Understanding Food 6Th Edition Amy C Brown All Chapter

Understanding Food 6th Edition Amy C.
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Understanding
Food Principles
and
Preparation
SIXTH EDITION
Amy C. Brown
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Preparation, Sixth Edition
Amy C. Brown Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
Brief Contents
PART I FOOD SCIENCE 18 Starches and Sauces 369
AND NUTRITION 19 Quick Breads 385

20 Yeast Breads 395
1 Food Selection 1
2 Food Evaluation 20 DESSERTS—REFINED
3 Chemistry of Food Composition 27 CARBOHYDRATES & FAT
PART II FOOD SERVICE 21 Sweeteners 411
22 Fats and Oils 428
4 Food Safety 61
23 Cakes and Cookies 453
5 Food Preparation Basics 91
24 Pastries and Pies 471
6 Meal Management 113
25 Candy 489
PART III FOODS 26 Frozen Desserts 505
PROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY,
FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS WATER—BEVERAGES
27 Beverages 518
7 Meat 131
8 Poultry 163
PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY
9 Fish and Shellfish 177
28 Food Preservation 541
10 Milk 197
29 Government Food Regulations 555
11 Cheese 218
30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 570
12 Eggs 236
PHYTOCHEMICALS— APPENDIXES
VEGETABLES, FRUITS, A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
SOUPS, & SALADS B Food Yields B-1
C Substitution of Ingredients C-1
13 Vegetables and Legumes 256
D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
14 Fruits 284
E Common Food Additives E-1
15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 310
F Answers to Multiple-Choice
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES— Questions F-1
CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS
GLOSSARY G-1
16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 326
INDEX I-1
17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 346
iii
Contents
Preface xxiv Geography and Climate 12
About the Author xxvii Cultural Influences on Manners 12
Religious Criteria 12
Buddhism 12
PART I FOOD SCIENCE Hinduism 12
Seventh-Day Adventist Church 12
AND NUTRITION Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
(Mormon Church) 12
Chapter 1 Food Selection 1 Judaism 13
Sensory Criteria 1 Islam 13
Sight 1 Psychological and Sociological
Odor 2 Criteria 14
Classification of Odors 2 Bioengineering 14
Detecting Odors 2 History of Biotechnology 14
Taste 3 Foods Created with Biotechnology 14
Mechanism of Taste 3 Concerns about GMO Foods 15
The Six Taste Stimuli 3 Acceptance/Rejection of GM Foods 16
Taste Interactions 4 Organic Foods 16
Factors Affecting Taste 4 Organic Certification 16
Definition of Flavor 4 “Natural” Foods 17
Touch 4 Processed Foods 17
Hearing 6
Budgetary Criteria 17
Nutritional Criteria 6
Weight Management 6
Chapter 2 Food Evaluation 20
Dietary Guidelines for Americans 6
ChooseMyPlate 6 Sensory (Subjective) Evaluation 20
SuperTracker 8 Two Types of Sensory Testing 20
Previous Food Group Plans 8 Analytical (Effective) Tests 22
Vegetarianism 8 Affective (Acceptance or Preference)
Consumer Dietary Changes 9 Tests 22
Kcalories on Menus 9 Taste Panels 22
Complementary and Integrative Sample Preparation 23
Medicine 9
Objective Evaluation 23
Functional Foods 10
Physical Tests 23
Nutrigenomics 11
Chemical Tests 24
Cultural Criteria 11 Electronic Noses 25
Ethnic Influences 11 Comparison of Sensory and Objective
Place of Birth 11 Evaluations 25
iv
Chapter 3 Chemistry of Food Fatty Acid Structure 43
Composition 27 Fatty Acids in Foods 44
Fatty Acid Nomenclature 45
Basic Food Chemistry: The Six Key Phospholipids 45
Atoms (CHNOPS) 27 Food Industry Uses 45
Water 28 Sterols 45
Water Content in Foods 29 Plant Sterols 45
Composition of Water 29 Functions of Lipids in Foods 47
Measuring Heat Energy 30 Proteins 47
Specific Heat 30 Protein Quality in Foods 47
Freezing Point 30 Composition of Proteins 47
Melting Point 31 Amino Acids 48
Boiling Point 31 Functions of Proteins in Food 49
Elevation and Boiling Point 31 Hydration 49
Hard vs. Soft Water 31 Denaturation/Coagulation 49
Functions of Water in Food 31 Enzymatic Reactions 49
Heat Transfer: Moist-Heat Cooking Methods 32 Buffering 51
Solvent 32 Browning 51
Dispersions 32
Solutions 33 Vitamins and Minerals 52
Colloidal Dispersions 33 Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 52
Coarse Dispersions (Suspensions) 34 Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 53
Dispersion Destabilization 34 Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in
Chemical Reactions 34 Food 53
Ionization 34 Enrichment and Fortification 53
Changes in pH—Acids and Bases 34 Antioxidants and Their Food Industry
Salt Formation 35 Uses 53
Hydrolysis 35 Sodium and Its Food Industry Uses 53
Carbon Dioxide Release 35 Nonnutritive Food Components 53
Food Preservation 35 Food Additives 54
Water Activity 35 Purposes of Food Additives 54
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 36 Additives that Improve Appeal 54
Additives that Extend Storage Life 56
Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Maximize Performance 56
Foods High in Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Protect Nutrient Value 57
Composition of Carbohydrates 36 Plant Compounds 57
Monosaccharides 37 Beneficial 57
Disaccharides 38 Harmful 57
Oligosaccharides 38 Caffeine 57
Polysaccharides 38
Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 43
Lipids (Fats) 43 PART II FOOD SERVICE
Foods High in Lipids 43
Composition of Lipids 43
Chapter 4 Food Safety 61
Triglycerides 43 What is a Foodborne Illness? 62
Fatty Acids 43 What Causes Foodborne Illness? 62
Biological Hazards—Living Labeling of Common Food Allergens 73
Culprits 62 Cross-Contamination 73
Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne
Preventing Foodborne Illness 74
Illness 63
Prevention Factors Overview 74
Food Infections 63
Personnel 74
Food Intoxication 64
Training 74
Toxin-Mediated Infection 64
Personal Hygiene Habits 74
Bacterial Food Infections 65 Food Flow 75
Salmonella 65 Purchasing: Written Specifications 75
Listeria monocytogenes 65 Inspection 76
Yersinia enterocolitica 65 Storage 76
Shigella 66 Temperature 76
Proper Refrigerator and Freezer Use 77
Bacterial Food Intoxications 66
Storage Times 77
Clostridium perfringens 66
Vulnerable Foods 78
Staphylococcus aureus 66
High-Risk Foods 78
Clostridium botulinum 66
Foods with High Water Activity 78
Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 66 Foods with Low Acidity 78
Escherichia coli 67 Exceptions to the High-Protein/Water/pH
Campylobacter jejuni 68 Rules 79
Vibrio 68 Oxygen and Food 79
Hepatitis A Virus 68 Preparation 79
Molds 68 Pre-preparation 79
Viruses 68 Cooking (Heating) 80
Norovirus 69 Holding 80
Parasites 69
Proper Use of Thermometers 82
Roundworms 69
Types of Thermometers 82
Protozoa 69
Testing Temperatures 82
Prions—Mad Cow Disease 70
Care of Thermometers 83
New Virulent Biological Hazards 71
Calibration of Thermometers 83
Advanced Techniques for Detecting
Cooling 84
Contamination 71
Reheating 84
Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals Serving 84
in Food 71 Sanitation 84
Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/ Dishes 84
Shellfish 72 Scheduling 85
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning 72 Euipment 85
Histamine Food Poisoning 73 Facilities 85
Puffer Fish Poisoning 73 Pest Control 86
Red Tide 73 Food Safety Monitoring 86
Health Department Inspections 86
Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 73
HACCP 87
Food Allergy, Intolerance, and HARPC 88
Sensitivity 73 Foodborne Illness Surveillance 88
Allergic Reaction Prevention 73 World Health Organization 88
vi
Chapter 5 Food Preparation Basics 91 Sugar 102
Flour 103
Heating Foods 91 Other Ingredients and Substitutions 103
Moist-Heat Preparation 92
Approximating Food Requirements 103
Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 92 Mixing Techniques 104
Scalding 92
Baked Products 104
Poaching 92
Simmering 92 Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Stewing 92 Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Braising 92 Salt 104
Boiling 93 Salt Substitutes 106
Steaming 93 Pepper 106
Microwaving 93 Herbs and Spices 106
Dry-Heat Preparation 93 Flavor Enhancers 108
Oil Extracts 108
Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 94 Marinades 108
Baking 94
Rubs and Pastes 108
Rack Position 94
Breadings 109
Pan Color 94
Batters 109
Roasting 94
Condiments 110
Broiling 94
Adding Seasonings and Flavorings
Grilling 94
to Food 110
Barbecuing 94
How Much to Add? 110
Frying 95
When to Add? 110
Sautéing and Stir-Frying 95
Food Industry Uses 110
Pan-Broiling and Pan-Frying 95
Deep-Frying 95
Chapter 6 Meal Management 113
Types of Heat Transfer 95
Conduction 95 Food-Service Organization 113
Convection 96 Commercial Food-Service
Radiation 96 Organization 114
Induction 96 Escoffier’s System of Organization
Measuring Heat 96 via Stations 114
Administrative Positions 115
Cutlery Techniques 97 Hospital Food-Service Organization 115
Handling Knives 97
Cutting Styles 98 Types of Meal Planning 116
USDA Menu Patterns 116
Measuring Ingredients 101 Hospital Menu Patterns 117
Measuring Weight vs. Volume 101
Types of Menus 117
Using Scales 101
Cycle Menus 117
Metric vs. Nonmetric 101
Nutrition 118
Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 101
Using an Accurate Measuring Purchasing 118
Technique 101 Buyers 121
Liquids 101 Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 121
Eggs 102 Supermarkets 122
Fat 102 Warehouse Stores 122
vii
Co-ops 122 Connective Tissue 133
Smaller Outlets 122 Adipose (Fatty) Tissue 133
Food-Service Vendors 122 Bone 134
Cost Control 122 Antibiotics and Hormones 134
Meats 122 Pigments 136
Fish 122 Effect of Oxygen on Color 136
Dairy 122 Effect of Heat on Color 137
Bread/Grains 122 Extractives 137
Fruits and Vegetables 122
Purchasing Meats 137
Price Comparisons 122
Inspection 137
Reading Label Product Codes 123
Grading 139
Reducing Waste Saves Costs 123
Quality 139
As Purchased vs. Edible Portion 123
Yield 140
Percentage Yield 123
Tenderness of Meats 141
Portion Control 123
Natural Tenderizing 141
Time Management 124 Artificial Tenderizing 143
Estimating Time 124 Cuts of Meat 144
Efficient Meal Preparation 124 Terminology of Retail Cuts 144
Recipes 124 Beef Retail Cuts 144
Veal Retail Cuts 146
Types of Meal Service 125
Pork Retail Cuts 146
Russian Service 125
Lamb Retail Cuts 147
French Service 127
Variety Meats 147
English Service 127
Kosher Meats 149
American Service 127
Halal Meats 149
Family Service 127
Organic Meats 149
Buffet Service 127
Processed Meats 149
Table Settings 127 Processing Methods 149
Cover and Linens 127 Food Additives in Processed Meats 150
Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 127 Types of Processed Meat 152
Accessories 127 Mechanically Deboned Meat 152
Centerpieces 128 Restructured Meat 153
Preparation Of Meats 153
Changes during Heating 153
PART III FOODS Tenderness and Juiciness 153
Searing 153
Chapter 7 Meat 131 Flavor Changes 154
Flavor Enhancements 154
Types Of Meats 131
Determining Doneness 154
Beef 131
Internal Temperature 154
Veal 132
Time/Weight Charts 155
Lamb and Mutton 132
Color Changes 155
Pork 132
Touch 156
Composition of Meats 132 Dry-Heat Preparation 156
Structure of Meat 132 Roasting 156
Muscle Tissue 132 Broiling and Grilling 156
viii
Pan-Broiling 157 Stewing 173
Frying 157 Poaching 173
Deep-Frying 158 Microwaving 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 158
Storage of Poultry 174
Braising 158
Refrigerated 174
Simmering or Stewing 158
Frozen 174
Steaming 159
Microwaving 159
Chapter 9 Fish and Shellfish 177
Carving 159
Classification of Fish and Shellfish 177
Storage of Meats 159 Vertebrate or Invertebrate 177
Refrigerated 159
Vertebrates 178
Wrapping Meat 159
Invertebrates 178
Refrigeration Times 159
Saltwater or Freshwater 178
Packaging 160
Lean or Fat 178
Frozen 160
Composition of Fish 178
Chapter 8 Poultry 163 Structure of Finfish 178
Collagen 179
Classification of Poultry 163
Amino Acid Content 179
Composition of Poultry 163 Muscle Structure 179
Pigments 179
Purchasing Poultry 163
Inspection 163 Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 180
Grading 165 Inspection/Grading 181
Types and Styles of Poultry 165 Shellfish Certification 181
Processed Poultry 165 Selection of Finfish 181
Labeling 166 Fresh and Frozen Fish 181
Standardized Poultry Buying 166 Canned Fish 184
How Much to Buy 167 Cured Fish 185
Fabricated Fish 185
Preparation of Poultry 168
Caviar 186
Preparation Safety Tips 168
Selection of Shellfish 186
Thawing Frozen Poultry 168
Purchasing Live Shellfish 186
Stuffing 168
Purchasing Processed Shellfish 187
Brining 168
Shucking Shellfish 187
Changes during Preparation 169
Oysters 187
Clams 188
Internal Temperature 170
Scallops 188
Color Change 170
Mussels 188
Touch 170
Abalone 188
Time/Weight Charts 170
Lobsters 188
Dry-Heat Preparation 170
Shrimp 189
Roasting or Baking 170
Crab 189
Broiling or Grilling 172
Crayfish 190
Frying 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 173 Preparation of Fish and Shellfish 190
Braising 173 Dry-Heat Preparation 190
ix
Baking 190 Reduced-Fat and Low-Fat Milks 204
Broiling 191 Fat-Free or Nonfat Milk 204
Grilling 191 Fresh Fluid Milks from Other Animals 204
Frying 191 Flavored Fluid Milks 204
Moist-Heat Preparation 191 Chocolate Milk 205
Poaching 191 Eggnog 205
Simmering 192 Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 205
Steaming 192 Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 205
Microwaving 192 Imitation Milk 206
Raw Fish Preparation 193 Filled Milk 206
Sashimi 193 Low-Sodium Milk 206
Sushi 193 Reduced-Lactose Milk 206
Ceviche 193 Plant-Based “Milks” 206
Food Safety Concerns 193 Soy Milk 206
Rice Milk 206
Storage of Fish and Shellfish 193
Almond Milk 206
Fresh Finfish 194
Nut Milks 207
Refrigerated 194
Hemp Milk 207
Spoilage Factors 194
Grain Milk 207
Storing Caviar 194
Coconut Milk 207
Fresh Shellfish 194
Canned Fluid Milks 207
Frozen 194
Whole Milk 207
Thawing 194
Evaporated Milk 207
Canned and Cured 194
Sweetened Condensed Milk 208
Dry Milk 208
Chapter 10 Milk 197
Nonfat Dry Milk 208
Functions of Milk in Foods 198 Instant Milk 208
Cultured Milk Products 208
Composition of Milk 198
Cultures Added to Milk 208
Nutrients 198
Buttermilk 209
Carbohydrate 198
Yogurt 210
Protein 199
Functional Foods—Probiotics 211
Fat 199
Acidophilus Milk 211
Vitamins 200
Kefir 211
Minerals 200
Sour Cream 211
Color Compounds 200
Creams and Substitutes 212
Food Additives 201
Cream 212
Purchasing Milk 202 Cream Substitutes 212
Grades 202
Milk Products in Food Preparation 212
Pasteurization 202
Flavor Changes 212
Ultrapasteurization 202
Coagulation and Precipitation 212
Ultrahigh-Temperature Processing 202
Heat 212
Homogenization 203
Acid 212
Types of Milk 204 Enzymes 213
Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 204 Salts 213
Whole Milk 204 Whipped Milk Products 213
Whipped Cream 213 Storage of Cheese 232
Whipped Evaporated Milk 214 Dry Storage 232
Whipped Reconstituted Nonfat Dry Refrigeration 232
Milk 215 Frozen 233
Storage of Milk Products 215 Chapter 12 Eggs 236
Refrigerated 215
Dry Storage 215 Composition of Eggs 236
Yolk 236
Chapter 11 Cheese 218 Albumen 237
Shell Membranes 237
Classification of Cheeses 218 Air Cell 237
Place of Origin 219 Shell 238
Moisture Content 219
Purchasing Eggs 238
Cheese Production 219 Inspection 238
Milk Selection 221 Eggs Failing USDA Inspection 238
Coagulation 221 Grading 238
Enzyme Coagulation 221 Grading Methods 238
Acid Coagulation 223 Sizing 240
Curd Treatment 223 Egg Substitutes 240
Curing and Ripening 224 Value-Added Eggs 240
Whey and Whey Products 226
Types of Eggs 241
Whey Cheeses 228
Dry Whey 228 Functions of Eggs in Foods 241
Modified Whey Products 228 Emulsifying 241
Process (Processed) Cheeses 228 Binding 241
Process Cheese 228 Foaming 241
Cold-Pack Cheese 228 Beating Technique 243
Process Cheese Food 229 Temperature 243
Process Cheese Spread 229 Bowl Selection 244
Imitation Cheese 229 Separation of Eggs 244
Tofu and Other Nondairy Cheeses 229 Additives 244
Food Additives in Cheese 229 Interfering 244
Clarifying 244
Purchasing Cheese 229 Color 244
Grading 229
Forms of Cheese 230 Preparation of Eggs 244
Changes in Prepared Eggs 245
Food Preparation with Cheese 230 Effects of Temperature and Time 245
Selecting a Cheese 230 Effects of Added Ingredients 245
Shreddability 230 Color Changes 245
Meltability 230 Dry-Heat Preparation 246
Oiling Off 231 Frying 246
Blistering 231 Baking 247
Browning 231 Moist-Heat Preparation 248
Stretchability 231 Hard or Soft “Boiling” 248
Temperatures 231 Coddling 249
Cutting Cheese 232 Poaching 249
xi
Custards 250 Corn 266
Microwaving 250 Cucumbers 266
Eggplant 267
Storage of Eggs 251
Exotic Vegetables 267
Refrigerator 251
Garlic 267
Whole Eggs 251
Ginger 268
Storage Eggs 251
Greens 268
Pasteurized Eggs 251
Leeks 268
Frozen 251
Lettuce 268
Dried 252
Mushrooms 268
Rehydrating Dried Eggs 252
Okra 269
Safety Tips 252
Onions 269
Purchase 253
Parsley 270
Preparation 253
Parsnips 270
Consumption 253
Peas 270
Storage 253
Peppers, Hot 270
Peppers, Sweet 270
Chapter 13 Vegetables and Potatoes 270
Legumes 256 Radishes 271
Classification of Vegetables 256 Rutabagas 271
Spinach 271
Composition of Vegetables 256 Sprouts 271
Structure of Plant Cells 256 Squash 272
Cell Wall 256 Sweet Potatoes 272
Storage Structures in Parenchyma Cells 257 Tomatoes 273
Intercellular Air Spaces 258 Turnips 273
Plant Pigments 258
Carotenoids 258 Legumes 273
Chlorophyll 258 Textured Vegetable Protein 274
Flavonoids 259 Meat Analogs 274
Plants as Functional Foods 259 Tofu 274
Additives 261 Fermented Soybean Foods 274
Purchasing Vegetables 263 Preparation of Vegetables 275

