercapattery 176
8.2 Metal oxides as electrode materials 178
8.2.1 Promising metal oxides 178
8.2.2 Technical issues with pure metal oxides 179
8.3 Performance of metal oxide electrodes 180
8.3.1 Nickel oxide 180
8.3.2 Copper oxide 181
8.3.3 Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) 182
8.3.4 Ruthenium oxide (RuO2) 183
8.3.5 Manganese dioxide (MnO2) 183
8.3.6 Cobalt oxide (Co3O4) 185
8.4 Hybridization of metal oxides 189
8.5 Summary 192
References 192

9. Layered double hydroxide as electrode material for

high-performance supercapattery 199
Aruni Shajkumar, Sarbani Sahu, Navaneethan Duraisamy,
Lukas Schmidt-Mende and Ananthakumar Ramadoss
9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 Energy storage mechanism 201
9.3 Synthesis of layered double hydroxides nanostructures 203
9.3.1 Direct synthesis 205
9.3.2 Indirect synthesis 208
9.4 Transition metal layered double hydroxides for supercapattery 210
9.4.1 Nickel Cobalt layered double hydroxides (Ni Co LDH) 210
Contents ix

9.5 Core shell layered double hydroxides 226

9.6 Carbon material/layered double hydroxide composites for
supercapattery 237
9.7 Summary 245
Acknowledgments 246
References 246

10. MXene 255

Ghulam Ali, Muhammad Zahir Iqbal and Faiza Jan Iftikhar
10.1 MXene 255
10.2 Structure and types of MXene 256
10.3 MXene in supercapacitors 256
10.4 MXene in rechargeable batteries 259
10.5 MXene in supercapattery 261
10.6 Conclusion 266
References 267

11. Aqueous solid and gel electrolytes for supercapattery 271

Shahid Bashir, Mee Yoke Chong, Maryam Hina, Kashif Kamran,
S. Ramesh and K. Ramesh

11.1 Introduction 271

11.2 Polymer electrolytes 273
11.2.1 Ion conduction pattern in polymer electrolytes 274
11.2.2 Classification of polymer electrolytes 276
11.2.3 Classifications of solid polymer electrolytes 277
11.2.4 Methods to improve the performance of the solid polymer
electrolyte 281
11.2.5 Gel polymer electrolytes 285
11.2.6 Hydrogel electrolytes 285
11.3 Conclusion and future challenges 302
Acknowledgments 302
References 303

12. Applications of supercapattery 311

Syam G. Krishnan, Arulraj Arunachalam and Priyanka Jagadish
12.1 Introduction 311
12.2 Metal oxide/metal hydroxide based supercabattery 312
12.2.1 CuO supercabattery 313
12.2.2 NiO supercabattery 318
x Contents

12.2.3 Co3O4 supercabattery 321

12.2.4 Cu(OH)2 supercapabattery 325
12.2.5 Ni(OH)2 supercabattery 328
12.2.6 TMC supercapabattery 330
12.3 Chalcogenides supercabatteries 334
12.4 Importance of supercabattery commercialization and applications 339
12.5 Conclusion 341
References 342

13. Supercapattery: technical challenges and future prospects 349

M.N.M. Ansari and Noor Afeefah Nordin
13.1 Introduction 349
13.2 Technical challenges 354
13.2.1 Pairing of electrode materials 355
13.2.2 Diffusion issues related to electronic property 356
13.2.3 Influence of redox electrolyte on performance of charge
storage capacity 357
13.2.4 Inadequate properties that can contribute to the
electrochemical performances 359
13.2.5 Insolubility and intractability of conducting polymers 361
13.3 Prospects 363
13.4 Market potential 367
13.5 Conclusion 372
Acknowledgments 373
References 373

Index 379
List of contributors

Irfan Ahmed
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Centre of Micro-Nano System, SIST, Fudan
University, Shanghai, China; Department of Physics, Government Postgraduate College,
Mansehra, (Higher Education Department-HED) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Omid Akbarzadeh
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Muhammad Aftab Akram
Department of Materials Engineering, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Ghulam Ali
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy, National University of Sciences
and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, Pakistan
M.N.M. Ansari
Institute of Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, Malaysia
Mohammad Omaish Ansari
Center of Nanotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Arulraj Arunachalam
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
Shahid Bashir
Centre for Ionics University of Malaya, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mee Yoke Chong
Centre for American Education, INTI International University, Persiaran Bandar Baru
Nilai, Malaysia
Zaira Zaman Chowdhury
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Navaneethan Duraisamy
Department of Chemistry, J.K.K. Nataraja College of Arts and Science, TN, India
Subashini Gnanasekar
Centre for Nanotechnology Research, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore,
India
Andrews Nirmala Grace
Centre for Nanotechnology Research, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore,
India

xi
xii List of contributors

Meenakshi Gusain
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Centre of Micro-Nano System, SIST, Fudan
University, Shanghai, China
Nor Aliya Hamizi
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Mohammad Hatamvand
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, SIST, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Maryam Hina
Centre for Ionics University of Malaya, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Javed Iqbal
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia; Center of Nanotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Zahir Iqbal
Faculty of Engineering Sciences, GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology,
Topi, Pakistan; Nanotechnology Research Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering Sciences,
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan
Mohammad Islam
Center of Excellence for Research in Engineering Materials, Deanship of Scientific
Research, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Rashida Jafer
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia
Priyanka Jagadish
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
Faiza Jan Iftikhar
NUTECH School of Applied Sciences and Humanities, National University of
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Sofia Javed
Department of Materials Engineering, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Asim Jilani
Center of Nanotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Mohd Rafie Johan
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Kashif Kamran
Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
List of contributors xiii

Mohammad Khalid
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
Abbas Khan
Nanotechnology Research Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, GIK Institute of
Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan
Syam G. Krishnan
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
A.R. Marlinda
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Faruq Mohammad
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia
Sharifah Mohammad
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Noor Afeefah Nordin
Institute of Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, Malaysia
Arshid Numan
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, SIST, Fudan University, Shanghai, China;
Graphene & Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Science and
Technology, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia
Karuppasamy Pandian
Quantum Nano-Optoelectronics Group, The Institute of Photonic Sciences, Castelldefels
(Barcelona), Spain
Jiban Podder
Department of Physics, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka,
Bangladesh
Ananthakumar Ramadoss
School for Advanced Research in Polymers: Laboratory for Advanced Research in
Polymeric Materials, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology,
Bhubaneswar, India
K. Ramesh
Centre for Ionics University of Malaya, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
S. Ramesh
Centre for Ionics University of Malaya, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
xiv List of contributors