Grading Vegetables 263 General Guidelines 275
Selecting Vegetables 263 Changes During Heating 275
Artichoke 263 Texture 275
Asparagus 266 Flavor 275
Beans (Green Snap, Green, Wax, and Yellow Odor 276
Wax-Pod Beans) 266 Color 276
Beets 266 Nutrient Retention 277
Broccoli 266 Dry-Heat Preparation 277
Brussels Sprouts 266 Baking 277
Cabbage 266 Roasting 278
Carrots 266 Frying 278
Cauliflower 266 Moist-Heat Preparation 278
Celery 266 Simmering 278
xii
Steaming 278 Guavas 293
Braising 279 Kiwifruit 293
Microwaving 279 Kumquats 293
Preparing Legumes 279 Lemons 293
Preparing Sprouts 280 Limes 293
Growing Sprouts 280 Mandarins 293
Storing Sprouts 280 Mangoes 294
Melons 294
Storage of Vegetables 280
Nectarines 294
Refrigerated 281
Olives 295
Special Storage Requirements 281
Oranges 295
Maintaining Moisture 281
Papayas 296
Freezing 281
Peaches 296
Dry Storage 281
Pears 296
Storing Potatoes 281
Persimmons 296
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 281
Pineapple 296
Plums 297
Chapter 14 Fruits 284
Pomegranates 298
Classification of Fruits 284 Rhubarb 298
Classification Exceptions 285 Tangerines—see Mandarins 298
Tropical Fruits 298
Composition of Fruits 285
Superfruits 298
Organic Acids 285
Processed Fruits 299
Acidity of Fruits 285
Canned 299
Pectic Substances 285
Frozen 300
Use of Pectin by the Food Industry 286
Dried 300
Pectin Formation in Ripening Fruit 286
Fruit Juices 300
Pectic Substances and Juice
Fruit/Vegetable Juice Processing 300
Cloudiness 286
Phenolic Compounds 286
Preparation of Fruits 302
Phenolic Compounds and Enzymatic
Limiting Enzymatic Browning 302
Browning 286
Denaturing Enzymes 302
Fruits as Functional Foods 287
Reducing pH 302
Food Additives in Fruits 288
Lowering Temperature 302
Purchasing Fruits 289 Coating Fruits with Sugar or Water 302
Grading Fruit 289 Adding Antioxidants 302
Selecting Fruits 290 Changes during Ripening and
Apples 290 Heating 302
Apricots 290 Color 302
Avocados 290 Texture 303
Bananas 291 Flavor 304
Berries 291 Dry-Heat Preparation 304
Cherries 292 Baking 304
Dates 292 Broiling 304
Figs 292 Frying/Sautéing 304
Grapefruit 293 Moist-Heat Preparation 304
Grapes 293 Stewing/Poaching 304
xiii
Applesauce Preparation 305 Gelatins 321
Preparing Dried Fruit 305 What Is Gelatin? 321
Fruit Spreads 305 Is Gelatin Nutritious? 321
Types of Fruit Spreads 305 Preparation of a Gel 321
Ingredients 305 Phases of Gel Formation 321
Preparing Fruit Spreads 306 Phase 1—Hydration 321
Phase 2—Dispersion 321
Storage of Fruits 307
Phase 3—Gelation 322
Storing Fresh Fruit 307
Unmolding a Mold 322
Storing Canned Fruit 307
Factors Influencing Gel Formation 322
Olives 307
Gelatin Concentration 322
Chapter 15 Soups, Salads, Temperature 322
Added Ingredients 323
and Gelatins 310
Whipping 323
Soups 310 Storage of Gelatin 323
Types of Soups 310
Stocks 311 Chapter 16 Cereal Grains and
White and Brown Stocks 311 Pastas 326
Water: The Main Ingredient 311
Flavoring Ingredients 312 Composition of Cereal Grains 327
Meat Stocks 312 Structure 327
Poultry Stocks 312 Husk 327
Fish Stocks 312 Bran 327
Vegetable Stocks 313 Endosperm 327
Storage of Soup Stocks 313 Germ 328
Clear and Thin Soups 313 Food Additives in Grain Products 328
Bouillon 313
Uses Of Cereal Grains 329
Consommé 313
Flour 329
Thin Soups 313
Pasta 329
Thickened Soups 313
Breakfast Cereal 329
Cream Soups 314
Alcoholic Beverages 329
Salads 315 Animal Feeds 329
Salad Ingredients 316 General Types of Cereal Grains 329
Garnishes 316
Toasting Nuts 316 Cereal Grains Containing
Principles of Salad Preparation 316 Gluten 330
Leafy Green Salads 316 Wheat 330
Vegetable Salads 318 Classification of Wheat 330
Fruit Salads 318 Forms of Wheat 331
Protein Salads 319 Ancient Wheat Grains 331
Pasta/Grain Salads 319 Barley 331
Salad Dressings 319 Forms of Barley 331
Oil and Vinegar Dressings 320 Oats 332
Emulsified Dressings 320 Forms of Oats 332
Other Dressings 320 Rye 332
Adding Dressings to Salads 321 Triticale 333
xiv
Gluten-Free Cereal Grains 334 Baker’s Asthma 350
Amaranth 334 Wheat Allergy 350
Buckwheat 334 Celiac Disease 350
Chia Seeds 334 Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS) 350
Corn 334 What Does “Gluten-Free” Mean? 350
Classification of Corn 334 Milling 350
Forms of Corn 335 Five Steps of Milling 351
Indian Rice Grass 336 Wet Milling 352
Millet 336 Wheat Flour Classifications 352
Quinoa 336 Percent Protein Content 352
Rice 336 Mineral Content 352
Classification of Rice 336 Types of Wheat Flour 352
Forms of Rice 337 Whole-Wheat Flour 352
Sorghum 337 Bread Flour 352
Teff 337 White Flour 353
Graham Flour 353
Preparation of Cereal Grains 338
Ancient Grain Flours 353
Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/
High-Gluten Flour 353
Simmering 338
Types of Nonwheat Grain Flours
Preparation 338
Containing Gluten 354
Cooking the Grain 338
Rye Flour 354
Triticale Flour 354
Standing Time 339
Types of Gluten-Free Grain Flours 354
Sautéing and Baking 339
Amaranth 354
Microwaving 339
Buckwheat Flour 354
Storage of Cereal Grains 339 Cornmeal Flour 354
Dry 339 Rice Flour 355
Refrigerated 340 Sorghum Flour 355
Frozen 340 Gluten-Free Flour 355
Pastas 340 Types of Nongrain, Gluten-Free
Types of Pasta 340 Flours 355
Tuber-Based: Potato Flour 355
Preparation of Pasta 341 Legume-Based 355
Moist-Heat Preparation 341 Nut-Based 355
Microwaving 342 Treated Wheat Flours 355
Storage of Pasta 342 Aged Flour 355
Bleached Flour 355
Chapter 17 Flours and Flour Phosphated Flour 355
Mixtures 346 Self-Rising Flour 356
Instant or Agglomerated Flour 356
FLOURS 347
Enriched Flour 356
Starch 347
Gluten 347 Flour Mixture Ingredients 356
Purpose of Gluten 347 Leavening Agents 356
Steps to Gluten Formation 348 Air and Steam 356
Dried Gluten 349 Yeast 356
Cereal-Grain Food Sensitivities 350 Bacteria 358
xv
Baking Soda 358 Edible Films 370
Potassium Bicarbonate 359 Dextrose 370
Baking Powder 359 Starch Syrups 371
Too Much/Too Little Leavening 360 Starch Structure 371
Too Much/Too Little Flour 360
Starch Transformations 372
Sugar 360
Gelatinization 372
Functions of Sugar 360
Factors Influencing Gelatinization 372
Types of Sugar 360
Gel Formation 373
Too Much/Too Little Sugar 360
Retrogradation 374
Salt 361
Dextrinization 374
Salt Controls Yeast Growth 361
Instant or Pregelatinized Starches 375
Too Much/Too Little Salt 361
Resistant Starches (RS) 375
Flavorings 361
RS4 Modified (Chemically) Starches 375
Liquid 361
Milk 361 Sauces 376
Too Much/Too Little Liquid 361 Functions of Sauces in Foods 376
Fat 361 Types of Sauces 376
Functions of Fat 362 Mother Sauces 376
Types of Fat Used in Baked Goods 362 Small Sauces 376
Temperature of Fat 363 Preparation of Thickened Sauces 377
Lower-Fat Alternatives 363 Ingredients of Thickened Sauces 377
Too Much/Too Little Fat 363 Preparing Thickeners 378
Eggs 363 Preparing a Sauce from a Roux 379
Too Much/Too Little Egg 363 Preventing Lumps 379
Commercial Additives 363 Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 380
Aging or Maturing Agents 363 Gravy 380
Dough Conditioners 363 Hollandaise Sauce 381
Food Additives in Flours 364 Barbecue Sauce 381
Butter Sauce 381
Preparation of Baked Goods 365
Fruit Sauce 381
Doughs and Batters 365
Tartar Sauce 381
Doughs 365
Tomato Sauce 382
Batters 365
Changes during Heating 365 Storage of Starches And Sauces 382
High-Altitude Adjustments 366
Chapter 19 Quick Breads 385
Storage of Flour And Flour
Mixtures 366 Preparation of Quick Breads 385
Dry Storage 366 The Muffin Method 386
Frozen 366 Additives Used in Quick Breads 386
Varieties of Quick Breads 386
Chapter 18 Starches and Sauces 369
Pour Batters 386
Starch Characteristics 369 Pancakes 386
Sources of Starch 369 Crêpes 386
Cornstarch 370 Waffles 387
Starch in Food Products 370 Popovers 387
Thickening Agent 370 Drop Batters 387
xvi
Muffins 388 English Muffins 407
Muffin Breads 389 Pizza Crust 408
Coffee Cakes 390 Pretzels and Bread Sticks 408
Dumplings 390 Raised Doughnuts 408
Doughs 390
Storage of Yeast Breads 408
Unleavened Breads 390
Fresh 408
Biscuits 391
Staling 408
Scones 392
Preventing Staling 408
Crackers 392
Fresh Bread Additives 408
Refrigerated 408
Chapter 20 Yeast Breads 395
Frozen 408
Preparation of Yeast Breads 395
Ingredients 395 Chapter 21 Sweeteners 411
Food Additives in Baked Products 396
Natural Sweeteners 412
Mixing Methods 397
Sugars 413
Straight Dough Method 398
Sucrose 413
Sponge Method 398
Lactose 414
Batter Method 398
Maltose 414
Rapid Mix 398
Glucose 415
Kneading 398
Fructose 415
Proofing: Fermentation Causes the Dough
Syrups 415
to Rise 399
Corn Syrup 415
Changes during Fermentation 400
High-Fructose Corn Syrup 416
Optimal Fermentation Conditions 400
Honey 416
Avoid Overfermentation 400
Molasses 417
Punching Down and Second Proofing 401
Maple Syrup 417
Shaping 401
Agave Syrup 418
Selecting a Baking Pan 402
Invert Sugar 418
Decorating 402
Sugar Alcohols 418
Baking 402
Sugar Alcohols in Foods 418
Changes during Baking 402
Problems with Sugar Alcohols 419
Crumb Development 403
Problems with Texture 403 Nonnutritive Sweeteners 419
Testing for Doneness 403 Use in Foods and Beverages 419
Microwave Preparation 404 Safety 419
High-Altitude Adjustments 405 Food Functions 421
Saccharin 421
Types of Yeast Breads 405
Aspartame 421
Loaf Breads 405
Acesulfame-K 421
Wheat (White) Bread 405
Sucralose 421
Whole-Wheat Bread 406
Neotame 422
Sourdough Bread 406
Stevia and Its Derivatives 422
Malt Breads 406
Luo Han Guo 422
Specialty Breads 406
Other Nonnutritive Sweeteners 423
Rolls 406
Pita Bread 406 Functions of Sugars In Foods 423
Bagels 407 Sweetness 423
xvii
Solubility 424 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 441
Crystallization 424 Protein-Based Fat Replacers 441
Browning Reactions 424 Lipid-Based Fat Replacers 441
Caramelization 425 Food Preparation with Fats 443
Moisture Absorption (Hygroscopicity) 425 Selection and Care of Frying Fats 443
Texture 425 Fats Suitable for Frying 443
Fermentation 425 Smoke Point 443
Preservation 425 Flash Point and Fire Point 443
Leavening 425 Controlling the Temperature of Frying Fats 444
Other Uses 425 Recommended Equipment 444
Optimal Frying Conditions 444
Chapter 22 Fats and Oils 428
Lower-Fat Preparation Techniques 445
Functions of Fats In Food 429 Fats Preferred for Health 445
Heat Transfer 429 Reducing Fat by Healthy Methods 445
Shortening Power 429 Modifying Recipes to Reduce Fat 445
Emulsions 430 Pretreatments to Reduce Absorbed Oil 446
Emulsifiers 430
Storage of Fats 446
Stability of Emulsions 431
Rancidity 447
Melting Point 431
Types of Rancidity 447
Degree of Saturation 431
Flavor Reversion 448
Length of the Fatty Acids 432
Preventing Rancidity 448
Cis–Trans Configuration 432
Crystalline Structure 433 Chapter 23 Cakes and Cookies 453
Plasticity 433
Solubility 433 Types of Cakes 453
Flavor 433 Shortened Cakes 453
Texture 433 Bundt Cake 454
Appearance 433 Butter Cake 454
Satiety or Feeling Full 434 Carrot Cake 454
Cheesecake 454
Types of Fats 434 Ciambellone 454
Butter 434 Coffee Cake 454
Margarine 434 Cupcake 454
Composition of Margarine 434 Devil’s Food Cake 454
Types of Margarine 435 Fruitcake 454
Shortenings 436 German Chocolate Cake 454
Oils 436 Ice Cream 455
Oil Production 437 Mooncake 455
Types of Oils 439 Muffin 455
Winterized Oils 440 Pound Cake 455
Hydrogenated Oils 440 Upside-Down Cake 455
Lard/Tallow/Suet 441 Unshortened Cakes 455
Interesterification 441 Angel Food Cake 455
Cocoa Butter 441 Boston Cream Pie 455
Fat Replacers 441 Dacquoise (da-kwoz) 455
Types of Fat Replacers 441 Génoise (zh-eh-nwoz) 455
Composition of Fat Replacers 441 Meringue (mer-rang) 455
xviii
Petit Four 455 Cialde (chee-al-day) 465
Roulade (roo-lahd) 455 Florentines 465
Tiramisu (teer-a-me-sue) 455 Fortune Cookies 465
Chiffon Cakes 456 Macarons 465
Macaroons 465
Preparation of Cakes 456 Madeleines 465
Ingredients 456 Meringues 465
Flour 456 Wafers 465
Sugar 456 Pressed Cookies 466
Fats 457 Ladyfingers 466
Eggs 457 Russian Tea Cookies (Mexican Wedding
Milk 457 Cakes) 466
Leavening Agent 457 Molded Cookies 466
Additional Ingredients 457 Almond Cookies 466
Other Factors 458 Biscotti di Prato 466
Preparing Shortened Cakes 458 Peanut Butter Cookies 466
Selection and Preparation of Pans 458 Rolled Cookies 466
Temperature/Timing 459 Butter Cookies 466
Changes during Baking 459 Cannoli Shell 466
Testing for Doneness 460 Gingerbread 466
Cooling 460 Linzer Cookies 466
High-Altitude Adjustments 461 Mandelbrot 466
Microwave Preparation 461 Shortbread 466
Preparing Unshortened and Chiffon Sugar 466
Cakes 461 Icebox/Refrigerator Cookies 466
Angel Food Cake 461 Cookies as Functional Foods 466
Sponge Cake 462
Chiffon Cake 462 Preparation of Cookies 467
Selection and Preparation of Pans 462 Ingredients and Mixing Methods 467
Temperature/Timing 463 Food Additives in Cookies 467
Testing for Doneness 463 Baking Cookies 467
Selection and Preparation of Pans 467
Frostings/Icings 463 Temperature/Timing 468
Flat Frostings 463 Testing for Doneness 468
Decorating Frosting 463 High-Altitude Adjustments 468
Cooked Frosting 463 Microwave Preparation 468
Whipped Cream Frosting 463
Ganache 463 Storage of Cookies 468
Garnishes 464
Chapter 24 Pastries and Pies 471
Storage of Cakes 464
Types of Pastry 471
Types of Cookies 464 Pastry Classification 471
Bar Cookies 465 Nonlaminated Pastries 471
Brownies 465 Plain Pastry 471
Lemon Bars 465 Brioche Pastry 472
Dropped Cookies 465 Choux Pastry 472
Chocolate Chip Cookies 465 Laminated Pastries 473
xix
Puff Pastry 473 Preparation of Candy 490
Quick (Blitz) Pastry 473 Confectionery Preparation Overview 490
Phyllo (Filo) Pastry 473 Crystalline Candies 491
Croissant Pastry 473 Candies Start with a Syrup Solution 491
Danish Pastry 473 Heating the Syrup 491
Cooling and Beating 493
Preparation of Pastry 474 Types of Crystalline Candies 494
Ingredients of Pastry 474
Noncrystalline Candies 495
Flour 475
Concentrating the Sugar Solution 495
Fat 475
Interfering Agents 495
Liquid 476
Types of Noncrystalline Candies 495
Eggs 477
Food Additives in Candy 496
Salt 477
Sugar 477 Chocolate 496
Flavorings 477 Cacao Tree 496
Thickeners (for Fillings) 477 History 496
Mixing Methods 478 Chocolate Production 497
Plain (Pie) Pastry 478 Cocoa Beans Produce Chocolate Liquor 497
Puff Pastry 478 Chocolate Liquor 498
Rolling 479 Conching 498
Chilling the Dough 479 Tempering 498
Rolling Surface 480 Factors Affecting Tempering 499
General Technique 480 Types of Chocolate Products 501
Rolling Plain Pastry 480 Baking Chocolate 501
Rolling Puff Pastry 481 Cocoa 501
Fillings 483 Semisweet or Sweet Chocolate 501
Fruit Fillings 483 Milk Chocolate 501
Cream Fillings 483 Imitation Chocolate 501
Custard Fillings 483 White Chocolate 501
Chiffon Pies 484 Functional Chocolate 501
Meringue Pies 484 Storage of Candy 502
Pastry Fillings 484 Shelf Life of Chocolate 502
Toppings 484
Glazes 484 Chapter 26 Frozen Desserts 505
Crumb Toppings 484
Types of Frozen Desserts 505
Baking 485
Ice Cream 506
Pan Selection and Preparation 485
Ice Cream Ingredients 506
Temperature and Timing 485
Low-Fat Ice Cream 507
Testing for Doneness 485
Ice Cream as a Functional Food 507
Storage of Pastry 485 Imitation Ice Cream 507
Gelato 507
Frozen Yogurt 507
Chapter 25 Candy 489 Sherbet 507
Classification of Candies 489 Sorbet 508
Syrup Phase versus Fat Phase 489 Water Ices 508
Crystalline versus Noncrystalline Popsicles 508
(Amorphous) 490 Granitas and Granités 508
xx
Frappés 508 Roasting 524
Still-Frozen Desserts 508 Grinding 524
Decaffeination 524
Preparation of Frozen Desserts 508
Instant Coffee 524
Factors Affecting Quality 508
Composition of Coffee 524
Flavor 508
Volatile Compounds 524
Texture 508
Bitter Substances 525
Body 510
Methylxanthines 525
Mixing and Freezing 511
Types of Coffee 525
Ice Cream 511
Types of Beans 525
Frozen Yogurt 513
Types of Processing 525
Sherbet 513
Types of Ingredients 526
Sorbet 513
Preparation of Coffee 526
Water Ices 514
Coffee Freshness 526
Still-Frozen Desserts 514
Water-to-Coffee Ratio 526
Food Additives in Frozen Desserts 514
Water Type 526
Storage of Frozen Desserts 514 Water Temperature 526
Texture Changes 514 Brewing Time 526
Scooping Frozen Desserts 515 Brewing Equipment 527
Holding Time 527
Chapter 27 Beverages 518 Storage of Coffee 527
Water 518 Tea 528
Bottled Water 518 Tea Processing 528
Sources of Water 519 Withering 528
Water Treatment Methods 519 Rolling 528
Purified Water 519 Oxidizing 528
Deionized Water 519 Firing 528
Distilled Water 519 Types of Tea 528
Reverse Osmosis Water 519 Black Tea 528
Soft Drinks Marketed as “Water” 519 Green Tea 528
Carbonated Soft Drinks 520 Oolong Tea 528
Early Soft Drinks 520 White Teas 529
Soft Drink Processing 520 Flavored Teas 529
Soft Drink Health Concerns 520 Herbal Teas 529
Diet Soft Drinks 521 Specialty Teas 529
Food Additives in Soft Drinks 521 Grades of Tea 529
Composition of Tea 529
Functional Beverages 521 Health Benefits of Tea 529
Nutraceutical Beverages 521 Preparation of Tea 529
Nutraceutical Trends 522 Brewing Tea 530
Sports Beverages 522 Iced Tea 530
Smart Beverages 522 Instant Tea 530
Energy Beverages and Shots 523 Microwaving 530
Storage of Tea 530
Coffee 523
Coffee Processing 524 Dairy Beverages 530
Removing the Hull 524 Cocoa Beverages 530
xxi
Alcoholic Beverages 530 Foods Suitable for Freezing 546
Beer 531 Freezer Storage Times 546
Beer Production 531 Four Problems with Frozen Food 547
Classifications of Beer 532
Heat Preservation 544
Specialty Beers 532
Boiling 548
Serving Beer 532
Pasteurization 548
Storing Beer 532
High-Temperature Pasteurization 548
Wine 532
Sous-vide 548
Wine Production 533
Ohmic Heating 548
Evaluating Wines 533
Selecting a Wine 534 Other Preservation Methods 548
Food Additives in Wines 537 Irradiation (Cold Pasteurization) 548
Spirits 537 The Irradiation Process 549
Proof 537 Effects of Irradiation on Foods 549
Common Spirits 537 Irradiation Pros and Cons 550
Radio Frequency 551
Pulsed Light 551
PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY High-Pressure Processing 551
Ozonation 551
Chapter 28 Food Preservation 540 Aseptic Packaging 552
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 552
Food Spoilage 540 Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) 552
Biological Changes 540 Vacuum Packaging 552
Chemical Changes 541
Physical Changes 541 Nutrient Retention 552
Food Preservation Methods 542 Chapter 29 Government Food
Drying 542 Regulations 555
Sun-Drying 542
Commercial Drying 542 Federal Food Laws 555
Curing 543 Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) 556
Smoking Cured Meats 543 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Fermentation 544 (1938) 556
Pickling 544 Numerous Government Agencies 556
Weak Organic Acids 544 Food And Drug Administration 557
Edible Coatings 545 Research/Education 557
Composition of Edible Coatings 545 The Code of Federal Regulations 557
Commonly Coated Foods 545 FDA Inspections 557
Micro-encapsulation 545 FDA Enforcement of Its Laws 557
Canning 545 Allowable Contaminants 558
Preparing Food for Canning 545 FDA Standards 558
Two Methods of Canning 546 Standards of Identity 558
Cold Preservation 546 Standards of Minimum Quality 558
Refrigeration 546 Standards of Fill 559
Refrigerating Food 546 Food Labeling 559
Refrigeration Temperatures and Times 546 Nutrition Facts Label 559
Freezing 546 Food Labeling Exemptions 560
xxii
Food Allergen Labeling 560 Types of Registered Dietitian
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 561 Nutritionists 575
FDA-Allowed Claims on Labels 561 Dietetic Technician, Registered (DTR) 576
Dietary Supplements 562 Dietary Clerk or Dietary Aide 577
Food Additives 563
Food Science 577
Safety of Food Additives 563
Food Scientist 577
Ingredients Not Defined as Additives 563
Academic Requirements 577
The Delaney Clause 563
Types of Food Scientists 578
The Bioterrorism Preparedness Act 563
Food Science Technician 579
U.S. Department of Agriculture 564
Food Service 579
USDA Inspections 564
Academic Preparation for Culinary
USDA Grading 565
Arts 579
Quantity Grades or Yields 565
Types of Food-Service Positions 579
Quality Grades 565
Chef 580
Product Labeling 565
Food-Service Manager 580
Irradiated Foods 565
Sales and Marketing 580
Organic Foods 565
Dietary Manager 580
Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) 565
Food-Service Certifications 580
Environmental Protection Agency 566
Graduate School 580
Centers for Disease Control and Prerequisites 580
Prevention 566 Academic Requirements 581
Examination Requirements 581
Other Regulatory Agencies 567
Professional Schools 582
U.S. Department of Commerce 567
Graduate-Degree Jobs 582
Federal Trade Commission 567
Researcher 582
Department of the Treasury 567
Professor 582
State Agencies 567
Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical
International Agencies 567 Industries 583
The Food and Agriculture
Organization 567 APPENDIXES
The World Health Organization 567
A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
European Regulation 567
B Food Yields B-1
Chapter 30 Careers in Food C Substitution of Ingredients C-1

and Nutrition 570 D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
Three Major Food and Nutrition E Common Food Additives E-1

Areas 570 F Answers to Multiple-Choice
Nutrition Science and Dietetics 571 Questions F-1

Nutrition Science 572
Nutritionist 572 GLOSSARY G-1
Dietetics 572 INDEX I-1
Registered Dietitian Nutritionist (RDN) 572
xxiii
Preface
Comprehensive is the word that food industry, so students really get a essential vocabulary in each chap-
describes Understanding Food: hands-on understanding of various ter. A glossary at the end of the
Principles and Preparation, the best- career opportunities. Extensive appen- book assembles all of the key terms
selling textbook in its field. It brings dixes provide additional key infor- in one place.
together the most current informa- mation, including approximate food ●● Functions of ingredients are high-
tion in food science, nutrition, and measurements, weights and measures, lighted in the introduction to each
food service. Founded on research storage temperatures, ingredient sub- chapter to aid students in successful
from more than thirty-five journals stitutions, flavorings and seasonings, food product development and food
covering these disciplines, the text and more. preparation. They introduce a focus
incorporates the very latest infor- of the food industry that is often
mation on food—its science and its missing in other books.
application. Understanding Food: ●● Food additive information has been
Principles and Preparation, 6th FEATURES incorporated throughout the book.
edition, provides students with a The unique features of this text allow
●● Problems and causes tables sum-
broad foundation to launch a career f lexibility in teaching and create a marize the problems that may
in any of these food-related fields. dynamic learning environment for occur when preparing specific food
students. products and describe the possible
causes, providing students with a
●● Career Corner features provide handy reference tool for decipher-
ORGANIZATION interviews with people working in ing “what went wrong.”
OF CONTENT the food and nutrition arena to help
students on their career path.
●● Chapter review questions help
students prepare for both their
Understanding Food: Principles and ●● How & Why inserts answer the class exams and the Academy of
Preparation is organized according questions most frequently asked by Nutrition and Dietetics registration
to the various food disciplines. Part students, sparking natural curiosity examination.
I represents information related to and exercising the mind’s ability to
food science and nutrition, such as answer. The dynamic world of food changes
food selection, sensory and physi- ●● Chemist’s Corner features provide rapidly as new research constantly adds
cal evaluation, and food chemistry. more advanced information on to its ever-expanding knowledge base.
Part II covers aspects of food service food chemistry for students and Understanding Food: Principles and
from food safety to food preparation instructors who want to explore Preparation, 6th edition, is designed
basics to meal management. Part III this topic further, allowing flex- to meet the needs of this evolving and
covers all of the standard food items ibility in the level of food chemistry expanding discipline and to provide
arranged into proteins (meat, poultry, presented within the individual students with a strong foundation in
fish, dairy, and eggs); phytochemicals course. any food-related discipline that they
(vegetables, fruits, soups, salads, and ●● Calorie Control teaches students select.
gelatins); complex carbohydrates (cere- how to identify food sources of
als, flour, and breads); refined carbo- kcalories, how many daily kcalo-
hydrates and fat (sweeteners, fats and ries are recommended, and how to NEW TO THIS EDITION
oils, cakes and cookies, pies and pas- practice portion control.
tries, candy, and frozen desserts); and ●● Nutrient Content boxes provide an Each chapter of Understanding Food
water (beverages) groupings. Part IV overview of the nutritional compo- has been revised to reflect updates in
relates to the food industry in terms sition of the foods. research, government guidelines, con-
of food preservation, government food ●● Pictorial Summaries are a proven sumer preferences, and food-service
regulations, and food careers. The last favorite with readers. These picto- practices since the publication of the
chapter, on food careers, is an invalu- rial chapter summaries use a com- prior edition. Specific additions and
able advisement session introducing bination of art and narrative text other enhancements for the sixth edi-
students to the many careers in food to encapsulate the key concepts in tion follow:
and nutrition. In addition, the Career each chapter for student review. ●● COLOR. This is the first time
Corner feature found in many chap- ●● Key terms, boldfaced in the text, Understanding Food: Principles and
ters spotlights individuals working are defined on the same page Preparation is published in color as
in various areas of the nutrition and to allow for quick review of the requested by many students.
xxiv
●● MINDTAP. Another first-time ●● Chapter 8 Poultry. The poultry include colorful drawings of cereals
feature, MindTap, is included classification table was upgraded on the stalk, Figure 16-7 illustrated
for online interactive textbook with pics and new information, and different kernel types, inserted
learning. salmonella amounts were modified researching showing oats decrease
●● Chapter 1 Food Selection. Added (¾ and not ¼). blood cholesterol and glucose,
the NEW information from the ●● Chapter 9 Fish & Shellfish. NEW updated cereal production figure,
2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines FDA mercury fish eating guidelines added chia seeds (popular new
for Americans, including were added along with sushi defini- food), clarified the addition of oil
MyPlate, updated statistics on tions and photos. to cooking pasta and improved the
diversity in the U.S. population, ●● Chapter 10 Milk. New definitions definition of “noodles” vs “Asian
added new definitions for oleo- were added for kefir, yogurt con- noodles.”
gustus, whole foods, processed sistency, coconut milk vs water was ●● Chapter 17 Flours & Flour
foods, natural foods, discussed clarified, camel milk was removed, Mixtures. Added Emmer (farro)
kcalorie requirements for res- Table 10-5 was corrected from 71.5 grain to types of flour, psue-
taurants, GMO crops, and food to 72 C, and a figure was added on do-grains were better defined,
phytochemicals. probiotic food. added folic acid to masa flour
●● Chapter 2 Food Evaluation. Added ●● Chapter 12 Eggs. Updates included recently approved by FDA,
new food analyzer photograph. egg consumption changing to 90 gluten-free definition by FDA
●● Chapter 3. Chemistry of Food to 80 billion eggs, FDA safe egg reached final approval, clarified
Composition. Added standard- handling tips, the number of whole difference between semolina and
ized numbering system for food eggs/whites/yolks per cup, along durum flour, percentages of pro-
additives. with new color figures to clarify tein in text matched Table 17-1,
●● Chapter 4 Food Safety. Added information. and added Registered Trademark
how HACCP was replaced by ●● Chapter 11 Cheese. Added two to kamut.
HARPC, the WHO (FERG) – official government sources of ●● Chapter 18 Starches. Clearer pho-
Foodborne disease burden epide- cheese classification, a beautiful tographs on making a reduction
miological reference group, how graphic of commercial cheese were added.
Norovirus is #1 with Salmonella production, additional methods of ●● Chapter19 Quick Breads. Added
close behind, defined Integrated inhibiting mold formation, yeast NEW table explaining different
Pest Management (IPM) Program, as a contributor to ripening, and types of flatbreads.
added gluten as a possible quark cheese, common in Europe, ●● Chapter 21 Sweeteners. Updated
problem. to soft cheeses. Appendix E was NEWLY FDA approved Advantame
●● Chapter 5 Food Preparation moved to Table 11-1 showing sweetener, and improved the sugar
Basics. Added menu calorie origins of cheeses. Camel was alcohol table.
requirements, mixing method removed as a source of cheese in ●● Chapter 22 Fats & Oils. Improved
table, photos of culinary herbs, Iran. chemistry by adding NEW chem-
induction cook top option, addi- ●● Chapter 13 Vegetables & Legumes. istry figures describing fatty acid
tional cutting styles (Batonnet, Removed vitamin D as antioxidant, saturation and length, acrolein,
chiffonade, chop, pariseinnes), updated the Exchange List, NCI hydrogenation, oxidation and anti-
meniscus information, new rubs was updated to ‘no’ recommen- oxidant examples.
and pastes, mondoline figure, dations, improved descriptions of ●● Chapter 23 Cakes & Cookies.
melon baller figure, and metric Fermented Soy Foods, and inserted Inserted numerous photos of cakes
tables. the Color Inserts of vegetables into and cookies.
●● Chapter 6 Meal Management. to this chapter. ●● Chapter 24 Pastries & Pies.
Inserted NEW 2016 USDA Adult ●● Chapter 14 Fruits. Two color Inserted NEW photos of pies and
Care Meal Pattern, updated ter- inserts moved to this chapter pastries.
minology for registered dietitian (apples and exotic fruits), more ●● Chapter 25 Candy. Improved defi-
nutritionist, and nutrition dietetic fruits were added to Table 14-10 nition of unsweetened, bittersweet,
nutritionist, registered, modified Climacteric and Non-climacteric semi-sweet chocolates
nutrient box [removed decreas- fruits, and different types of olive ●● Chapter 29 Government Food
ing dietary cholesterol, added processing were added. Regulations. Included NEW
decreasing saturated fat (10% kcal), ●● Chapter 15 Soups, Salads, & FDA 2016 food label, NEW health
decreasing added sugars (10% Gelatins. Two color inserts were claims, NEW topic of “Food
kcal)], removed the Exchange List, moved to this chapter, koji defini- Fraud,” and updated pesticide
and added Use By, Best By and Sell tion was clarified, and additional information.
By dates. herbs were depicted in color ●● Chapter 30 Careers in Food &
●● Chapter 7 Meat. Color inserts figures. Nutrition. Updated terminology
were removed and inserted into ●● Chapter 16 Cereals Grains & of RD to RDN, and DT to NDTR.
this chapter for easier reference. Pasta. Expanded Figure 16-1 to Inserted salary updates.
xxv
ANCILLARY www.cengage.com/login. Access Loeb, publisher of The Union Leader.
and download PowerPoint pre- Your early support and encouragement
MATERIALS sentations, images, instructor’s catapulted my writing career. Lastly,
Assorted student and instructor sup- manual, videos, and more. thank you Peter Marshall, publisher,
port materials, thoroughly updated for starting it all by giving me my first
for the sixth edition, are available as contract. Without your knowledge and
follows: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS experience, this book would never have
come to be.
●● The print Lab Manual, revised Many individuals assisted me in the Many colleagues have contributed
by Janelle M. Walter (Baylor development of this textbook. I want to to the development of this text. Their
University), presents food experi- thank Krista Mastroianni, the lead edi- thoughtful comments provided me
ments and recipes to demonstrate tor who masterfully brought this book with valuable guidance at all stages of
the principles discussed in the to the completion of yet another edi- the writing process. I offer them my
text. Pretest questions and materi- tion, infused the book with new life by heartfelt thanks for generously sharing
als/time needed information for adding “color,” and inserted the online their time and expertise. They are:
instructors enhance the lab units, MindTap option for the very first time.
which parallel the organization and Lauren Oliveira, Associate Content Renee Hirschman Alster, MS, RD
content of the text. Development Manager for Life and Brooklyn College CUNY
●● Cengage Learning Testing pow- Earth Sciences, got the book started on Elizabeth Christian
ered by Cognero. A flexible, online the right track. Texas Woman’s University
system allows you to author, edit, I extend my thanks to the outstand- Kristi Crowe, PhD, RD, LD
and manage test bank content ing members of the Cengage nutri- University of Alabama
from multiple Cengage Learning tion editorial team: Oden Connolly,
Alyce D. Fly, PhD
solutions. Create multiple test ver- Associate Content Developer, for help-
Indiana University
sions in an instant. Deliver tests ing me revise and greatly enhance
from your LMS, your classroom, the artistic appeal of the sixth edition Keely Hawkins, MS
or wherever you want. Test ques- with incredible finesse and an incred- Texas Tech University
tions for this edition were writ- ible eye for artistic layout, design, Georgia Jones, PhD
ten by Joan Aronson (New York and absolutely perfect photos. Your University of Nebraska–Lincoln
University). speedy attention to detail and quick Lalitha Samuel, PhD
●● An Instructor’s Manual written by communications propelled this book Lehman College CUNY
Joan Aronson and Cheryl Houston forward to the finish line. Marketing
(Fontbonne University), available is ever y t hing, so t hank you Tom Finally, I wish to express my appre-
electronically, features engaging Ziolkowski, Marketing Manager, for ciation to the students. Were it not for
classroom activities, objectives, rec- making this book sell successfully on them, I would not have taken pen to
ommendations, and lecture outlines. numerous campuses where it counts. paper. I am grateful to be a part of your
●● Instructor Companion Website. Elesha Feldman, once again weaved academic journey.
Everything you need for your her invaluable editorial wizardry in
Amy Christine Brown, PhD, RDN
course in one place! This collec- revamping the text for the 6th edition.
University of Hawaii at Manoa
tion of book-specific lecture and A special thanks goes to the person
amybrown@hawaii.edu
class tools is available online at who kindled my writing career, Nackey
xxvi
About the Author
Human Nutrition and Foods. She has libitum high carbohydrate, low fat
been a college professor and a regis- multi-cultural diet for the reduction of
tered dietitian with the Academy of chronic disease risk factors” (Hawaii
Nutrition and Dietetics since 1986. Medical Journal); “Lupus erythemato-
Dr. Brown currently teaches at the sus and nutrition: A review” (Journal
University of Hawaii’s John A. Burns of Renal Nutrition); “Dietary survey
School of Medicine in the Department of Hopi elementary school students”
of Complementary and Integrative (Journal of the American Dietetic
Medicine. Her research interests are in Association); “Serum cholesterol lev-
the area of medical nutrition therapy els of nondiabetic and streptozotocin-
and bioactive plant substances ben- diabetic rats” (Artery); “Infant feeding
eficial to health. Some of the studies practices of migrant farm laborers in
she has conducted include “Diet and northern Colorado” (Journal of the
Crohn’s disease,” “Potentially harmful American Dietetic Association); “Body
herbal supplements,” “Kava beverage mass index and perceived weight status
consumption and the effect on liver in young adults” (Journal of Community
function tests,” and “The effectiveness Health); “Dietary intake and body com-
Amy Brown
of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” position of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete

Selected research journal publications of the Year” (Clinical Sports Medicine);
include “Position of the American and numerous newspaper nutrition
Amy Christine Brown received Dietetic Association: Functional foods” columns.
her PhD from Virginia Polytechnic (Journal of the American Dietetic Feedback welcome, contact:
Institute and State University in Association); “The Hawaii Diet: Ad amybrown@hawaii.edu
To Betsy Brown
The person who I love dearly, is one of the nicest
people I know, sacrificed unflinchingly for me, and
worked harder her whole life, as most Moms do,
than I ever will. I deeply respect and love you for
eternity. May the shining light that you created,
brighten many candles to bring more light and
love (Aloha) into the world.
Always and Forever,
Amy Christine Brown
xxvii
1
iStock.com/RapidEye
Food Selection
Sensory Criteria . . . . . . . . 1 attractive products. The food scientists
they employ focus on why people eat,
Sight
Nutritional Criteria . . . . . . 6 The eyes see the first impression of foods:
what they eat, and which food char-
Cultural Criteria . . . . . . . 11 acteristics entice consumers to choose shapes, colors, consistency, serving size,
one brand over another. and presence of any outward defects.
Religious Criteria . . . . . . 12 Black bananas, barely yellow lemonade,
People choose foods and beverages
Psychological and for at least five basic reasons: how foods meat cooked red raw, a cockroach eat-
Sociological Criteria . . 14 look and taste; health, cultural, and reli- ing cheese left out on the counter, and
gious values; environment; psychological scorched macaroni send visual signals
Budgetary Criteria . . . . . 17 that may alter a person’s choices. Color
and social needs; and budgetary con-
cerns (16). This chapter addresses the fac- can be deceiving; if the colors of two
tors influencing consumer food selection. identical fruit-flavored beverages are
different, people often perceive them
N ot too long ago, whole foods, such

as meats, milk, grains, nuts, veg- SENSORY
etables, and fruits, were the only foods
available for consumption. Today, food
CRITERIA Whole Foods Foods as you
find them in their natural state,
companies offer thousands of prepared People choose foods primarily by how
minimally processed, and free from
and packaged foods, which are primar- they look, smell, taste, feel, and even
additives or artificial ingredients.
ily mixtures of these basic ingredients, sound (Figure 1-1). Sensory criteria
but often include natural and/or arti- are discussed first because how a food Processed Foods Any deliberate
ficial additives. This wide assortment or beverage affects the senses is more change to a food before it is
of processed foods makes planning a important to most consumers than available to eat, such as salting,
nutritious diet more difficult, rather food selection criteria. The sensory fermenting, drying, canning,
than easier. Food companies compete criteria of sight, odor, and taste are freezing, packaging, or other types
fiercely to develop ever newer and more now briefly summarized. of processing.
2 Chapter 1 Food Selection
FIGURE 1-1 Sensory impressions of food provided by the five senses. Detecting Odors
Regardless of which classification is
used, most odors are detected at very
low concentrations. Vanillin can be
smelled at 2 × 10−10 (0.0000000002) mg
per liter of air (11). However, if an
odor is repeatedly detected, the ability
to distinguish between various odors
diminishes over the time; and this per-
ception of a continuously present smell
gradually decreasing over time is called
adaptation. People living near a nox-
ious-smelling paint factory will, over
time, come not to notice it, whereas
visitors to the area may be taken aback
by the odor.
How do we smell odors? They are
detected when volatile molecules
travel through the air, and some of them
reach the yellowish-colored olfactory
epithelium, an area the size of a quar-
ter located inside the upper part of the
nasal cavity. This region is supplied
with olfactory cells that number from
10 million to 20 million in a human
and about 100 million in a rabbit (11),
appearance when evaluating foods and reflecting the difference in importance
as tasting different even though they
are exactly the same (80). People may beverages for quality and desirability.
judge milk’s fat content by its color. For Although the sense of smell is not as
instance, if the color of reduced-fat (2%) acute in human beings as it is in many
milk is improved, it is often judged to be other mammals, most people can dif- How & Why?
higher in fat content, smoother in texture, ferentiate between many thousands of
and better in flavor than the reduced-fat odors. Recent research suggests that Imagine the scent of chocolate
milk with its original color (5). people’s ability to distinguish smells chip cookies wafting through
Chefs know that the color of foods is much greater than once thought. the house as they bake. How
on a plate is either appealing or detract- Researchers found the number of does this smell get carried to
ing. Imagine being served a plate of olfactory receptors to far exceed the people? Why is the odor of
baked flounder, mashed potatoes, boiled 10,000 originally thought to be present something baking more intense
cabbage, and vanilla ice cream, and then with the number being as high as than the odor of cold items like
compare it to one that contains a nicely 1 trillion (4). ice cream or frozen peaches?
browned chicken breast, orange sweet Heat conver ts many substances
Classification of Odors
potatoes, green peas, and blueberry cob- into their volatile form. Because
bler. Based on eye appeal alone, most Naming each of these thousands of
only volatile mole cule s in the
people would prefer the latter. odors separately would tax even the form of gas carry odor, it is easier
most fertile imagination, so research- to s m e ll h o t f o o d s t h a n c o l d
ers categorized them into major ones. Hot coffee is much easier to
groups. One classification system rec- detect than cold coffee. Relatively
Odor ognizes six groups of odors: spicy, large molecules such as proteins,
Chocolate chip cookies baking in the flowery, fruity, resinous (eucalyptus), starches, fats, and sugars are too
oven, coffee brewing, and spoiled meat burnt, and foul. The other widely heavy to be airborne, so their odors
used grouping scheme consists of are not easily noticed. Lighter
makes smell almost as important as
molecules capable of becoming
four categories: fragrant (sweet), acid
volatile are physically detected by
(sour), burnt, and caprylic (goaty) the olfactory epithelium by one of
(4). A newer proposed classification two pathways: (1) directly through
Volatile molecules Molecules divides odors into categories based on the nose, and/or (2) during eating
capable of evaporating like a gas into whether they are perceived as edible when they enter the mouth and
the air. (e.g., fruit, candy, bakery, or spice) or flow retronasally, or toward the
inedible (e.g., clean, flower, and cos- back of the throat and up into the
Olfactory Relating to the sense metic) and overlaps with previous nasal cavity (Figure 1–2) (65).
of smell. classification systems (94).
Chapter 1 Food Selection 3
FIGURE 1-2 Detecting aroma, When food comes into the mouth,
mouthfeel, and taste. bits of it are dissolved in the saliva
pools and they come into contact with
the cilia, small hair-like projections
from the gustatory cells. The gustatory
cells relay a message to the brain via
one of the cranial nerves (facial, vagus,
and glossopharyngeal). The brain, in
turn, translates the nervous electrical
impulses into a sensation that people
Stockbyte/Jupiter Images
recognize as “taste.” As people age, the
original 9,000 to 10,000 taste buds
begin to diminish in number, so people
over age 45 often find themselves using
more salt, spices, and sugar in their
food. Genetics also plays an important
role in taste; for example, some people acids of fruits, vinegar, and certain
can detect monosodium glutamate vegetables. The perceived unpleas-
(MSG) in foods because it contains glu- antness of too much sour food may
tamate. Another important factor influ- protect against disrupting the body’s
encing the ability of a person to taste acid-base balance (12).
is the degree to which a compound ●● Bitter. Bitterness is imparted by
can dissolve (56). The more moisture compounds such as caffeine (tea,
of the sense of smell between people or liquid is present, the more the mol- coffee), theobromine (chocolate),
and rabbits. The exact function of these ecules triggering flavor can dissolve and and phenolic compounds (grape-
specialized cells in the sense of smell is spread over the tongue to contact the fruit). Many other substances yield
not well understood. taste buds (29). bitter tastes, including the alkaloids
Interestingly, molecules can some- often found in poisonous plants (6).
times reach the olfactory epithelium The Six Taste Stimuli Thus, the ability to taste bitterness
by first going through the mouth and The common concept of a “tongue can warn us against ingesting some
then back up to the nose. Who has map,” in which different areas on the toxins.
not experienced the feeling of bubbles tongue are associated with the basic ●● Salty. Salty taste comes from ionized
tingling in the nose brought on by types of tastes—sweet, sour, bitter, and salts—for example, from the sodium
drinking a carbonated beverage while salty—has been largely discredited ions (Na+) in sodium chloride
simultaneously being made to laugh (12). Nonetheless, the four basic tastes, (NaCl) or other salts found naturally
unexpectedly? along with a fifth known as savory in some foods.
(umami, a Japanese word meaning ●● Umami (savory). This taste was first
“delicious”), and now a sixth taste for identified in 1908 by researchers at
Taste fat (oleogustus a Latin word meaning Tokyo Imperial University. Umami
is attributed to glutamate, an amino
“taste for fat”), have been proposed (52).
Taste is usually the most influential fac- acid that imparts the taste of beef
All are perceived in response to certain
tor in people’s selection of foods (52). broth but without the salt (46).
chemical stimuli. The time it takes to
Taste buds—so named because the Oleogustus. This wordy mouthful is
detect taste stimuli varies from a split ●●
arrangement of their cells is similar to Latin for “taste for fat.” It’s new. Pur-
second for salt to a full second for bitter
the shape of a flower bud—are located due University researchers recently
substances (11). Bitter tastes, therefore,
primarily on the tongue but are also identified and added oleogustus as
have a tendency to linger. The chemical
found on the mouth palates and in the the sixth taste. They demonstrated
basis of these five categories of taste is
pharynx. These taste detectors are not that medium- and long-chain es-
as follows:
found on the flat, central surface of terified fatty acids produce a unique
the tongue, but rather on the tongue’s ●● Sweet. The sweetness of sugar taste sensation separate from the
underside, sides, and tip. comes from the chemical configura- basic tastes already identified
tion of its molecule. A long list of above (52).
Mechanism of Taste substances yield the sweet taste, in-
What is actually being tasted? Many cluding sugars, glycols, alcohols, and
tasted substances are a combination of aldehydes. Little is known, however,
nonvolatile and volatile compounds. about the sweet taste receptor and
Gustatory Relating to the sense
In order for a substance to be tasted, how “sweetness” actually occurs (29).
of taste.
it must be dissolved in liquid or saliva, ●● Sour. Food acids deliver the sour
which is 99.5% water. In the middle of taste found in food. It is related to Oleogustus A proposed sixth
each taste bud is a pore, similar to a the concentration of hydrogen ions taste for the unique flavor of fat,
little pool, where saliva collects. (H+), which are found in the natural from the Latin for “taste for fat.”
Taste Interactions
Each item used in food preparation How & Why? How & Why?
contains several compounds, and
bringing these items together creates Why does a dash of salt make How are food flavors preserved
new tastes when all their compounds some foods sweeter? during storage?
interact.
Taste sensitivity depends on a num- Flavors, regardless of the medium
Factors Affecting Taste ber of factors, including (1) the in which they are dissolved, do not
Not everyone perceives the taste of amount of time allowed to taste stay at the same intensity day after
a substance, (2) the concentra- day but diminish over time. Sensory
apple pie the same way. There is con-
tion of the substance generating chemists and flavor technologists
siderable genetic variation among indi- the taste, and (3) the individual’s know that one way to keep the
viduals in sensitivity to basic tastes (52). ability to detect various tastes. food products sold by manufac-
Tasting abilities may also vary within The threshold concentration is the turers from losing their appeal is
the individual, depending on a number minimum concentration required to prevent the volatile compounds
of outside influences. One such factor to detect a substance. This is not responsible for flavor from deterio-
affecting taste is the temperature of a easy to determine because peo- rating, escaping, or reacting with
food or beverage. Taste buds operate ple more sensitive to a particular other substances. In devising flavor
best at temperatures of around 86°F taste than others can detect it at preservation strategies, they look
a lower concentration. Below the at processing, storage, and cook-
(30°C). As the temperature of foods or
threshold concentration are sub- ing methods, all of which affect
beverages goes below 68°F (20°C) or
threshold concentrations that are the volatile flavor compounds. One
above 86°F (30°C), it becomes harder to not detected but may influence the of the major functions of protec-
distinguish their tastes accurately. For person’s ability to perceive other tive packaging is to retain a food’s
example, very hot coffee tastes less bit- tastes. For example, subthresh- flavor. Packaging guards flavor in
ter, whereas slightly melted ice cream old salt levels increase perceived several ways. It protects against
tastes sweeter. Other factors influenc- sweetness while decreasing per- vaporization of the volatile com-
ing taste include the color of the food; ceived acidity, even though the pounds and against physical dam-
the time of day it is eaten; and the age, actual amount of sugar or acid in age that could expose food to the
sex, and degree of hunger of the taster the food is unchanged. Conversely, air and result in off odors. It keeps
subthreshold sugar or acid con- unpleasant odors from the outside
(30). Psychological factors, such as pre-
centrations make a food taste less from attaching to the food. It also
conceived ideas based on appearance or
or more salty, respectively. This prevents “flavor scalping”—the mi-
on previous experiences with a similar principle can be applied to foods gration of flavor compounds from
food, also affect a person’s perception when too much salt is added to the packaging (sealers, solvents,
of taste. For instance, cherry-flavored soups or stews. Even though the etc.) to the food or vice versa (44).
foods are expected to be red, but if they salt cannot be removed, adding a
are colored yellow, they become dif- small amount of sugar will make
ficult to identify as cherry. In addition, the dish taste less salty (60). Trace
unpleasant experiences associated with additions of sugar also make acids
a food may influence the perceived taste taste less sour and coffee or tea to smell affects flavor perception, think
of that food in the future. less bitter. Small amounts of salt of having a cold with a badly stuffed-
Variety in available food choices also
sprinkled on grapefruit or added up nose. Everything tastes different.
to fruit pies tend to decrease tart- The nasal congestion interferes with
affects taste. This can be seen when the ness and enhance sweetness. Some
“taste,” or appetite, for a food eaten day the function of the olfactory sense,
compounds, such as monosodium impairing the ability to detect the aro-
after day starts to diminish. Even favor- glutamate (MSG), often used in
ite foods can eventually lose their appeal mas contributing to the perception of
Chinese cooking, actually improve
when consumed daily. Some weight- the taste of meat and other foods
flavor. Some people apply this principle
reducing fad diets that severely restrict by making them sweeter (34). to their advantage by pinching their
choices are based on the idea that peo- nostrils shut to lessen the bad flavor
ple will get tired of eating just one type of a disagreeable medicine they must
of food and therefore eat less. A routine swallow.
of grapefruit for breakfast, grapefruit for solely on the taste buds’ connection Whether in a package or on a plate,
lunch, and grapefruit for dinner quickly to the brain via nerve cells to signal a commercial food’s flavor is the single
becomes boring and unappetizing. the sensations of sour, salt, sweet, bit- most important factor determining
ter, umami (savory), and oleogustus marketplace success (52).
Definition of Flavor (fat). Flavor is a broader concept that
It’s important to know that taste is not encompasses taste, odor, and mouth-
the same thing as flavor. Taste depends feel. The perception of odor is triggered Touch
by volatile compounds reaching the The sense of touch, whether it oper-
nose and provides about 75 to 95% of ates inside the mouth or through the
the impression of flavor (79). Thus, a fingers, conveys to us a food’s texture,
Flavor The combined sense of taste, food without aroma has very little fla- consistency, astringency, and tempera-
odor, and mouthfeel. vor. To get some idea of how the ability ture. These terms are important to the
C A REER CO R N E R
Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield— Ben & Jerry’s started small. Ben Co-
Cofounders of Ben & Jerry’s hen and Jerry Greenfield were high school
Steve Liss/Time Life Pictures/