Suresh Sagadevan
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Sarbani Sahu
School for Advanced Research in Polymers: Laboratory for Advanced Research in
Polymeric Materials, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology,
Bhubaneswar, India
Lukas Schmidt-Mende
Department of Physics, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
M.M. Shahid
Center of Micro-Nano System, School of Information Science and Technology, Fudan
University, Shanghai, P.R. China
Aruni Shajkumar
School for Advanced Research in Polymers: Laboratory for Advanced Research in
Polymeric Materials, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology,
Bhubaneswar, India
Muhammad Usman
Department of Materials Engineering, School of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Sandhya Venkateshalu
Centre for Nanotechnology Research, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore,
India
Yasmin Binti Abdul Wahab
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Yiqiang Zhan
State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, Centre of Micro-Nano System, SIST, Fudan
University, Shanghai, China; State Key Laboratory of ASIC and System, SIST, Fudan
University, Shanghai, China
Preface

Since the beginning of the 20th century, global energy demand has rap-
idly increased because of population and economic growth. Additionally,
rapid industrialization and the quest for smart technologies require more
energy resources than ever. As a result, fossil fuel consumption has
increased tremendously, leading to its rapid depletion, creating new
energy security challenges and causing environmental issues and global
warming. The growing demand for energy and the scarcity of conven-
tional energy resources has catalyzed research toward alternative energy
resources and energy storage devices. The energy storage through electro-
chemical methods has been recognized as one of the most important
inventions among all the energy storage and conversion technologies.
There are two major kinds of energy storage devices, namely superca-
pacitors and batteries. The former has the distinctive advantages of high-
power density and rapid energy storage capability, but suffers from low
energy density compared to batteries. Conversely, batteries have high
energy but low power density, which limits their application where
power surges are required. The advantages of both devices can be har-
vested in a single device by fabricating the hybrid device (supercapattery)
using a single electrode from each device (battery and capacitor). A super-
capattery can deliver high energy density and high-power density com-
pared to a supercapacitor and battery, and thus it can cover a wide range
of applications.
This book is focused on the fundamentals of supercapattery from a
technical and practical point of view. There are misleading concepts that
are associated with pseudocapacitive materials. Many research articles have
critically highlighted this issue by signifying the difference between pseu-
docapacitive and battery-grade materials. This book will explain the
energy storage mechanism of both materials (pseudocapacitive and battery
grade) based on the fundamental concepts of physics and electrochemistry.
The main driver of this book is to describe the innovative electrode mate-
rials to enable new devices and improve existing device designs for energy
storage, especially supercapattery. The book will help to illuminate practi-
cal aspects of understanding and applying the technology in the industry
and providing enough technical details about new materials developed by
experts in the field that may surface in the future. Furthermore, the

xv
xvi Preface

technical challenges are also discussed in this book to give readers an

understanding of the practical limitations and their associated parameters
in electrochemical energy storage technology.
This book is equally beneficial for research scientists, engineers, gradu-
ate and undergraduate students wanting to specialize in energy storage sys-
tems. It provides the latest developments and fundamentals of energy
storage mechanism and clarifies the misleading concepts in this field.
Additionally, this book will also cover the potential of the supercapattery
in industry and how it can bridge the gap between the traditional capaci-
tor and a battery.
Introduction

Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery: An Innovation In Energy Storage

Devices provides an in-depth overview of the present status of the rapidly
growing field of electrochemical energy storage systems. This book will
cover the fundamentals, the latest developments, and innovative materials
used for the hybrid electrochemical energy storage systems as well as their
potential for the latest technological energy storage applications.
Currently, the literature available to boost the performance of supercapa-
citors is scattered. Moreover, there are some misperceptions between the
concepts for the pseudocapacitive and battery grade materials. This book
comprehensively covers the synthesis strategies to enhance the overall per-
formance of the supercapacitor device. The misleading concepts will be
explained in detail based on electrochemical reactions and their corre-
sponding electrochemical signatures.
The first two chapters cover the detailed background, the fundamen-
tals of the charge storage mechanism, and different supercapacitor types.
The third chapter presents the hybrid device (supercapattery), comprising
a battery and capacitive electrode. The main advantages of supercapattery
over batteries and supercapacitors are covered in this chapter. The follow-
ing seven chapters cover innovative nanomaterials, such as carbonaceous
materials, conducting polymers, metal oxides and hydroxides, and the lat-
est 2D material (MXene), as electrodes for energy storage applications.
The electrolyte is a crucial part of an energy storage device that signifi-
cantly contributes to its performance. Therefore different kinds of electro-
lytes and their suitability are discussed in Chapter 11. The book concludes
with a discussion on the potential applications, challenges, and perspec-
tives of supercapattery in Chapters 12 and 13.

xvii
 CHAPTER ONE

Background of energy storage

Suresh Sagadevan1, Mohd Rafie Johan1, A.R. Marlinda1,
Omid Akbarzadeh1, Karuppasamy Pandian2, M.M. Shahid3,
Faruq Mohammad4 and Jiban Podder5
1
Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Quantum Nano-Optoelectronics Group, The Institute of Photonic Sciences, Castelldefels (Barcelona),
Spain
3
Center of Micro-Nano System, School of Information Science and Technology, Fudan University,
Shanghai, P.R. China
4
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
5
Department of Physics, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