friends, and Ben drove an ice cream truck
It’s hard to believe, but some people taste selling ice cream pops to kids. He went to
food for a living. “Taste testers” have such college, dropped out, and returned to his ice
sensitive taste buds or olfactory detection
Getty Images
cream job. Ben also taught crafts in a resi-
that they are hired by food companies to dential school for emotionally disturbed chil-
taste new products being developed. Food dren, where he began experimenting with
companies need to be sure that the absolute Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield making ice cream as a craft activity for the
best product is being produced for consum- students. This led to him selling ice cream
ers. The first taste tester at Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream was the com- with Jerry, whose application to medical school had been rejected
pany’s cofounder, Ben Cohen. He had such weak taste buds that twice. Their first store was “Ben & Jerry’s Homemade Ice Cream
he kept asking the flavor developers for more sugar, salt, choco- Parlor” in a renovated gas station in Vermont. The rest is ice
late cookies, or caramel. His challenged taste buds made Ben & cream history (www.benjerry.com).
Jerry’s ice creams famous for their intense flavors.
food industry, which constantly evalu- by the teeth and the tactile nerve cells “heat” that many people enjoy in mod-
ates its food products for these quali- in the mouth. Textural or structural eration, as well as the real pain experi-
ties using surveys or other measuring qualities are especially obvious in foods enced when an excess irritates nerves in
instruments. such as apples, popcorn, liver, crackers, the nose and mouth. In fact, this com-
Texture is critical for consumer potato chips, tapioca pudding, cere- pound is so caustic when concentrated
acceptance and is based on a combina- als, and celery, to name just a few. Tex-
tion of perceptions, with the eyes giv- tures can be described as coarse (grainy,
ing the first clue. The second comes at sandy, mealy), crisp, fine, dry, moist,
CHEMIST’S
the touch of fingers and eating utensils, greasy, smooth (creamy, velvety), lumpy,
and the third is mouthfeel, as detected rough, sticky, solid, porous, bubbly, or
CORNER 1-1
flat. Tenderness, which is somewhat Hot Peppers and Body
dependent on texture, is judged by how Chemistry
How & Why? easily the food gives way to the pressure
The warming sensation experienced
of the teeth.
by some people eating hot peppers
Why do flavors differ in how Consistency is only slightly differ-
(or foods made with them) is due
quickly they are detected or ent from tenderness; it is expressed in
to the body’s secreting catechol-
how long they last? terms of brittleness, chewiness, viscos-
amines, a group of amines com-
ity, thickness, thinness, and elasticity
posed of epinephrine (adrenaline),
The amount of fat in a food or (rubbery, gummy).
beverage determines how intense norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and
Astringency, which causes pucker-
the flavor is over time. Flavor com- dopamine. These catecholamines
ing of the mouth, is possibly due to the
pounds dissolved in fat (fat-soluble activate the “fight-or-flight” re-
drawing out of proteins naturally found
compounds) take longer to be sponse, which normally triggers an
in the mouth’s saliva and mucous mem-
detected and last longer than fla- increased respiration rate, a faster
vor compounds dissolved in water branes (11). Foods such as cranberries,
heartbeat, slowed digestion, wid-
(water-soluble compounds), which lemon juice, and vinegar have astrin-
ened pupils, and enhanced energy
are quickly detected but also disap- gent qualities.
metabolism (67).
pear much more quickly (17). This Another term used in the sensory
explains why a reduced-fat product perception of foods is chemesthesis.
is unlikely to duplicate the flavor Chemesthesis defines how certain
of the original food: the original foods that are not physically hot or cold
fat’s flavor compounds are miss- appear to give the impression of being
ing, causing an imbalance of the Consistency A food’s firmness or
“hot” (hot salsa) or “cooling” (cucum-
other flavors present. Reduced-fat thickness.
bers) when placed on the tongue (32).
cookies, for example, taste sweeter
unless they are modified to com- Although extremely hot temperatures Astringency A sensory
pensate for this difference (44). It is can literally burn the taste buds (they phenomenon characterized by a dry,
even more difficult to replace cer- later regenerate), the other kind of puckery feeling in the mouth.
tain fats that have their own dis- “heat” experienced with food results
tinctive flavor, such as butter, olive from eating “hot” peppers (Chemist’s Chemesthesis The ability to feel a
oil, and bacon fat. Corner 1-1). Capsaicin (cap-SAY-iss- food’s chemical properties (e.g., cool
in) is the chemical responsible for the mints or hot chili peppers).
that it is used by many law enforcement

agencies in place of mace-like sprays.
Weight Management further details. Because a calorie is a
unit of measure, not a component of
Obesity has reached epidemic pro- foods (or of the body), it is more accu-
portions in the United States (33). As rate to speak of energy rather than
Hearing a risk factor for heart disease, cancer, calories, unless a specific amount is
type 2 diabetes, and other health condi- being discussed. The “Calorie Control”
The sounds associated with foods can
tions, obesity is one of the biggest and features found in many chapters of this
play a role in evaluating their quality.
costliest health problems in the nation. book explain the basics of weight man-
How often have you seen someone tap-
Health-care costs are higher for people agement and provide practical guide-
ping a melon to determine its ripeness?
who are obese as compared to people lines for making lower-kcalorie food
Sounds such as sizzling, crunching,
of normal weight; it is estimated that choices to reduce energy intake.
popping, bubbling, swirling, pouring,
the direct medical cost of overweight
squeaking, dripping, exploding (think
and obesity is 5 to 10% of all health-
of an egg yolk in a microwave), and
crackling can communicate a great
care spending (81). In addition, bil- Dietary Guidelines
lions are spent annually by millions of
deal about a food while it is being pre-
North Americans seeking “quick fix”
for Americans
pared, poured, or chewed. Most of these In an effort to reduce dietary risk factors
weight-loss solutions, most of which
sounds are affected by water content, for some of the major health conditions
achieve no permanent results. Accord-
and their characteristics thus give clues affecting Americans, the U.S. Depart-
ing to an International Food Informa-
to a food’s freshness and/or doneness. ment of Agriculture (USDA) and the
tion Council survey, most Americans
(69%) are trying to reduce or maintain U.S. Department of Health and Human
their weight (41). They consider this a Services (DHHS) have published the
NUTRITIONAL strong factor influencing their decision Dietary Guidelines for Americans every
5 years since 1980 (86). The 2015–2020
CRITERIA to make dietary changes and remain
physically active. Dietary Guidelines for healthy adults
Over the past several decades, emerg- Generally, individuals must restrict published in January 2016 represents the
ing scientific evidence about health their intake of food energy and increase federal government’s evidence-based
and nutrition has resulted in chang- their expenditure of energy (e.g., nutritional guidance to promote health,
ing food consumption patterns in the through bodily movement) in order reduce the risk of chronic diseases, and
United States (64). Past surveys reveal to lose weight. Energy can be corre- reduce the prevalence of overweight
that at least half of all consumers were lated to heat and is measured in units and obesity through improved nutrition
reportedly making a major change in called calories (or joules or Btu; see and physical activity. They also serve to
their diets, with nutrition being second Chemist’s Corner 1-2). Food energy is guide federal food programs and nutri-
only to taste in importance to shoppers measured in kilocalories (abbreviated tion education programs (84). They
(83). Currently, about 71% of Ameri- kcalories or kcal). The “Measuring Heat encourage people to follow the recom-
cans say they are trying to limit the Energy” section in Chapter 3 provides mendations available at http://health
intake of some type of fats, and 66% of .gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines
Americans say they are trying to limit /executive-summary. In general, a
their consumption of saturated fats healthy diet emphasizes the following:
and/or trans fatty acids. More than half CHEMIST’S ●● Following a healthy eating pattern
of Americans are trying to limit their CORNER 1-2 across the life span
consumption of sugars (40). Attempts Other Units of ●● Focusing on a variety of nutrient-
to improve food habits are related to Measurement for Energy dense foods in an amount to meet
the increased awareness that a poor diet nutrient needs within calorie limits
can be related to some of the leading The metric equivalent of the calorie ●● Limiting calories from added sugars
causes of death—heart disease, cancer, is the joule (J) or kilojoule (kJ). One and saturated fats while reducing
and diabetes—as well as to other com- joule is defined as the work or en- sodium intake
mon health conditions such as osteopo- ergy required to move 1 kilogram ●● Shifting to healthier food and bever-
rosis, diverticulosis, and obesity (33). of mass 1 meter. One calorie is age choices
equivalent to 4.184 joules, whereas ●● Supporting healthy eating patterns
1 kilocalorie equals 4.2 kilojoules. for all
Another measure of heat is the Brit-
ish thermal unit (Btu), which is the Everyone has a role in helping to
Calorie The amount of energy amount of energy required to raise create and support healthy eating pat-
required to raise 1 gram of water the temperature of 1 pound of water terns in multiple settings nationwide.
1°C (measured between 14.5°C 1 degree Fahrenheit. The Btu is more
and 15.5°C at normal atmospheric commonly used to measure the heat-
pressure). A kilocalorie (kcalorie, ing capacity of fuels used in various ChooseMyPlate
kcal), the unit commonly used to industries (heating, power, steam, MyPlate is a pictorial illustration of the
measure food energy, is equal to and air conditioning). concepts of the 2010 Dietary Guide-
1,000 calories. lines. It shows people what to put on
CALORIE CONTROL
Calorie Balance
One out of every three people in the United States was classified How Many Kilocalories Do People Consume Each Day?
as “obese” in 2014 according to the Centers for Disease Control The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for kcalories (2,403 per day for
and Prevention (CDC) (9). A website link at the end of this chapter women and 3,067 for men) exceed those reported by the National
allows each person to calculate his or her body mass index (BMI). Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2009–2010), which measures
This number is a ratio based on a person’s weight to height that the actual kcaloric intakes (1,778 for women and 2,512 for men over
classifies him or her as underweight, normal weight, overweight, 20 years of age) of a population in which one-fourth are obese (9).
or obese. Although it’s best for people to determine their specific caloric and
The CDC is concerned about obesity because of the health nutrient needs by seeing a registered dietitian (RD) or using the USDA’s
consequences, high health-care costs, increased absenteeism, and SuperTracker (www.choosemyplate.gov/SuperTracker/CreateProfile.
work-related injuries (43). Although many other factors such as aspx), the intakes below serve as general guidelines for healthy adults
environment, genetics, disease, and drugs may contribute to obesity, who want to “reach” and “maintain” a healthy goal weight:
this book focuses on the primary cause of obesity—too many
kcalories (Figure 1-3). Women Approximately 1,600 kcalories for each day
The purpose of the “Calorie Control” sections in this book Men Approximately 2,400−2,600 kcalories for each day
is to address the obesity epidemic by providing readers with
kcalories found in foods and healthful ways to modify their diets. This estimate includes exercising three times a week for at least
Specific topics to be included are (1) average daily caloric intakes 20 minutes each session. A person will need more kcalories if he or
by Americans (see below), (2) kcalorie sources (see Chapter 3, she exercises more than three times a week—approximately 300 to
“Chemistry of Food Composition”), (3) the average number of 600 kcalories for each hour of aerobic exercise. The exceptions are
kcalories found in foods (see individual chapters), (4) suggestions for active (athletes) and larger people, who need more calories; sedate
practicing portion control (see Chapter 5, “Food Preparation Basics” and shorter people, who need fewer calories; and older people, who
and various individual chapters), and (5) healthful preparation need fewer kcalories (after 40, people need 100 fewer kcalories for
methods (various chapters). each 10 years of age) (86).
FIGURE 1-3 Caloric balance is like a scale. To remain in balance and maintain your body weight, the
kcalories consumed (from foods) must be balanced by the kcalories used (in normal body functions, daily
activities, and exercise).
(Continued)
How Many Kilocalories for Each Meal? 500 kcalories a day. This should result in a weekly 1-pound weight
Because it’s challenging to count total daily kcalories, the easier gain or loss, respectively.
method is to break it down for each “meal.” For example, a woman
How Many Kilocalories Equal a Pound?
requiring 1,600 kcalories (kcal) a day could divide this into three
3,500 kcalories = 1 pound
400-kcalorie meals plus one 400-kcalorie snack (or two 200-kcalorie
snacks). The snacks are best eaten midmorning and midafternoon
but can be taken in any combination of kcalories during any part of To lose 1 pound = Consume 3,500 kcalories less and/or burn
the day and even as part of a meal. A man requiring 2,400 kcalories it off with exercise
a day could divide this into three 600-kcalorie meals plus one To gain 1 pound = Consume 3,500 kcalories over what your
600-kcalorie snack (or two 300-kcalorie snacks). body burns
Starving Is a Bad Idea
About two-thirds of a person’s kcalories are used to sustain Combination of Diet and Exercise
life: heart beating, lungs breathing, body temperature at 97.6°F If a person can achieve a deficit of 500 kcalories per day through
(36.4°C), and other bodily functions. Most of the remaining 30% of diet and/or exercise, he or she will lose approximately 1 pound
kcalories are burned by activity. a week.
The bottom line is that based on gender, a person should not
Successful Weight Loss Is Usually Slow
consume less than the following amount of daily kcalories:
Consistency is the goal. The slower you lose the weight, the more
likely it will stay off.
Women 1,200 kcalories (about 70% of 1,600)
Men 1,600 kcalories (about 70% of 2,400)
1 pound a week for 1 month = 4 weeks = 4 pounds
1 pound a week for 1 year = 52 weeks = 52 pounds
© 2010 Amy Brown

How to Gain or Lose Weight
The recommended method of gaining or losing weight is to
either increase or decrease caloric intake, respectively, by at least
their plate by dividing it into four FIGURE 1-4 MyPlate: A pictorial Guide Pyramid (1992), all developed to
sections—vegetables, fruits, grains, and demonstration of the 2010 Dietary encourage Americans to improve their
protein foods (Figure 1-4) (85). The Guidelines. diets. One of the first food group plans
www.choosemyplate.gov website pro- was the basic four food groups of milk,
vides interactive tools to assist people meat, vegetable/fruit, and bread/cereal
in creating a personalized food group (28). Other countries have their own
plan based on the Dietary Guidelines versions of dietary guidelines; Canada’s
and taking small steps toward making version is available online (see websites
better daily food and lifestyle choices. at the end of chapter).
One such step could be to shift from
beverages with added sugars to no- Vegetarianism
sugar added drinks, especially because About 3 to 4% of the U.S. popula-
almost half of all sugar is consumed tion does not consume meat, poultry,
from sugar-sweetened soft drinks, fruit or seafood, and approximately 1% of
drinks, coffee, tea, energy drinks, and adults are vegan (25), compared to
flavored water (75). approximately 15% of college students
who define themselves as vegetarians.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
SuperTracker The Academy of Nutrition and Dietet-
The SuperTracker is an online diet and ics has suggested that properly planned
physical activity tracking tool available values, find recommendations for what vegetarian diets may reduce the risk of
at www.supertracker.usda.gov. Here, and how much to eat, and compare certain chronic, degenerative diseases
consumers can look up individual foods food choices to these recommendations and conditions, including heart dis-
to see or compare their nutritional and their personal nutrient needs (70). ease, some cancers, diabetes mellitus,
The USDA’s Food Composition Data- obesity, and high blood pressure (38).
bases, from where most nutrient analy- Other factors, however, may contrib-
sis software is derived, lists the nutrient ute to the decreased morbidity and
Food group plan A diet-planning ingredients of many foods and can be mortality from these diseases among
tool that groups foods together based found at https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb. vegetarians. These include positive life-
on nutrient and/or kcalorie content style differences such as lower rates of
and then specifies the amount of Previous Food Group Plans smoking and drinking. Nevertheless,
each group a person should consume MyPlate is a successor to several pre- the benefits of vegetarian diet prob-
based on their recommended kcalo- vious food plans, including MyPyra- ably come from lower intakes of fat,
rie intake. mid (released in 2005) and the Food saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal
protein, balanced by higher levels of nutritional concern was fat (76). Today, (described more fully following this
phytochemicals, fiber, complex carbo- Americans are ingesting less milk and section) are becoming commonplace.
hydrates, antioxidants such as vita- more poultry, fish, fresh vegetables, In the United States, nutraceuticals is
mins C and E, carotenoids, and folate and grains. As a result, fat consumption used to refer to dietary supplements
(a B vitamin) (53). The World Cancer has dropped from 42% of kcalories in (includes herbs), while the official defi-
Research Fund (WCRF) and American the mid-1960s to less than 33% today nition in Canada is “a product isolated
Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) (10). Despite some positive dietary or purified from foods, and generally
cancer-prevention strategies state that trends, progress remains to be made by sold in medicinal forms not usually
one’s risk of cancer can be reduced by Americans in order to meet the Dietary associated with food and demonstrated
maintaining a healthy weight through- Guidelines for Americans, as shown in to have a physiological benefit or pro-
out life, consuming a diet high in Figure 1-5. vide protection against chronic disease”
plant-based foods, limiting intakes of (35). About 50% of Americans take a
red meat, avoiding salty foods and pro- Kcalories on Menus multivitamin supplement, while about
cessed meat, and consuming alcohol in The latest assistance with diet comes 30% have used herb products (3). The
modest amounts, if at all (42). from the FDA’s requirement to list kcal- use of herbal medicinal products and
ories on menu items in restaurants with supplements has increased tremen-
20 or more locations (61). dously over the past three decades with
Consumer Dietary not less than 80% of people worldwide
Changes Complementary and Integrative
relying on them for some part of pri-
mary health care (19).
As a result of these dietary guidelines Medicine Europe and Japan lead the way in
and other influences, consumers have Another influence on consumer dietary complementary medicine. In Germany,
shifted their dietary concerns and changes is complementary and integra- the E Commission was created in 1978
intakes, and more people are reading tive medicine (CIM), or complemen- to ensure product standardization and
the Nutrition Facts on food labels to tary and alternative medicine (CAM), safe use of herbs and phytomedicines.
understand what they are consuming which is making permanent inroads in Composed of a body of experts from
(Chapter 29). Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. medical landscape. Terms such the medical and pharmacology profes-
consumers reported that their biggest as nutraceuticals and functional foods sions, the pharmaceutical industry, and
laypersons, the E Commission studies
FIGURE 1-5 What Americans eat versus what the 2010 Dietary Guidelines the scientific literature for research data
recommends they should eat. on herbs based on clinical trials, field
studies, and case studies. It has created a
collection of monographs representing
the most accurate information available
in the world on the safety and efficacy
(power to produce effects or “does it
work?”) of herbal products. Germany
Antioxidant A compound that

inhibits oxidation, which can cause
deterioration and rancidity.
Nutraceutical A bioactive
compound (nutrient or nonnutrient)
that has health benefits.
Functional food A food or
beverage that imparts physiological
benefits that enhance overall health,
prevents or treats a disease or
condition, and/or improves physical/
mental performance.
Monograph A summary sheet
(fact sheet) describing a substance
in terms of name (common and
scientific), chemical constituents,
*SoFAS = solid fats and added sugars. functional uses (medical and
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for common), dosage, side effects, drug
Americans, 2010. 7th ed. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC: December 2010. interactions, and references.
1. Conventional Foods. These foods

containing natural bioactive food
compounds include most vegetables,
fruits, grains, dairy, fish, and meats.
They contain bioactive food com-
pounds that provide benefits beyond
basic nutrition. Examples are the
antioxidant vitamins in orange juice,
isoflavones in soy-based foods, and
prebiotics and probiotics in yogurt.
A few of the many examples of
imageBROKER/Alamy Stock Photo

health benefits linked to conven-
tional foods by emerging evidence
include the following:
Cancer Risk Reduction
●● Cruciferous vegetables reduce
the risk of several types of
cancers (82).
●● Tomato products rich in lycopene
defines herbal remedies in the same category by the FDA. The largest orga-
may reduce the risk of prostate,
manner as it does drugs because its nization of food and nutritional pro-
ovarian, gastric, and pancreatic
physicians, and others in Europe, often fessionals in the United States, the
cancers (45).
prescribe herbal remedies that are paid Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics ●● Citrus fruit may reduce the risk
for by government health insurance. (AND; formerly the American Dietetic
of stomach cancer (2).
Association, or ADA), classifies all
Functional Foods foods as functional because they pro- Heart Health
Overall, more and more people are vide nutrients or other substances that ●● Dark chocolate reduces high
viewing foods as an integral part of furnish energy, sustain growth, and/or blood pressure (51).
maintaining their health (41). The maintain and repair the body. However, ●● Tree nuts and peanuts reduce the
“food is medicine” concept is com- functional foods move beyond basic risk of sudden cardiac death (51).
mon to many cultures, and the shift survival needs. They provide additional
from treating an established disease health benefits that may reduce disease Intestinal Health Maintenance
●● Fermented dairy products (probi-
to possibly delaying or even prevent- risk and/or promote optimal health.
ing it is slowly gaining ground glob- Specifically, the AND defines functional otics) may reduce irritable bowel
ally. The functional food concept first foods as including conventional foods, syndrome symptoms (71).
developed in Japan in the late 1980s. modified foods (fortified, enriched, or Urinary Tract Function
In Japan, Foods for Specified Health enhanced), and food ingredients that ●● Cranberry juice reduces bacterial
Use (FOSHU) are functional foods are synthesized (Table 1-1) (14). These concentrations in the urine (57).
produced, selected, or consumed for functional food categories—published
reasons beyond basic caloric and nutri- in a 2013 AND Position Paper—include Some other health conditions af-
ent content. Purported uses for which the following: fected by conventional foods include
functional foods have been manufac-
tured include cancer risk reduction,
heart health (blood pressure and blood TABLE 1-1 Functional Food* Categories and Selected Food Examples
cholesterol levels), and maintenance Functional Food Category Selected Functional Food Examples
of gastrointestinal health (1). Both Conventional foods (whole foods) Garlic
Japan and Europe appear to surpass Nuts
the United States in their interest in
how foods can benefit health beyond Modified foods
providing carbohydrates, protein, fat, Fortified Calcium-fortified orange juice
and vitamins/minerals. In fact, Japan is Iodized salt
the only country that recognizes func- Enriched Folate-enriched breads
tional foods as a distinct category, and
its functional food market is the most Enhanced Enhanced energy bars, snacks, yogurts, teas, bottled
water, and other functional foods formulated with
advanced in the world (90). However,
bioactive components such as lutein, fish oils, ginkgo
both Canada and the European Com- biloba, St. John’s wort, saw palmetto, and/or assorted
mission have working definitions for amino acids
functional foods (14).
Synthesized foods Oligosaccharides
The United States has no official
definition for “functional foods,” and Resistant starch
they are not recognized as a regulatory *As defined by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND).
osteoporosis, diabetes, arthritis, absorption, circulation, or metabolism FIGURE 1-6 Percent distribution
brain health (mood, memory, de- of essential nutrients. This knowledge of racial/ethnic groups in the
pression, insomnia, stress, anxiety, enables people to select certain foods United States. Sixteen percent of
and alertness), weight (appetite, for optimal health or reduced risk of Americans report themselves to be
weight loss or gain), eyesight, and chronic disease (28). Some suggest that “Spanish/Hispanic/Latino.”
enhanced energy and sports perfor- this science, still in its infancy, may
mance (55). take some time to contribute to human
2. Modified Foods. Functional foods health (63).
can also include those that have
been modified through fortifica-
tion, enrichment, or enhancement.
These include calcium-fortified or-
CULTURAL
ange juice (for bone health), folate-
enriched breads (for proper fetal
CRITERIA
development), and foods enhanced Culture is another factor influencing
with bioactive components, such as food choice. Culture influences food
margarines containing plant stanol habits by dictating what is or is not
or sterol esters (for lowering cho- acceptable to eat. Foods that are rel-
lesterol), and beverages enhanced ished in one part of the world may be
with “energy-promoting” ingredients spurned in another. Grubs, which are
such as ginseng, guarana, or taurine. a good protein source, are acceptable
3. Synthesized Foods. Food ingredi- to the Aborigines of Australia. Whale
ents that are synthesized, such as blubber is used in many ways in the
indigestible carbohydrates, provide arctic region, where the extremely cold
prebiotic benefits such as oligosac- weather makes a high-fat diet essential.
charides or resistant starch. Dog is considered a delicacy in some
Asian countries. Escargots (snails) are Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
Although functional foods are a favorite in France. Sashimi (raw fish)
emerging as one of the latest trends in is a Japanese tradition that has been and a food industry that continues to
food and nutrition, this concept is not fairly well accepted in the United States. “go global” (72). Within the boundar-
entirely new; about 2,500 years ago, Locusts, another source of protein, are ies of the United States alone, many
Hippocrates said, “Let food be thy med- considered choice items in the Middle foods once considered ethnic are now
icine, and medicine be thy food” (62). East. Octopus, once thought unusual, commonplace: pizza, tacos, beef teri-
now appears on many American menus. yaki, pastas, and gyros. More recently
Nutrigenomics arrived ethnic foods, such as Thai,
Someday, people might receive diet Indian, Moroccan, and Vietnamese, are
plans tailored to their genes thanks to Ethnic Influences constantly being added to the mix to
nutrigenomics, which first appeared Ethnic minorities make up approxi- meet the escalating demands for meals
in the scientific literature in 2001 (68). mately 40% of the U.S. population of providing more variety, stronger flavors,
Before the term was coined, nutrig- approximately 324 million people, with novel visual appeal, and less fat (77).
enomics existed undefined within the the five major groups being African,
study of metabolic disorders (inborn other (includes two or more races),
errors of metabolism). These genetic Asian, Native/Alaskan Americans, Place of Birth
errors often occur because of the lack and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Island- Birthplace influences the foods to
of an enzyme within a biochemical ers (Figure 1-6). The U.S. Census does which a person will be exposed and
pathway resulting in a need for dietary not classify “Hispanic” or “Latino” as helps shape the dietary patterns that
intervention, as is the case with phe- a race. Rather, those taking the sur- are often followed for life. Salsa varies
nylketonuria (PKU). Nutrigenomics vey are asked whether or not they are in flavor, texture, and color depending
not only includes these diseases but all “Spanish/Hispanic/Latino” and to select on whether it was prepared in Mexico,
others in which less dramatic genetic the race with which they identify. The
differences result in different dietary belief is that people from this group
needs—such as heart disease, diabetes may be of any race, but this makes the
(types 1 and 2), osteoporosis, rheuma- overall percentage picture a little con- Nutrigenomics A field of study
toid arthritis, hypertension, bipolar fusing. The latest U.S. Census reported focusing on genetically determined
disorder, and myriad inflammatory 17% of the American population being biochemical pathways linking
disorders—and any other disease or of “Hispanic or Latino” descent. An specific dietary substances with
condition with a genetic link that may increasingly diverse population in the health and disease.
be improved by dietary modification United States, accompanied by people
(15). Nutrigenomics relies on nutri- traveling more and communicating Culture The ideas, customs, skills,
tional biochemistry to explain why over longer distances, has contributed and art of a group of people in a
differences in genes cause variations in to a more worldwide community given period of civilization.
Guatemala, Puerto Rico, or Peru. Curry the bread (wafers) and wine served by as one, so it is against their beliefs to
blends differ drastically depending on many denominations during commu- injure or kill a person or an animal.
where in the world the recipe evolved. nion symbolize the body and blood of Thus, strict Hindus reject poultry, eggs,
In Mexican cuisine, the same dish may Christ. A traditional holiday meal with and the flesh of any animal. The cow is
taste different in different states. a turkey or ham as the main entrée is not considered sacred among Hindus
usually served at Christmas and/or as is widely believed, but it is an ani-
Easter. The eggs used at Easter sym- mal, so it is not slaughtered for food.
Geography bolize new life and were originally However, dairy products from cattle are
and Climate painted red to represent Christ’s blood.
Early Christians exchanged these eggs
acceptable and even considered spiri-
tually pure (20). Coconut and ghee, or
Not so long ago, geography and climate to recognize each other. Another food clarified butter, are also accorded sacred
were the main determinants of what important to Catholics is fish, which, in status but may be consumed after a fast.
foods were available. People ate foods the past, was served on Fridays instead Some strict Hindus do not eat garlic,
that were grown close to where they of meat. onions, mushrooms, turnips, lentils, or
lived and very rarely were presented Some of the food practices of Bud- tomatoes.
with the possibility of eating those of a dhists, Hindus, Seventh-Day Adven-
more exotic nature. For example, guava tists, Mormons, Jews, and Muslims
fruit grown in tropical regions was not explored in further detail follow. Seventh-Day
even a consideration in an area such as
Greenland. Now the wide distribution Adventist Church
of formerly “local” foods throughout
the world provides many people with
Buddhism A vegetarian diet is recommended
but not required for members of the
an incredible variety of food choices. There are more than 100 million Bud- Seventh-Day Adventist Church. About
dhists in China and 300 million world- 40% of its members are vegetarians, the
wide. Buddhists believe in karuna majority of them lacto-ovo-vegetarians,
Cultural Influences (compassion) and karma (a concept meaning that they allow milk and egg
that implies that “good is rewarded
on Manners with good; evil is rewarded with evil;
products. Consumption of between-
meal snacks, hot spices, alcohol, tea, and
Culture not only influences what types and the rewarding of good and evil is coffee is discouraged (48).
of foods are chosen but also the way only a matter of time”) (39). Many Bud-
they are consumed and the behavior dhists consider it uncompassionate to
surrounding their consumption. In eat the flesh of another living creature, Church of Jesus
some parts of India, for example, only
the right hand is used for eating and
so vegetarianism is often followed;
however, not all Buddhists are vegetar-
Christ of Latter-Day
manipulating utensils; the left hand is ian. Whether Buddhists are vegetarian Saints (Mormon
reserved for restroom duties. Foods may
be served on banana leaves or wrapped
depends on their personal choice, the Church)
religious sect to which they belong, and
in cornhusks. It may be eaten with chop- the country where they live (20). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
sticks, as is the custom throughout Asia, Day Saints discourages the consump-
or with spoons, forks, and knives as in tion of alcohol, coffee, and tea. Section
89:12 of the Doctrine and Covenants
Europe and the Americas. It is consid- Hinduism written in 1833 states, “Yea, flesh also of
ered impolite in China not to provide
your guest with a bountiful meal, so an Most of the 930 million followers beasts and of the fowls of the air . . . they
unusually large number of food courses of Hinduism live in India, and the are to be used sparingly.” Although not
is served when guests are present. Hindu American Foundation esti- all Mormons follow these lifestyle rec-
mates that there are 2 million Hindus ommendations, several studies suggest
in the United States. Like Buddhism, that they are healthier as a group when
Hinduism also promotes vegetarianism
RELIGIOUS among some, but not all, of its followers
compared with average Americans. A
significant number of Mormons live in
CRITERIA (49). Buddhism actually originated in
India before being disseminated to Asia
Utah, and several studies have shown
that the death rate attributed to specific
Religion is another important influ- and surrounding areas. The goal of both diseases for Utah residents is 40% below
ence on food choices. Religious beliefs Hinduism and Buddhism is to reach the average U.S. rate because of lower
affect the diets of many by declaring “enlightenment” or “nirvana,” in which rates of heart disease and cancer. Other
which foods are acceptable and which the soul transcends “individual” ego factors possibly affecting the death rate
are unacceptable and by specifying and unites with the higher state of con- are the discouragement of smoking and
preparation procedures. By designating sciousness of the cosmos (sometimes illegal drug use, the recommendations
certain foods for specific occasions and described as One, Supreme God). It is of regular physical activity and proper
assigning symbolic value to some, reli- believed that souls which do not reach sleep, and a positive religious outlook
gious principles wield further influence. this state on earth are reincarnated. As (69). The lower saturated fat content of
More than 76% of the American a result, some Hindus believe that the some vegetarian diets and the strength
population claims to be Christian, and soul is all-important, uniting all beings of Utah’s health-care system also
cannot be ignored as possible contrib- FIGURE 1-7 Examples of kosher and halal food symbols.
uting factors.
Judaism
The kashrut (or kashruth) is the list of
dietary laws adhered to by Orthodox
Jews. Kosher dietary laws focus on
three major issues (73):
1. Kosher animals allowed
2. Blood not allowed
3. Mixing of milk and meat not
allowed
Foods are sorted into one of three
groups: meat, dairy, or pareve (contain- Adventists, vegetarians, individuals Many of the halal dietary food laws
ing neither meat nor dairy). Milk and with allergies (shellfish) or food intol- are similar to the food laws of Judaism,
meat cannot be prepared together or erances (milk), and anyone who per- and like kosher foods, halal foods are
consumed in the same meal. In fact, ceives kosher foods as being of higher identified with symbols (Figure 1-7).
separate sets of dishes and utensils are quality (74). However, the most striking similarity is
used to prepare and serve them, and a Food figures prominently in the cel- that the kosher meat consumed by Jews
specified amount of time (1 to 6 hours) ebration of the major Jewish holidays. is permitted for Muslims because the
must pass between the consumption Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, animal has been slaughtered in a man-
of milk and meat. Foods considered is celebrated in part with a large meal. ner that allows the blood to be fully
kosher include fruits, vegetables, grain Yom Kippur, or the Day of Atonement, drained. Halal meat is also permitted
products, and, with some exceptions requires a day of fasting preceded by a and defined as any meat from approved
during Passover, tea, coffee, and dairy bland evening meal the night before. animals processed according to Muslim
products from kosher animals, as long Passover, which is an 8-day celebra- guidelines. Most meat is allowed, except
as they are not eaten simultaneously tion marking the Exodus from Egypt, pork, carnivorous animals with fangs
with meat or fowl (74). Kosher animals is commemorated in part by a meal (lions, wolves, tigers, dogs, etc.), birds
are ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and whose components represent different with sharp claws (falcons, eagles, owls,
goats that have split hooves and chew aspects of the historic event. Because vultures, etc.), land animals without
their cud. Other meats that are consid- the Jews left Egypt without enough ears (frogs, snakes, etc.), shark, and
ered kosher are chicken, turkey, goose, time for their bread to leaven (rise) products containing pork or gela-
and certain ducks. and to commemorate this event, leav- tin made from the horns or hooves of
Orthodox Jews are not allowed to ened bread is prohibited during the cattle (13). Alcohol and products con-
eat nonkosher foods such as carnivo- Passover celebration. As a result, the taining alcohol in any form, including
rous animals, birds of prey, pork (bacon, five prohibited grains are wheat, rye, vanillin and wine vinegar, are forbid-
ham), fish without scales or fins (shark, oats, barley, and spelt. The only grain den. Stimulants such as tea and coffee
eel, and shellfish such as shrimp, lobster, allowed during Passover is unleavened are also discouraged.
and crab), sturgeon, catfish, swordfish, bread (matzo). Ramadan is a time of the year that
underwater mammals, reptiles, or egg significantly affects diet for Muslims.
yolk containing any blood. These foods Islam teaches that the ninth month
are considered unclean or treif. Even Islam of the lunar calendar is the month
the meat from allowed animals is not Worldwide, there are more than 1.5 bil- in which the Prophet Muhammad
considered kosher unless the animals lion Muslims, versus 13 million Jews received the revelation of the Mus-
have been slaughtered under the super- (20). The Koran, the divine book of lim scripture, the Koran. This month,
vision of a rabbi or other authorized Islam, contains the halal dietary food which depends on the sighting of the
individual who ensures that the blood laws recommended for Muslims that new moon, is a time of religious obser-
has been properly removed. Foods that describe halal (permitted) or haram vances that include fasting from dawn
are tainted with blood, a substance con- (prohibited) foods. The five major to sunset.
sidered by Jews to be synonymous with areas addressed by the halal are as
life, are forbidden (20). follows (74):
Kosher foods are labeled with a logo
such as those of the kosher-certifying 1. Kosher and halal animals allowed
Kosher (From Hebrew) Food that
agencies shown in Figure 1-7. Manu- 2. Blood not allowed
is “fit, right, proper” to be eaten
facturing facilities are inspected by a 3. Improper slaughtering method not
according to Jewish dietary laws.
rabbi before a kosher certification can allowed
be given for a food (8). People other 4. Carrion (decaying carcass) not Halal An Arabic word meaning
than Jews who often purchase kosher allowed “permissible.” Usually refers to
foods include Muslims, Seventh-Day 5. Intoxicants not allowed permissible foods under Islamic law.
PSYCHOLOGICAL Psychological factors also influence