1.1 Introduction
Currently used, conventional power generation and distribution
infrastructure require an extremely sensitive, low-error margin, and a
near-instant equilibrium between electricity supply and demand on the
electrical grid system. To achieve equilibrium, thousands of turbines
around the globe need to be immediately brought online or taken off to
meet the variability in demand for electricity. Most of these turbines usu-
ally remain idle most of the time resulting in a loss of ability for genera-
tion. Also, because of the absence of adequate storage capability, the
energy produced by these sources during off-peak times is often lost. The
fundamental assumption of energy storage includes transforming one type
of energy into another type that can efficiently, cost-effectively, and reli-
ably produce the stored energy when required. Electrical energy storage
techniques and systems demonstrate an equally wide variety in a way
comparable to the broad variety of power generation techniques. Each
offers a separate set of benefits, but also disadvantages, difficulties, and
weaknesses. Since there is no single winning power generation technology
capable of meeting the broad variety of demands including environmen-
tal, price, efficiency, accessibility, client request, portability, scalability,
etc., there is no single bullet to tackle our impending electrical energy
storage needs as well. Therefore it is best to create a multipronged portfo-
lio approach to create a variety of storage techniques and systems. Each

Advances in Supercapacitor and Supercapattery. © 2021 Elsevier Inc.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819897-1.00003-3 All rights reserved. 1
2 Suresh Sagadevan et al.

one provides its strengths and weaknesses and distinct technological bases
governing its working theory.
Global excitement, momentum, and huge investments as one of the
main sources of energy production are essential to pave the way for decar-
bonization of today’s fossil-fuel energy economy, particularly electricity
generation. Nevertheless, most renewable energy sources are a significant
obstacle to the efficient generation of electricity and global mass use. As is
currently the case, the distribution of renewable sources offers a substantial
benefit in reducing the financial and environmental impacts of centralized
transmission. In poor and underdeveloped parts of the globe, where large
communities often lack electricity and other resources for their daily tasks,
renewables are also important. In this respect, in many of these societies,
renewables can boost economic growth and significantly enhance the
quality of life.
To create a sustainable energy infrastructure to address the energy and
environmental problems produced by carbon fuels, the new energy revo-
lution is shaping electricity as the main energy source. It is determined by
the large-scale development and use of renewable energy. With the
expansion of the smart grid, innovation and government policies the
opportunities of power storage are slowly emerging [1
4]. The potential
use throughout the spectrum of power systems, including generation,
transmission, delivery, and consumption, could be explored. The objec-
tives include the increased adoption of large-scale renewable electricity,
improved electricity grid capacity, postponement and reduction of the
cost of output and power systems development, enhancement of electric-
ity quality and efficiency, ensuring a high level of safe, viable supply of
energy, promoting the best possible control of grids and the operating
schedule [5
9]. The design of potential applications will have a major
effect on the energy storage industry by designing and promoting energy
storage technologies [10]. Both engineering and academic study have
grown rapidly in the latest years, leading to many accomplishments. The
research and demonstration of energy storage have been extended by the
rapid growth of energy storage technologies from small to large scale.
However, energy storage demands vary extensively, driven mainly by
the application type. No single technology meets all large-scale grid per-
formance storage demands and metrics. For some applications, a particular
technology may give characteristics and merits, but not for others.
Electrochemical techniques such as Na-S and Li-ion batteries have
become commercially feasible in some industries, even though they do
Background of energy storage 3

not meet all the necessary metrics. Considering an appropriate combina-

tion of distinct storage technologies, such deficiencies can be alleviated to
meet the specific demands of a specific implementation. Considering an
appropriate mix of distinct storage technologies, such deficiencies can be
alleviated to meet the specific demands of a specific implementation.
Instead, this chapter distinguishes itself by taking a broad brush and pre-
senting an in-depth overview of a wide range of techniques, equipment,
and systems for storing electrical energy with an eye for large-scale storage
of electrical grids. Furthermore, the chapter describes an extensive debate
of the status of four main classes of electricity storage techniques including
electrochemical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal storage systems cover-
ing a broad variety of alternatives from pumped hydro and flywheels to
hydrogen and ammonia, to supercapacitors, batteries, regenerative fuel
cells, flow batteries, and storage of phase-changing products. Where nec-
essary, the chapter also provides the interested reader with tutorial data to
obtain a greater understanding and recognition of the basic factors and dif-
ficulties in storing electrical energy. This evaluation is intended to help
noninitiated scientists and engineers who have invested in electrical energy
storage systems. Fig. 1.1 displays a standard electrical demand profile. The
primary power generator could work during the night when a low-cost

Figure 1.1 A typical electrical power profile, showing the large variations during a
24-h period.
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road a brisk fusillade was heard towards Tsikalaria, and as I
was about to return to Halepa a young Turk was seen at a
distance running towards us with a letter in his hand. It was
a message sent by the Albanian corporal stationed at
Tsikalaria asking for assistance. This messenger had hardly
arrived when a gendarme was seen coming down in great haste.
He said that the fight between Christians and Mussulmans
having become general, and there being only another gendarme
with the corporal, armed assistance was immediately required.
I took both these messengers and conveyed them to the gate of
the town, from whence I drove to Halepa to acquaint the Vali
with what was taking place. It was getting dark when I met on
the road his Excellency accompanied by the Italian Consul
going on foot to Canea, having found no available carriage,
and I drove back with them. The position was rather
perplexing. There was no available gendarmerie, and no
soldiers could be sent out, as they would have been fired upon
by the Christians. …