people’s response to three relatively
AND SOCIOLOG- recent additions to the food market:
genetically modified, organic, and “nat-
ICAL CRITERIA ural” foods.
S ocial and psychological factors
strongly influence food habits. For most
people, the knowledge that food is read-
Bioengineering
ily available provides a sense of security. Psychological and social factors are
The aim of every food company’s adver- involved in the formation of public
tising is to develop a sense of security attitudes toward the biotechnology
among consumers about its products. A (i.e., genetic engineering) of foods (89).
soft drink held in the hand of an athlete, The resulting genetically modified
Jeffrey Coolidge/Getty Images

a cereal touted by a child’s favorite car- organisms (GMOs) or genetically
toon character, and diet foods offered by modified (GM) crops are slowly gaining
slim, vivacious spokespeople create pos- ground, but not everyone is knowledge-
itive associations in people’s minds for able about or accepting of these new
these products and assure them of their foods (1).
quality. Social conscience and peer pres-
sure sometimes influence food choices. GMO foods are common
One recent trend has seen consumers History of
moving toward more environmentally Biotechnology plants, or animals (7). The goal of this
sound purchases. At a buffet, the pres- People have been selecting for particu- process is to produce new species or
ence of other people may influence a lar genetic traits in plants and animals improved versions of existing ones.
person’s choice of food and beverages. since the beginning of agriculture. In GM crops have only been commercially
Psychological needs intertwine with the past, it took years to accomplish available since the mid-1990s (89).
social factors when foods are used more hybridization, or crossbreeding, by
for a display of hospitality or status than matching “the best to the best” in the Foods Created with
for mere nourishment. Caviar is just fish plant, livestock, and fishery worlds to Biotechnology
eggs but is esteemed by many as a deli- achieve the desired results. Cattle, corn, The USDA used food biotechnology to
cacy. Beer tastes terrible to most people and even dogs were bred this way to increase production potential, develop
when they try it for the first time, but the yield desirable results. The many breeds more nutritious plant and animal prod-
social surroundings and pressures may of dogs would not look the way they do ucts, and increase crop resistance to the
cause it to become an acquired taste. Sev- without humans modifying their genes following food-related problems (89):
eral studies have shown that information through many years of selective breed-
influences expectations, and expectations
●● Pests (less pesticide required)
ing. Depending on the desired results, ●● Disease (lower crop losses)
mold choices, so it is no surprise that it could take decades or even centuries
older consumers report that television is
●● Herbicides
to develop a certain “look” and/or func- ●● Harsh growing conditions (drought,
their predominant source of information tion in an animal or plant. Traditional
about nutrition, followed by magazines, salty soil, climate extremes)
ways of breeding to combine the genes ●● Transport damage (less bruising
and newspapers (59). However, young of two species in order to obtain a spe-
people get most of their information allows more produce to make it to
cific trait were thus time-consuming, market)
from online sources (41). cumbersome, and unpredictable (89). ●● Spoilage (longer shelf life)
The age of food biotechnology
started in the early 1970s when DNA Foods using biotechnology can
Biotechnology The alteration of a was isolated from a bacterium, dupli- be grouped into one of the following
gene in a bacterium, plant, or animal cated, and inserted into another bac- categories (7):
for the purpose of changing one or terium. The resulting DNA, known as 1. Actual food (e.g., corn)
more of its characteristics; previously recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid 2. Foods derived from or contain-
called genetic engineering. (rDNA), allows researchers to trans- ing ingredients of actual food (e.g.,
fer genetic material from one organ- cornmeal)
Genetically modified organisms
ism to another (Figure 1-8) (36). The 3. Foods containing single ingredients
(GMOs) Plants, animals, or micro-
direct manipulation of genetic material or additives from GM foods (e.g.,
organisms that have had their genes
started with bacteria, then plants, and amino acids, vitamins, colors)
altered through genetic engineering
finally animals. Instead of crossbreed- 4. Foods containing ingredients ob-
using the application of recombi-
ing for years, researchers can now iden- tained from enzymes produced
nant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA)
tify the genes responsible for a desired through GM foods
technology.
trait and reorganize or insert them from
Gene A unit of genetic information the cells of one bacterium, plant, or What actual foods have been pro-
in the chromosome. animal into the cells of other bacteria, duced using biotechnology? Some
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XVI
Les Mères doivent voter
«Le vote est le droit à la considération, le

vote est le droit au pain.»
H. A.
La mère doit voter pour préparer un bon avenir à ses enfants. La

femme électeur ne peut pas comme le demandait un candidat, être un
satellite de l’homme. Elle doit déposer elle-même son bulletin dans l’urne,
et non se borner à multiplier la capacité sociale de son mari. Ce candidat
voulait qu’on donnât à la famille la prééminence politique à laquelle elle a
droit. Il préconisait le vote familial au lieu du vote des femmes.
«Ce que la femme doit vouloir, écrit-il, c’est la reconnaissance

légale de son existence sociale au même titre que le mari. La
question de savoir ensuite quelle sera la main qui portera dans
l’urne le morceau de carton représentant le bulletin familial, n’est
qu’accessoire.
«L’essentiel c’est que la femme existe. Et elle comprendra
qu’elle ne pourra conquérir ce droit éminent à l’existence qu’en
s’appuyant sur ses enfants, dont le nombre donnera autant de voix
à la famille. Ce sera là la grande force de la femme, qui ne doit se
considérer que pour ce qu’elle est naturellement: la multiplicatrice
de la capacité sociale de son mari».
Les hommes qui se moquent de Guillaume II parlant de sa royauté de

droit divin, disent aux femmes qu’ils ont sur elles une autorité de droit
divin, et que la politique est incompatible avec les fonctions de mères et
d’épouses. Mais le travail de mercenaire, de blanchissage, de portefaix
n’est pas incompatible avec ces fonctions.
On ne peut opposer la maternité, à l’exercice des droits de cette
quantité innombrable de femmes qui ne sont pas mères, qui ne le seront
jamais, qui ne l’ont jamais été.
On ne peut pas opposer, davantage, la maternité à l’exercice des
droits des femmes qui sont mères, parce qu’en aucun cas, un devoir ne
peut destituer d’un droit.
Quand il survient à l’homme des devoirs, les devoirs de la paternité, le
prive-t-on de ses droits civiques? Non. Alors pourquoi sous le prétexte
qu’elle est mère destituerait-on la femme des siens?
Est-ce que la paternité entraîne moins d’obligations que la maternité?
Est-ce que le soin d’élever l’enfant n’incombe pas solidairement aux deux
auteurs de sa naissance? Dernièrement, un candidat a enlevé un
auditoire d’hommes avec cette phrase: «Si les femmes votaient, vous
seriez obligés de garder les enfants.» Cet argument n’est pas heureux. Il
exprime avec un trop naïf égoïsme que si l’homme détient le droit de la
femme, c’est surtout dans la crainte d’être astreint à faire son devoir. Les
républicains excluent les femmes du droit, de crainte que la femme ne leur
échappe comme servante.
Qu’on n’allègue pas contre les mères l’impossibilité où elles seraient
de quitter leur enfant pour voter. Est-ce que les mères ne pourraient pas
se faire remplacer par le père près du berceau de l’enfant pour aller
préparer, par leur vote, un avenir heureux aux petits êtres qu’elles
adorent?
Est-ce que l’homme serait déshonoré parce qu’à son tour il garderait
l’enfant?
La maternité ne s’oppose pas plus à l’exercice des droits civiques,
qu’elle ne s’oppose à l’exercice d’un commerce, à l’exercice d’une
profession, à l’exercice d’un art.
Les femmes ne manqueraient pas plus à leurs devoirs familiaux en
contribuant par leur part d’intelligence au bien de la société, qu’elles n’y
manquent en allant à l’Eglise, au théâtre, au cinéma, dans les magasins.
Si la maternité absorbait la femme, au point de l’empêcher de
s’occuper de toute vie extérieure, alors il faudrait commencer par faire des
rentes à toutes les mères qui n’en ont pas, car l’obligation de gagner le
pain quotidien, l’obligation d’aller quérir les provisions du ménage,
éloigneront certainement toujours plus les mères de leurs enfants que
celle d’aller déposer dans l’urne un bulletin de vote un jour d’élection.
D’ailleurs, si la maternité n’était une allégation hypocrite pour refuser le
vote aux femmes, celles qui ne sont pas mères devraient pouvoir exercer
leurs droits, tandis qu’elles en sont tout aussi bien destituées que celles
qui sont mères.
Si nous demandons pour toutes les femmes, pour celles qui sont
mères, comme pour celles ne le sont pas, l’intégralité du droit, c’est que
nous savons que le sentiment de la responsabilité, qui résulte de la
possession du droit, éveille à un haut degré l’idée du devoir.
C’est que nous savons que la femme, une fois en possession de ses
droits civiques, marchera avec l’homme dans la voie du progrès, et que
ses enfants, après s’être nourris de son lait, s’assimileront ses idées de
justice et de liberté.
Si nous demandons pour la femme l’intégralité du droit, c’est que nous
savons que l’autorité de la Citoyenne est indispensable à la femme pour
être non seulement une mère selon la nature, une mère qui donne à son
enfant la santé, la force et la beauté du corps, mais encore, mais surtout,
une mère selon l’intelligence, une mère capable de donner à son enfant la
santé, la force et la beauté de l’âme, mens sana in corpore sano.
Quelques personnes nous disent: La famille serait désorganisée si
l’homme cessait de régner partout en roi absolu, si la femme avait sa part
de pouvoir dans la famille et dans l’Etat.
Profonde erreur. Qu’est-ce donc qui peut mieux établir la sympathie
entre les hommes que la solidarité des intérêts qui résulte de la
communauté du pouvoir?
Qu’est-ce donc qui pourrait mieux qu’une communauté de pouvoir
amener entre les époux la concorde, l’union de l’esprit? Union autrement
solide, celle-ci, que l’union du cœur!
Qu’est-ce qui pourrait mieux qu’une communauté de pouvoir, amener
chez les époux une communion de goûts, d’idées, d’aspirations, une
communion de vie intellectuelle?
Aujourd’hui, quand l’union si éphémère du cœur cesse d’exister, un
abîme se creuse entre les époux parce qu’ils n’ont pas un seul point de
ralliement. Aucun but moral, aucun intérêt élevé ne les réunit. Et dans ces
ménages où l’on ne cause, certes, ni de politique ni de sociologie, les
enfants sont le plus souvent abandonnés.
Tandis qu’avec cette chose rationnelle, la vie publique ouverte aux
femmes, la vie publique commune pour les époux, comme est commune
la vie privée, le niveau moral intellectuel s’élèverait bientôt dans chaque
ménage.
L’obligation pour les femmes de s’occuper de choses sérieuses qui
intéressent les hommes, établirait au grand profit de l’harmonie conjugale
entre maris et femmes, une émulation salutaire pour le progrès.
Les intérêts de la société, avant d’être discutés et rendus publics,
seraient d’abord discutés et résolus en famille. L’enfant témoin de ces
saines préoccupations grandirait heureux. Sa précoce initiation à la vie
civique aurait la puissance de l’éloigner des atmosphères vicieuses.
Donc, à ce triple point de vue, le bonheur de l’homme, l’intérêt de
l’enfant, l’harmonie de la famille, il est urgent que la femme, que la mère,
exerce au plus tôt ses droits civiques.
Les Français souverains ne font encore que jouer au progrès. Ils ont
badigeonné une façade de république, mais ils n’ont point la virilité
nécessaire pour accomplir les transformations fondamentales en
changeant la condition de celle qui donne aux mâles et femelles de la
nation les muscles et la moëlle. Cependant, si les milieux influent sur les
individus, combien plus exercent sur eux, d’action, les molécules d’où ils
tirent leur origine.
«Dis-moi d’où tu sors, je te dirai qui tu es!...»
Les Français, qui tous, sortent de serves, ne peuvent pas être
naturellement indépendants. L’absence de caractère, la veulerie ne se
surmonteront que quand les humains naîtront de mères libres.
La mère donne à l’enfant son empreinte. Le sein maternel fait ce qu’ils
sont, les humains.
Les femmes annulées, opprimées font des enfants à la mentalité
tordue. Pour que les enfants soient droits cérébralement il faut appeler
celles qui les créent à la plénitude de l’existence sociale et politique.
Il faut affranchir la dispensatrice de la vie en proclamant l’égalité des
sexes devant la loi.
Les femmes n’ont pas seulement le droit de participer à la politique.
Elles ont besoin d’y participer, afin de trouver là un point d’appui quand,
par le fait de la disparition de leur compagnon, le sol manque sous leurs
pieds.
Les femmes concentreraient sur l’amélioration des conditions
d’existence leurs énergies accumulées qui pourraient aider à résoudre
des problèmes qui aujourd’hui semblent insolubles, parce qu’ils
concernent l’humanité toute entière et que les seuls efforts masculins sont
impuissants à en donner la clef.
Le droit qu’ont les femmes de faire valoir leurs droits civiques, se
double pour elles du devoir de changer pour les générations qu’elles
créent, la vie de privations en vie de satisfaction, de bien-être.
Le droit d’intervenir dans les arrangements sociaux est refusé aux
femmes par les hommes qui leur attribuent le plus grand pouvoir occulte.
C’est une anomalie de garder les femmes qui tiennent une si grande place
dans la position d’inférieures où elles sont.
Si l’instinct de conservation ne contraint les antiféministes à dire à la
femme: Tu n’es plus une poupée avec laquelle on joue et dont on se joue.
Tu es un important acteur social dont on attend l’effort. Si la dispensatrice
de la vie reste annulée, si la femme n’a pas le pouvoir de sauver les
individus en transformant, avec les lois, le milieu social, elle sera la
vengeresse inconsciente qui poussera l’humanité dégénérée à s’abîmer
dans l’anéantissement.
XVII
La fonction maternelle rétribuée
«Parce que la femme est mère, elle ne