"Early on the day following, that is, on the 4th instant, the
Governor-General visited the village of Tsikalaria and the
villages westward of it in order to ascertain the truth with
regard to the numerous reports which were in circulation since
the preceding evening. It would seem that on hearing of his
son having been killed on the Canea-Suda road, the father of
the wounded Mussulman opened fire on the Christians. Other
Christians maintain that this wounded Mussulman, after having
shot at the Christian on the road, hastened to Tsikalaria, and
together with his father, began firing on the Christians. In a
very short time all the Christians rushed towards the heights,
and the Mussulmans towards the plain. During this evolution a
Christian was killed, it is said, by the father of the wounded
Mussulman, who had been arrested and is in prison. The same
night the women and children took refuge in the villages on
the mountains, while a contingent of 150 armed Christians came
down from Campos and Keramia in order to assist the male
population of Tsikalaria to defend their property. On the
 other hand, armed Mussulmans flocked from all parts of the
plain to defend their co-religionists. The Mussulmans at
Perivolia, where they are of nearly equal numerical force,
tried to surround the Christians in order to keep them as
hostages for the safety of their co-religionists in other
villages where the Christians are more numerous. In so doing
they shot down a Christian, on whom they also inflicted
numerous knife stabs, finally cutting his throat. This was
followed by an emigration to, and armed assistance from, the
mountain villages as at Tsikalaria. "In the village of
Varipetro the Mayor, assisted by the corporal of gendarmerie,
a Mussulman Albanian, was doing his utmost to prevent a
conflict between its Christian and Mussulman inhabitants, when
a Christian from Lakkos, whose brother had been murdered two
years ago by a native Mussulman, stealing behind the corporal,
shot him dead. The Christians of Varipetro, with whom the
corporal was popular, having tried to arrest his murderer, the
Lakkiotes, who had come there in order to defend their
co-religionists, turned their arms against them, and prevented
them from carrying out their intention. In consequence of this
murder all the Christians of Varipetro emigrated to the
mountains, and all the Mussulmans to the town of Canea. Nearly
1,000 Christians from the plains of Cydonia and Kissamo came
to defend the inhabitants of Galata and Darazzo, and for a
time blockaded the Turks in the village of Kirtomado, Aghia, &c.
{544}
But the inhabitants of Galata, who are all Christians, have so
much confidence in the Mussulman Albanian Lieutenant called
Islam, who is stationed in their village, that they begged
their co-religionists to withdraw, which they did. …

"As is always the case, each party claims to have been

attacked by the other party, and the truth is not likely to be
ever discovered. Be this as it may, both Christians and
Mussulmans remain under the unshaken conviction that they are
wronged by the other party; this increases the animosity of
one sect against the other, and each member of the two races
will act on this conviction. This is the inevitable
consequence of the absolute want of confidence between the two
elements, and there is not the least hope that this feeling
will disappear, nor even slightly decrease, so long as they
are left to themselves. In the present instance it may be that
the Mussulmans, or some of them, may have considered
themselves bound to retaliate for recent murders committed on
their co-religionists by Christians. … The Christians are
convinced, and all their proceedings are marked by that
conviction, that all the incidents which trouble the public
peace are devices of the native Mussulmans to prevent the
execution of the promised reforms. I do not deny that the
attitude of the authorities at Constantinople may have such an
effect on the low class of Cretan Mussulmans; but it is far
from being so with the educated class who are as, if not more,
anxious than the Christians that the intended reforms should
be carried out without delay. In fact, they know that they
have nothing to hope from Constantinople, and that the only
protection of the minority to which they belong lies in the
promised reforms. On the other hand, I have observed with the
greatest pleasure that the Christians laid down their arms at
the first recommendation of the Consuls to do so, which proves
a sincere desire on their part to live in peace. When the
Christians were taking up arms in former times they used to
remain for weeks, even for months, on the mountains in spite
of the entreaties of the Consuls. Therefore, the Christians
and the Mussulmans are respectively well disposed, but there
is such an insuperable distrust on both sides, that they can
never come to a mutual understanding. Whether the incidents
which cause disturbances or disorders on the island are the
work of the Turks or of the Christians or of both is quite
immaterial to me. The important fact to be taken into
consideration is that an exchange of a few shots between one
or two Christians and as many Mussulmans is sufficient to
cause several districts, four in the present instance (Canea,
Apokorona, Sphakia, and Kissamo), to take up arms, and also
that there can be no doubt that such scenes will be repeated
on every recurrence of such incidents."

To the same effect, Captain Custance, of the British ship

Barfleur, reported on the 15th to Admiral Hopkins: "The
general situation, as I understand it, is, that the Cretan
Christian leaders, urged on by certain interested people at
Athens, have been preparing for some time to make an attempt
to drive the Turkish authorities out of the island in the
spring, if a favourable opportunity offers. The Mussulmans
would not be sorry to see the last of the Turkish Government
if they could only be sure that their lives and property would
be safe under the new regime, which, owing to the bitter
hatred existing between the Christians and Mussulmans, cannot
be expected. The two parties are face to face, armed to the
teeth, with long-standing feuds and wrongs, and with no force
between them capable of maintaining order."

On the 27th of January the Consul-General reported by telegram

to Lord Salisbury: "An outburst of terror, such as has not yet
occurred in Candia, has been caused by the commencement of a
fresh immigration of Mussulmans into the town, and by the
murder, within a week, of two men of that faith, and a few
minor outrages." The next day he reported: "Telegraphic news
from Candia, dated to-day, reports murder of a Mussulman, and
wounding of two others, and murder of seven Christians; murder
of further Mussulmans is rumoured. The Mussulman Military
Commissioner, and the Austrian Military Attache, now in
Candia, report that they met about 1,000 armed Mussulmans
moving inland, and numbers of Mussulman families moving
towards the town." Again, on the 2d of February: "Murder of
four Mussulmans last night, following on wounding of Christian
by Mussulman on the 31st January near Canea. Panic ensued in
Canea and Suda Bay this morning. Shops all closed. Shots fired
in town and Halepa, which resulted in death of two Mussulmans.
Four mixed villages, one large Christian village, and several
farms in environs are in flames." On the 4th, Colonel
Chermside, of the gendarmerie commission, sent the following
 statement to Lord Salisbury: "The most that we have been able
to attempt to-night is to get a cordon to separate Christian
and Moslem quarters. Patrolling was tried, but the fire from
the Christians was too heavy to maintain it. Several Turkish
soldiers have been killed and wounded."

Great Britain,
Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command:
Turkey, Number 10, 1897, pages 15-45).

TURKEY: A. D. 1897 (February-March).

Greek interference in Crete.
Greek forces in the island.
Demands for annexation of Crete to Greece.
Action of the Powers in the "Concert of Europe."
Pacific blockade of Crete.

Early in February, the difficulties of the attempt which the

leading European powers, acting in what was known as "the
Concert of Europe," were making to settle affairs in Crete by
reforming its Turkish government, were complicated by
interference from Greece. The Greeks, in ardent sympathy with
their Cretan kinsmen, were eager to take up the cause of the
Christian inhabitants of the island, and their government was
driven into independent action to that end, hoping that
Christian sentiment in Europe would constrain the Powers to
give it a free hand. A Greek squadron was sent to Crete, to
bring away fugitives—women and children especially—and to
prevent the landing of Turkish reinforcements. This was
quickly followed by an expedition of 2,000 men, Colonel Vassos
in command. An instant stimulation of the insurrection
occurred, and declarations demanding the annexation of Crete
to the kingdom of Greece began to appear; while the Greek
government represented in a note to the Powers that no
possible solution of the Cretan problem could be found without
concession to that demand. The Greek troops, considerably
 increased in number, were landed on the island, joining the
insurgent Cretans, and beginning operations against the Turks.

{545}

On the 13th of February the admirals commanding the foreign

naval forces at Canea joined in sending a warning to the Greek
commodore, requiring him to "desist from all hostile acts and
to conform with international law." On the 15th a mixed force
of British, French, Russian, Italian and Austrian marines was
landed for the protection of the town. On the same day, from
Colombari, Colonel Vassos, the Greek commander, issued a
proclamation, saying: "In the name of His Majesty, George I.,
King of the Greeks, I occupy the Island of Crete, and proclaim
this to its inhabitants without distinction of sex or
nationality. I promise in the name of His Majesty that I will
protect the honour, life and property, and will respect the
religious convictions, of its inhabitants, bringing them peace
and equality rights." On the 17th, the Turkish forces at Canea
were attacked by the Greeks and insurgents, and the attack was
renewed on the 21st; whereupon, after warnings from the
foreign admirals in the harbor, the Russian, German, Austrian
and British ships opened fire on the attacking troops. In the
meantime, considerable bodies of Mohammedans were being
besieged by superior forces at other points in the island,
with great danger of massacre if overcome.

On the 2d of March, the representatives of Great Britain,

Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy and Russia, at
Constantinople, arrived at an agreement of action, and jointly
addressed notes to the governments of Turkey and Greece. To the
Porte they wrote: "The Great Powers, animated by the desire to
assure the maintenance of peace and to see the integrity of
the Ottoman Empire respected, have sought for the means of
ending the disorders that have led to their armed intervention
in Crete, as well as of putting an end to the presence of the
Greek forces in the island. They have recognized that in
consequence of the delay in applying them, the reforms
contemplated in the Arrangement of August 25, 1896, no longer
correspond to the requirements of the present situation, and
they have agreed upon the following points:

1. Crete can in no case be annexed to Greece in the present

circumstances.

2. The island will be endowed by the Powers with an autonomous

administration ('régime').

In notifying these decisions to the Sublime Porte by order of

their Governments, the Representatives of the Great Powers at
Constantinople think it their duty to communicate the
resolution which has been taken by their Governments to
address to Greece a summons to withdraw her troops and naval
forces from Crete."

To the Greek government the same announcement was made, that

"Crete can in no case, in the present circumstances, be
annexed to Greece," and the communication was more explicit in
the further statements, as follows:

"In view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of

the reforms agreed upon in concert with the Powers, and which
now make it impossible to adapt those reforms to a changed
condition of affairs, the Powers are resolved, while
maintaining the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, to endow
Crete with an absolutely effective autonomous administration
(régime), intended to secure to it a separate government,
under the high suzerainty of the Sultan. The Cabinets are
convinced that these views can only be realized by the
withdrawal of the Greek ships and troops now in the waters and
on the territory of the island which is occupied by the
Powers. We accordingly confidently expect this decision from
the wisdom of His Majesty's Government, which cannot wish to
persist in a course opposed to the decision of the Powers, who
are determined to carry out an early pacification, which is as
necessary for Crete as it is for the maintenance of general
peace. I will not, however, conceal from your Excellency that
I am instructed to warn you that, in case of a refusal of the
Royal Government, the Great Powers have arrived at the
irrevocable decision not to shrink from any measure of
compulsion if, on the expiration of six days, the recall of
the Greek ships and troops from Crete has not been effected."

The Turkish government replied on the 6th: "The Sublime Porte

has had the honour to receive the note which the Ambassadors
of the Great Powers were good enough to address to it on the
2nd of March relative to Crete. The Imperial Government takes
note with satisfaction of the assurances which the Great
Powers are good enough to give it as to their desire to
respect the integrity of the Empire and of the decision which
they have taken to obtain the withdrawal of the Greek ships of
war and troops from Crete. Relying upon their friendly
sentiments, and upon their firm resolve not to impair the
Sultan's rights of sovereignty, the Sublime Porte, which is
itself desirous of assuring the maintenance of peace, accepts
the principle of an autonomy to be accorded to Crete, while
reserving to itself liberty to discuss with the Ambassadors
the form and the details of the administration ('régime') with
which the island is to be endowed."

Two days later, the Greek government replied at greater

length, imploring the Great Powers "not to insist upon the
system of autonomy decided on, but to give back to Crete what
it already possessed at the time of the liberation of the
other provinces which form the Hellenic kingdom, and to
restore it to Greece, to which it already belonged in the time
of the Presidency of Capodistria," and appealing against the
demand for the withdrawal of the Greek military forces from
the island. "Since, in our opinion," wrote M. Skouses, the
Greek minister, "the new autonomous administration ('régime')
condition could not fulfil the noble object of the Powers, it
 is clear what would be the condition of the unfortunate island
from now until the establishment of that administration, if
the Great Powers decided to persist in their resolve.

"In this connection, and in the name of humanity, as also in

the interest of the pacification of the island—a pacification
which is the sole object of the solicitude of the Great
Powers—we do not hesitate to appeal to them in regard to the
other measure, relative to the withdrawal of our military
forces. … The presence in the island of the Greek army is …
demanded by the dictates of humanity, and is necessary in the
interest of the definitive restoration of order. It is, above
all, our duty not to leave the Cretan people at the mercy of
Mussulman fanaticism, and of the Turkish army, which has
always intentionally, and by connivance, been a party to the
acts of aggression of the populace against the Christians.

{546}

"Above all, if our troops in the island, who are worthy of the
full confidence of the Great Powers, were intrusted with the
mandate of pacifying the country, their wishes and intentions
would at once be completely satisfied. It would then be
possible, after order had been restored, to obtain a free
expression of the wishes of the Cretan people, with a view to
decide their lot. Not only are the horrors which during
several decades have occurred periodically in Crete, not
committed without profoundly agitating the Hellenic people,
but they also interrupt the social activity, and seriously
disturb the economy and finances of the State. Even if it were
possible for us to forget for a moment that we are
co-religionists of the Cretan people, that we are of the same
race, and allied by blood, we cannot conceal from the Great
Powers that the Hellenic State is unable to resist such shocks
any longer. We therefore appeal to the generous sentiments
which animate the Great Powers, and beg them to allow the
Cretan people to declare how it desires to be governed."
 Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications
(Papers by Command: Turkey, Numbers 4 and 5, 1897).

The position taken by the Greek government in this reply was

firmly maintained. Its troops were not withdrawn from Crete,
and the Powers of "the Concert," thus practically defied, had
difficulty in agreeing upon the next steps they would take.
France, England, and Italy would not consent to strong
measures of coercion proposed by Russia, Germany and Austria,
and the decision reached finally was to establish what is
known as a "pacific blockade" of the Cretan coast, to begin on
the 21st of March. This was announced on the 18th by the
admirals commanding on that coast, who gave notice: "The
blockade will be general for all vessels flying the Greek
flag. Vessels of the Six Powers or of neutral Powers will be
allowed to enter the ports in the occupation of the Powers and
land their merchandise there, but only if it is not intended
for the Greek troops or for the interior of the island. The
ships of the international fleets may visit these vessels."
The Greek government was notified to recall its men-of-war
still in Cretan waters, with the warning that "they will be
retained there by force if they have not left by 8 A. M. on
the 21st March."

On the day previous to this announcement of blockade the same

admirals had published a proclamation as follows:

"The undersigned, Commanders-in-chief of the naval forces of

Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy, and
Russia, in Cretan waters, acting under instructions from their
respective Governments, solemnly proclaim and announce to the
people of the island that the Great Powers have arrived at the
irrevocable decision to secure the complete autonomy of Crete,
under the suzerainty of the Sultan. It is well understood that
the Cretans are to be free from all control on the part of the
Sublime Porte as regards their internal affairs. The principal
aim of the Powers being to provide a remedy for the evils
which have afflicted the country, and to prevent their
recurrence, they are drawing up in concert a scheme of
measures intended to regulate the working of the autonomous
régime, to restore peace, to assure to everyone, without
distinction of race or religion, liberty and security of
property, and to facilitate, by the resumption of agricultural
work and trade, the progressive development of the resources
of the country. Such is the aim of the Powers. They wish this
to be understood by all. A new era is commencing for Crete;
let all lay down their arms. The Powers desire peace and
order. They will, if it be required, have the necessary
authority to make their decisions respected. They count on the
co-operation of all the inhabitants of the island, Christian
and Mussulman, to assist them in accomplishing a work which
promises to secure concord and prosperity to the Cretans."

To the promise of an autonomous government for Crete the

insurgent Christians appear to have given no heed; but a great
number of the Mohammedan inhabitants of the island united in
sending telegrams to the British minister at Constantinople,
which were all of the tenor of the following: "Your Excellency
knows that the Christians of Crete, forming the numerical
majority of the population, but incapable of properly
administering the former privileges they enjoyed, have now
again been emboldened to massacre, destroy, and ruin, in the
same way that in the past they have always made ill-use of
their liberties in the country by the treacherous destruction
and ruin of their Moslem fellow-countrymen. Therefore, if the
people are left irresponsible for the government of the
country, which is the very breath of human life, it will
facilitate the completion of their bloodthirsty designs, and
hasten the ruin of the Mussulmans. We are quite sure that this
state of things will not recommend itself to the sympathy of
the Great Powers, the propagators of civilization.

"We therefore beg, in the name of the Mussulman population,

 that the internal affairs of the Christian inhabitants of
Crete who have not yet reached even the first step on the path
of civilization, and are led away by the seditious designs of
Greece, may not be removed from the direction of the Sublime
Porte; if this be impossible, we beg that the internal affairs
of the island may be placed under the continual control of the
Great Powers in conjunction with the Porte; and we finally beg
that the necessary measures may be taken for the protection of
the life, honour, and property, as well as the rights of the
20,000 Mussulman inhabitants now living in Turkey, whose
interest in property is greater in value than that of the
Christians, and who are occupied with commerce and other
pursuits, besides those who live In the island, who, if
necessary, are prepared to undergo a census, and who exceed
100,000."

The situation of the Moslem population of the island was

represented a little later by Colonel Chermside, in a despatch
to Lord Salisbury, as follows:

"Over 49,000 Moslems are assembled in Candia and within cordon

area, comprising 25 square miles, viz., about two-thirds of
Moslem population of Crete. Of these, 29,000 are refugees from
central and eastern districts of island. Doles of flour are
issued to 39,000 persons; issue up to date 18 lb. per head; no
other food issued. The mass of the people have no buying power
and no work, but since arrival of British troops, armed
individuals are rare in streets; distress is supported with
great fortitude, in spite of insufficient food and ravages of
small-pox. Population hopes for future foreign protection
against Christian compatriots. "

Great Britain, Papers by Command:

Turkey, Number 10, 1897, pages 153-178.

{547}
TURKEY: A. D. 1897 (March-September).
War with Greece.
Success of the Turkish arms.
Peace sought by the Greek Government.

Notwithstanding the opposition of the Great Powers, the Greeks

were rashly bent upon war with the Turks, and, when balked in
Crete, began hostile demonstrations along the Turkish frontier
in their own peninsula. The events that followed have been
thus described by an eye-witness, who wrote immediately
afterwards: "When I arrived in Athens," says this writer,
"early last March [1897], although the Cretan insurrection was
being openly supported by Greek arms, war had not been
declared against Turkey. It was what I think was once
described in Parliament as 'a condition of war,' but not war.
… King George and his advisers rashly decided to attempt to
hasten matters in their own fashion. Agitation was begun
without and within the Turkish frontier, and the Ethuike
Hetairia manufactured alarms and disturbances in Macedonia and
Epirus. Attempts were made in other directions, but though
money and emissaries were sent, nothing came of it. Meanwhile
the mobilisation of the Greek army was begun, and later on
reserves were called out. Knowing a good deal about the
relative condition of preparedness for war of both Turkey and
Greece, I spoke without reserve on the subject to the King
and, later on, to the Princes. I told them nearly every
military intelligence department in Europe knew that Turkey
had been getting her troops ready for a year past to deal with
insurrection or invasion along the Macedonian frontier. Within
the Salonica military district she had nearly 100,000 men under
arms, all well trained and passably equipped. Besides infantry
she had nearly 10,000 cavalry, and within a month could place
a further force of 70,000 infantry in the field. Against these
the Greeks could not bring more than 60,000 regulars. There no
doubt might be mustered twice that number of men, but they
would be untrained irregulars and volunteers who would take a
month at least before they could be of much use, and Turkey
would have her bands of irregulars out also to offset their
value. It was notorious besides that the Greek army was
indifferently organised, that it had no transport, no
commissariat department, no medical department, and was
without anything like a sufficiency of trained officers. …

"Prepared or not, the Greeks clamoured for war, never doubting

latterly but that they would win. They protested that the
Hellenes were aroused and would fight and die, if need be, to
the last man. Greece would not waive an iota of her demands.
We were told that the Greeks scattered throughout the Turkish
Empire would spring to arms and paralyze the enemy's hands.
There were to be fearful outbreaks in Macedonia, Epirus, and
Albania, and tumults and burnings in all the chief cities
under Turkish rule where Greeks dwelt—Smyrna, Constantinople,
Salonica, and so on. I was informed that insurrectionary bands
were being got ready to invade Macedonia and Epirus, and I was
introduced to several of the leaders of these new expeditions.
… I saw many of these Greek filibusters at Kalabaka and other
places. By order from Athens the local commandants supplied
them with stores, transport, and trenching tools, and sent
guides to direct them, so that they should slip across into
Macedonia at the most suitable points for conducting their
operations. …

"The Greeks had a fairly long innings carrying on the war

within Turkish territory, whilst disingenuously disclaiming
responsibility for the acts of their own levies. Finally, in
April, the Sultan declared war and set his forces in motion.
Prior to that date the Greeks had moved up the whole of their
available strength close to the Thessalian frontier. The army
numbered nearer fifty than sixty thousand, of all ranks. …
Before war was declared the Crown Prince Constantine arrived
in Larissa, and took over the command of the Greek army in
Thessaly. … He had no military experience; and, as events
disclosed, was neither of a martial disposition nor of a firm
temperament. He showed subsequently that he felt keenly his
false position, and he tried to excuse the awful failures made
in the conduct of the campaign of panic and flight. …

"Independence Day having passed without a general invasion of

Macedonia by the Greeks, it is likely that the Turks had
thought the danger over, when suddenly firing began in a night
along the frontier from Nezeros to Ravenni. For a day or two the
Greeks carried all before them, capturing many block-houses
and taking a number of prisoners. They succeeded in
penetrating Turkish territory in some places for two or three
miles. … The Turks were in immediate danger of being
outflanked in one part of the field of operations, and
separated from their main force at Elassona. It was midday,
the 19th of April, when at a critical moment for the safety of
a portion of Edhem's forces an order arrived from the Crown
Prince to cease firing and retire the whole Greek army back
upon their own side of the frontier. … After an interval of
three hours, during which there was little or no firing, a
message arrived from headquarters that a blunder had been made
and the army was to readvance and engage the enemy. It was a
lost opportunity, for the Turks followed up the Greeks and
reoccupied the lines from which they had been driven. … The
cost of the blunder was a serious one to the Greeks, for in a
futile attempt, on the following day, to retake Gresovala,
General Mavromichali lost 2,000 men. …

"On the 21st of April, without any of the pictorial display or

reputed hand-to-hand fighting, some 40,000 Turks, not less,
accompanied by three cavalry regiments and half a score of
batteries, quietly streamed down the zigzag paved way in the
steep Melouna pass into Thessaly. They occupied the village of
Legaria and positions among the lowest foot hills at the
outlet of the pass. The Greeks were not able to embarrass them
as they deployed, although an attempt was made to find the
range with artillery. … For two days there was a fierce
artillery duel, interspersed occasionally with sharp rifle
fire as the infantry became engaged on the right and left of
 the line. … All had ended in favour of the Greeks when the sun
set on the 22nd April, and the battle of Mati was over. … It
was the same night that the Crown Prince ordered the army to
retreat upon Larissa, twenty-five miles distant by road. About
8 P. M. the men were roused from their first sleep and
commanded to fall in. They did so very orderly and quietly,
thinking it was intended to deliver a surprise attack upon the
Turks.
{548}
The whole army was on the march, and had got five or six miles
from the battle-field, or close to Turnavos, when the
unaccountable mad panic seized them. Some say it originated
one way, some another. … The army broke into pieces and became
a furious rabble, which fled by road and fields south as hard
as most could run. Arms and ammunition and baggage were cast
aside wholesale. The Greek officers, as a rule, behaved worse
than the men, for they led the fleeing mob, and many of them
never stopped until they reached Pharsala or Vola. … The
whilom Greek army was a mob convinced that the Turkish cavalry
was upon their heels, though it never was near them. It gave
them the strength of despair, and so they covered afoot fifty
to sixty miles within twenty-four hours. The inhabitants of
Larissa and all the surrounding country, terrified at the
sudden calamity, were left by the military and civic
authorities, without hint or warning, to shift for themselves.
… The women and children of Larissa had to carry what they
wished to save upon their own backs. Thousands of these
helpless creatures, together with sick and wounded soldiers,
were left around the railway station, whilst officers rode off
upon the early or later special trains, to fly, as some of
them did, as far as Athens. The troops had gone hours before I
left Larissa, and even then there were no signs of the enemy
to be seen."

Bennet Burleigh,
The Greek War, as I saw it
(Fortnightly Review, July, 1897).
"Not until several hours after the departure of the last
Greek, did a few Turkish cavalrymen cautiously enter the town
[Larissa], some distance ahead of the Turkish army. … It was
the design of the Greeks to save Volo, a wealthy town, and the
haven of refuge of many of the peasants. Accordingly, a line
was formed from two miles beyond Pharsala to the pass which
was the doorway to Volo. About three miles from this pass was
the village of Velestino; and on the hills back of it were the
headquarters of Colonel Smollenske, commander of this, the
right wing of the Greek army. The Greek fleet, with decks
cleared for action, was in the Bay of Volo; having gone there
after the defeat of Mati, hoping that, in case the army
failed, its heavy guns would protect the town. After four
days, the Turks, having digested their victory with cigarettes
and coffee, were ready to renew fighting. Meanwhile, the Greeks
had put themselves in a sort of order. Evidently, the first
intention of the Turks was to force their way through
Smollenske's line and on to Volo. Accordingly, they attempted
to storm Smollenske's rifle-pits; but they were driven back
for the first time, and with the greatest loss that any such
movement had yet encountered in the campaign. … The Turks,
after a slight resistance, withdrew from the villages in front
of Velestino, which they had taken, and were soon moving over
to the left. Their plan of cutting the Greek line in two was
executed with energy. On the morning of May 7, Edhem Pasha
sent his fearless infantry, under heavy fire, up the hollows
between the mountain-ridges which ran at right angles to the
Turkish line across the plain. They intrepidly scaled the
ridges, and forced the Greeks from the position. Smollenske's
force was flanked and separated from the Crown Prince's force:
and he retreated in an orderly manner to Almyro. The Crown
Prince's force had been flanked on its left; at the same time
it was being flanked on its right by the force that had
flanked Smollenske. The Crown Prince, therefore, withdrew to
the heights of Domoko.
"So apparent was now the hopelessness of the Greek cause that
even the new ministry, which had been buoyed up into almost an
aggressive spirit by the 'victory' of Velestino, begged for
the intervention of the Powers. It was granted in the form of
a demand on the Sultan for an armistice. As there are six
Powers, each having a formal foreign office, this took some
time. The Sultan, as usual, was more deliberate than the six
tormentors, whom he in return tormented. Being truly Greek,
the Greek Cabinet seemed to believe that articles of peace
would be signed the moment the necessity of peace appealed to
the ministerial mind. … Two days after Pharsala, the Turkish
army appeared on the plain some ten miles from Domoko. There
it rested quietly for more than a week, leisurely celebrating
the important feast of Bairam. This confirmed the belief of
the Greek generals that the war was at an end. The morning of
May 17 found the Crown Prince's force more than ever convinced
of an armistice, and quite unprepared for an attack. At nine
o'clock the whole Turkish army began to advance upon the
astounded Greeks—most astounded of them all were the Crown
Prince and General Macris—in such a manner as to leave no
doubt as to its intention.

"The battle of Domoko which followed was the most sanguinary

of the campaign. … For three hours, that is, until
sundown,—the attack having begun at four o'clock,—the Greeks
steadily returned the hot fire of the Turks, who soon ceased
to advance, and doggedly hung on to the ground that they had
gained. … During this attack in front the Turks were making a
more important movement, strategically, on the right. … With
amazing intrepidity, during the hot action on the centre, the
Turks had fought their way over the mountains at the Greeks'
far right. Some reserves were sent around at sunset—but too
late. The Turkish left wing was already even with the town of
Domoko. Military experts maintain that the Crown Prince, by
readjusting his forces over night, could have given the
phlegmatic enemy a surprise in the morning, and held him in
check for several days. The retreat over the pass to Lamia
 began at ten o'clock in the evening; and the next morning the
battalions covering the retreat were under heavy fire. The
Greeks' next stand was to be at Thermopylæ. Should the Turks
advance spiritedly, Smollenske's army would be cut off from
that of the Crown Prince, and forced to surrender. But the
Sultan, being somewhat appeased by more blood-letting, now
bowed before a letter from him whom the Greeks called 'a vile
enemy,'—the Czar,—who, for this act, saw his influence at
Constantinople supplanted by that of Germany, though the fear
of Russia was undiminished. At last the armistice came,—none
too soon for the demoralized army of Greece. The war had
lasted just thirty-one days."

F. Palmer,
How the Greeks were defeated
(Forum, November, 1897).

{549}

The preliminary treaty of peace, signed September 18, required

Greece to pay to Turkey a war indemnity of nearly eighteen
millions of dollars, arrangements for securing the payment of
which were to be controlled by an international commission
composed of one representative of each of the mediating
Powers. The same Powers were likewise to settle with Turkey a
rectification of the Greek frontier. Greece, in fact, was
helplessly in their hands.

TURKEY: A. D. 1897-1899.
Prolonged anarchy in Crete.
The inharmonious "Concert of Europe."
Final departure of Turkish troops and
officials from the island.
Organization of government under Prince George of Greece.

"The autonomous regime promised to this unfortunate island—the

Cuba of Europe—is still [at the end of 1897] apparently far
from realization. In the meantime a most distressing
condition; amounting to practical anarchy, prevails everywhere
except at some ports where the international gendarmerie
maintain a fair semblance of order. So completely have the
houses and property of the Mahometan population been destroyed
by the insurgents that the coming of winter has brought no
prospect to the former but one of desolation and famine.
Considerable pillaging of Christian houses by Mahometan
refugees was also reported from Candia, Kydonia, and other
points. In Candia the Turkish gendarmerie—recruited from the
worst class of Bashi-Bazouks—have proved worse than useless
for keeping order; they connive with the marauders and share
in the pillage. The British occupation is said to be only
nominal. …

"A strange satire upon the concert of Europe and the pretenses
of Western civilization was the circular letter addressed by
the Sultan to the powers, about mid-October, urging upon them
'in firm language' the necessity of promptness in restoring
tranquillity to the disordered island, and warning them of the
dangers of procrastination in this matter. … To accomplish the
pacification of Crete, the Sultan, in the letter referred to,
suggested that the entire population, Christian and Mahometan,
should be disarmed; that the disarmament should be carried out
by Ottoman troops; that the international troops should
co-operate in the work if the powers so desired; that the
entire force should be commanded by a European general in the
Turkish service; that an Ottoman garrison should be
permanently maintained; that the governor should be a
Christian and an Ottoman subject; and that a corps of
gendarmerie should be formed. … Toward the end of October it
was announced that the powers had finally chosen for the post
of governor-general of Crete Colonel Charles Schaeffer, a
native of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, and a man of extended
experience in the Turkish and Egyptian services, … related to
several of the principal houses of the aristocracy at St.
Petersburg, as well as to some of the most influential