peut être ni électeur, ni député, mais elle peut
être blanchisseuse, femme de peine.»
Hubertine Auclert.
Le sexe masculin est incapable de bien légiférer pour les deux sexes.
Parce que les femmes ne sont ni électeurs, ni éligibles, les lois,
mêmes faites pour elles, se tournent contre elles. Ainsi la loi sur la
recherche de la paternité fait condamner à l’amende, à la prison, à
l’interdiction de séjour, la fille mère qui n’a pas de preuves écrites de la
coopération de celui qu’elle poursuit comme cocréateur de son enfant.
Pour assurer aux hommes de n’être pas ennuyés par les femmes qu’ils
rendent mères, cette loi force les femmes à recourir à l’infanticide: la
charge d’un enfant étant au-dessus des ressources d’une fille-mère.
Pendant que des hommes graves clament que le pays se dépeuple,
pendant que des politiciens se liguent pour augmenter la natalité, ce ne
sont pas seulement celles qui n’ont pu devenir mères selon la formule
édictée par le Code, qui risquent la vie pour empêcher un bébé de naître.
Tous les jours, des épouses légitimes disent: «je ne peux pas avoir un
nouvel enfant, je serais délaissée» et elles vont trouver l’opérateur, de
chez lequel elles sortent non point toujours mortes, mais souvent
estropiées.
Pourquoi cette rage de destruction d’embryons humains existe-t-elle
dans un pays dont on prédit l’effacement pour cause de manque
d’habitants?
Parce que les Français, barbares, laissent à la femme qui ne parvient
pas à se suffire à elle-même, la charge d’élever les enfants communs.
Femmes mariées comme femmes célibataires ont la terreur de la
maternité, parce que la maternité leur inflige, en plus de la souffrance, la
gêne, la pauvreté, la noire misère.
Les Françaises n’auraient point cette terreur de la maternité, si elles
pouvaient en participant à la législation, se donner des garanties. Les
hommes législateurs ne proposent point de procurer la sérénité au sein
maternel. On semble n’attacher aucune importance à ce que les Mères de
la nation, détériorées par les souffrances physiques et morales, ne soient
pas en état à donner le jour à des êtres assez forts pour supporter la vie.
Quand on veut fabriquer un objet, on donne au moule qui doit l’exécuter la
forme et la solidité nécessaires. Mais lorsqu’il s’agit de fabriquer des
humains, on se dispense de prendre cette précaution élémentaire. On
aime mieux créer des hôpitaux pour les malades que de donner aux
génératrices la possibilité de mettre au monde des enfants robustes, sur
lesquels n’aurait point de prise la maladie.
La nature qui ne demande pas à la femme son acquiescement à la
maternité, lui impose la charge de l’enfant. La mère n’a qu’une garantie
illusoire d’être aidée à élever l’enfant, puisque cette garantie repose sur le
seul bon plaisir de l’homme. Chacun sait en effet, que l’amant se dérobe
dès qu’apparaît la grossesse de son amie, et que de plus en plus
nombreux sont les époux légitimes qui font la fête et se dispensent de
remplir le devoir paternel. Dans l’intérêt de la nation et de l’espèce
humaine, cet état de choses doit cesser. Il est plus que temps de régler la
question relative aux rapports des sexes.
La mère qui assure la perpétuation de l’espèce doit être traitée comme
le soldat qui assure la sécurité du territoire: c’est-à-dire, être logée, nourrie
durant le temps de son service de mère.
La maternité cessera de terrifier les Françaises quand, au lieu de les
déshonorer et de les réduire au dénûment, elle les fera considérer et
indemniser comme d’indispensables fonctionnaires.
On se procurera l’argent nécessaire pour rétribuer la maternité en
établissant l’impôt paternel que les hommes auront avantage à payer pour
s’épargner des coups de revolver, des brûlures de vitriol et se garantir des
procès en recherche de paternité, suivis souvent de procès en divorce.
Il suffit de mettre dans la loi cet article: «A partir de 16 ans tout
Français paie l’impôt paternel pour indemniser les mères sans ressources
et assurer l’existence des enfants.»
XVIII
L’enfant doit-il porter le nom de la Mère? Matriarcat
Tous ceux qui ont séjourné en Algérie dans les oasis, ont pu voir au
printemps des Arabes grimper au faîte de hauts palmiers femelles, pour
répandre au-dessus de leur tête du pollen de palmiers mâles. Les fruits du
dattier femelle ainsi fécondé, lui appartiennent en propre. Ne devrait-il pas
en être ainsi des fruits humains? Pourquoi la femme qui a modelé dans
ses flancs et moralement formé l’enfant, peut-elle moins bien le classer
socialement que l’homme fécondateur?
Ce ne sera plus en étalant devant les tribunaux une faiblesse, point
générale chez son sexe, en exhalant des plaintes au théâtre contre
l’homme auteur de son déshonneur, que la mère naturelle parviendra à se
faire honorer. C’est en revendiquant virilement la responsabilité de son
acte, c’est en demandant d’être, par une rétribution équitable, mise à
même d’exercer cette fonction sociale: la maternité.
L’élémentaire justice, faisant proposer de donner un père à l’enfant
naturel, qui paraît avantageux pour la femme, règle en réalité à son
détriment une situation, en augmentant l’autorité de l’homme.
La mère élevée par son enfant au rang de chef de famille, a une autre
situation morale que l’esclave qui reconnaît son indignité, en demandant
le patronage de l’homme qui se dérobe.
—Que veut le féminisme?
—Diviser l’autorité familiale et sociale.
Enlever à l’homme la moitié de son pouvoir autocratique pour en doter
sa compagne. Or la recherche de la paternité tend à un but tout opposé,
puisqu’elle concentre dans une seule main l’autorité, en conférant à
l’homme, hors du mariage, comme dans le mariage, la qualité de chef de
famille.
Emile de Girardin, qui demandait que toute distinction établie par les
lois, entre les enfants naturels, adultérins, incestueux, légitimes, fût abolie,
voulait que l’enfant porte le nom de sa mère et soit sous son autorité.
C’était le matriarcat substitué au patriarcat.
En confondant les mères entre elles, en les reconnaissant également
aptes à exercer l’autorité sur leurs enfants et à leur donner leurs noms, le
matriarcat empêcherait de distinguer les mères naturelles des autres, et il
rendrait les enfants égaux devant l’état-civil.
Bien que la couvade n’existe pas matériellement en France, les
Français matricides rendent moralement inexistantes les mères en se
substituant à elles, en s’attribuant le mérite de leurs maternités et en
retirant honneurs et profits.
La créatrice annulée et écrasée chez nous a exercé ailleurs, en une
période de l’évolution humaine, une domination bienfaisante.
Le matriarcat a existé et existe encore dans un certain nombre
d’agglomérations humaines.
Dans la Chine antique, avant l’époque de Fohi, disent les anciens
livres, les hommes connaissaient leur mère, mais ils ignoraient qui était
leur père.
En Asie, les Lyciens prenaient le nom de leur mère et attribuaient
l’héritage aux filles.
Dans l’ancienne Egypte, les enfants portaient le nom de leur mère et
étaient dirigés par elle. Les femmes d’Egypte, dit Hérodote, vont sur la
place publique, se livrent au commerce et à l’industrie pendant que les
hommes demeurent à la maison, et y font le travail intérieur. Les femmes,
aux portes de l’Egypte, considèrent comme un déshonneur de tisser et de
filer.
Les Hurons et les Iroquois prennent le nom de leur mère, et c’est par
elle qu’ils comptent leur généalogie. C’est par les femmes que se consiste
la nation, la noblesse du sang, l’arbre généalogique, l’ordre des
générations et la conservation des familles.
La noblesse utérine exista en France en la période féodale. La mère
noble donnait le jour à un fils noble: le père fut-il roturier.
Les Crétois, d’après Platon, nommaient leur patrie d’origine, matrie:
combien d’autres peuples primitifs préférant la réalité à la fiction se
servaient de ce doux terme, matrie (mère) pour désigner les lieux qu’ils
habitaient. Ne serait-il pas plus naturel de dire: la France est ma matrie,
ma mère, que: la France est ma patrie, mon père?
Les Touaregs qui habitent le centre du Sahara Africain, ainsi que
presque tous les peuples de race berbère, sont régis par le matriarcat. Ils
se dénomment en raison de cela Beni-oummia (fils de la mère).
C’est, dit une formule de leur droit traditionnel, «le ventre qui teint
l’enfant». Aussi, le fils d’une mère noble et d’un père esclave est noble, le
fils d’une mère esclave et d’un père noble, est esclave.
Chez les Beni-oummia la loi salique est renversée. Ce n’est point le fils
du chef qui succède à son père, c’est le fils de la sœur de celui-ci.
Même nomade, la femme Targuie est instruite et a partout la première
place. Elle discute dans les conseils de la Tribu. Elle a l’administration de
l’héritage. Elle seule dispose des tentes, maisons, troupeaux, sources et
jardins. Enfin, elle confère, avec la condition sociale, les droits de
commandement sur les serfs et les redevances payées par les voyageurs.
On voit que les peuples qui se désintéressent de la paternité, au point
de s’appeler «fils de la mère» accordent à la femme, avec l’autorité
morale, bien des privilèges et que les Français civilisés auraient beaucoup
à apprendre au point de vue féministe, des Touaregs qualifiés de
barbares, par ceux qui ne les connaissent pas.
Malgré que les hommes s’efforcent de se le dissimuler, la mère donne
à l’enfant son empreinte en dépit de l’école. Nos belles écoles, qui sont à
juste titre l’orgueil et l’espoir de la nation, ne cultivent que l’intelligence.
Quand on aura affranchi la dispensatrice de la vie en proclamant
l’égalité des sexes devant la loi, les humains ne piétineront plus. Ils
courront dans la voie du progrès.
XIX
Les mères et la dépopulation
En entendant répéter que les femmes ont pour unique rôle de mettre
des enfants au monde, on pouvait penser que le sexe féminin restait dans
la mission qui lui est assignée, en demandant de faire partie de la
commission extra-parlementaire chargée de combattre la dépopulation.
Il nous semblait que les deux sexes réunis, étaient seuls compétents
pour décider d’une affaire où le couple est indispensable. Eh bien, nous
étions dans l’erreur. Les hommes seuls suffisent pour repeupler la France,
puisque pas une femme n’a été nommée membre de la commission de
repeuplement.
Les Français présomptueux croient qu’ils pourront, sans les
Françaises, augmenter la natalité, comme sans elles, ils pensent
continuer à administrer et à gouverner.
Les messieurs réunis pour remédier à la dépopulation, s’imagineront
résoudre la question en récompensant l’homme qui n’a que du plaisir en
devenant père, tandis que la femme ruine sa santé, risque sa vie en
enfantant.
N’étant point traitée comme la cheville ouvrière du repeuplement, la
génératrice continuera, suivant la coutume, à se préserver de la
fécondation, à recourir à l’avortement, de sorte que l’homme déçu de ses
rêves de paternité, ne pourra percevoir le dédommagement du travail
puerpéral qui lui aura été attribué.
Bien que notre orgueil national prenne plaisir à constater que les
peuples les plus civilisés sont les moins prolifiques, la disette d’enfants
met la France en si mauvaise posture dans le monde, que les législateurs
ont songé à proposer de surtaxer les célibataires, les veufs, les divorcés.
Si cet impôt vexatoire ne frappait que les femmes, qui ne votant point,
ne sont point à ménager, il serait sûrement adopté par la commission.
Mais les célibataires mâles étant électeurs, on ne rééditera pas la loi de
1798 qui, durant quelques années, surimposera les célibataires.
D’ailleurs, un impôt ne contraindrait pas au mariage les célibataires.
L’unique moyen d’augmenter la natalité consiste à intéresser les
génératrices à cette augmentation. Pendant que les femmes n’auront
aucun avantage à procréer beaucoup d’enfants, elles se soustrairont aux
nombreuses maternités qui les accablent de souffrances, les surchargent
de travail et les enlaidissent!
Certes, les hommes sont en France bien puissants. Pourtant, quoique
souverains, ils ne peuvent ni changer les lois naturelles, ni augmenter,
sans le concours des femmes, la natalité. Il devient donc, dès lors,
indispensable que les femmes fassent connaître à quelles conditions elles
consentiront à être plus souvent mères. La solution de la question du
dépeuplement est seulement là.
Si les législateurs ne trouvent pas que les procréatrices sont, plus que
quiconque, aptes à donner sur cela leur avis, les efforts en vue du
repeuplement échoueront: les seules personnes capables de les faire
aboutir étant laissées de côté.
On propose de spolier les génératrices, de récompenser les hommes
du travail de gestation et de parturition des femmes. La prime donnée au
père n’allégerait point le fardeau maternel. Ce ne serait pas, parce que les
hommes civilisés empocheraient la récompense de l’enfantement, qu’ils
parviendraient plus que les primitifs—simulant les douleurs quand leur
femme accouche—à faire croire que ce sont eux qui mettent au monde
les enfants.
Pour obtenir de la femme qu’elle dépense ses forces, passe ses nuits
en veilles, ruine sa santé et risque sa vie afin d’augmenter la population,
c’est employer un singulier moyen que de gratifier le père, parce qu’il vote,
du travail accompli par la mère, qui ne vote pas. Est-ce le moyen de
déterminer les femmes à appeler à la vie beaucoup d’enfants? Les
ouvriers seraient-ils excités à travailler en un chantier où le contre-maître
s’attribuerait leur salaire?
Les nombreuses maternités déforment, fatiguent, affaiblissent,
enlaidissent, non le père, mais la mère. Si, au lieu de lui attacher par un
petit intérêt son mari, on spolie la femme souffreteuse de la rente qui lui
est due pour la donner à l’homme gaillard, est-ce que ce ne sera pas
inciter celui-ci à la dépenser, cette rente, avec une accorte voisine, point
productrice d’enfants?
On tourne autour de la question de l’indemnisation maternelle, qu’on
ne veut pas proposer parce que la femme qui est en droit de la toucher,
est une hors la loi.
Il est facile de comprendre que quiconque a la peine doit toucher un
salaire et que les femmes ne se déprimeront ni ne s’useront plus, dans le
seul but de procurer des rentes à leur mari qui, après la douzaine
d’enfants pourrait les planter là.
La femme est la propriété de l’homme (une propriété de rapport)
comme l’arbre à fruit est celle du jardinier, puisqu’on reconnaît seulement
à celui-ci le droit de tirer profit des fruits humains.
Que l’on tourne et retourne, en tous sens, la question du
repeuplement, on ne parviendra à la résoudre que par l’indemnisation
maternelle, qui allégera les charges du père et permettra à la mère de
conserver en se soignant, des forces de réserve pour de nouvelles
maternités.
A la femme aisée ou riche, qui ne serait, ni par une indemnité, ni par
une retraite, encouragée à de successives maternités, on pourrait offrir
l’appât des récompenses honorifiques.
Nous trouvons puériles les décorations, mais puisque les hommes en
raffolent, les femmes peuvent bien, à leur exemple, les convoiter.
Il ne faudrait pas bien entendu, que la décoration attribuée à la
maternité, lui soit spéciale: une croix de la maternité serait de suite
appelée Croix de Gigogne.
Mais admettre la femme, six fois mère, à la Légion d’honneur,
honorerait la croix en lui faisant récompenser ce qui est utile au pays.
XX
La femme en état de légitime défense
Les infanticides sont si fréquents, que chacun est forcé de se

demander s’ils ne sont pas une nécessité sociale, et s’il ne serait pas
temps de mettre, relativement à la génération, les conventions et les lois
en harmonie avec la nature.
Le public qui traque la coupable d’infanticide et dispute à la police le
soin de l’amener devant ses juges, n’est rien moins que disposé à
atténuer son crime.
Cependant, cette meurtrière était en état de légitime défense. C’est
pour se sauver qu’elle a tué. La société tout entière fonçait sur elle,
menaçait de la vomir de son sein, de l’écharper moralement. Affolée par
l’horreur de sa situation, elle est devenue horrible. Elle a mis son enfant
hors la vie, pour ne pas être mise hors de l’humanité.
Il faudrait voir comment se comporteraient ceux qui déclament contre
la fille-mère exterminatrice, s’ils étaient aux prises avec les difficultés
inénarrables de son présent et l’épouvantement de l’avenir qui lui est
réservé. Sa faute va tendre autour d’elle un cordon sanitaire. On
s’éloignera d’elle comme d’une pestiférée, ses amis ne la connaîtront
plus. Toutes les portes, tous les cœurs lui seront fermés. Enfin, alors que
ses besoins s’augmenteront de ceux d’une autre existence, elle ne
trouvera plus d’ouvrage.
La fille-mère a à choisir entre le mépris public, un dénûment sans nom
et... le crime! L’instinct de la conservation, le sentiment faux mais très
violent de l’honneur, en font une criminelle.
Quel est l’individu, homme ou femme, qui sachant qu’il va être à tout
jamais flétri et flétri injustement, est bien certain de ne pas perdre un
instant la raison, et de ne pas commettre un crime pour échapper à
l’opprobre qui l’attend?
A ceux qui soutiennent que la mère infanticide a été impitoyable, on
peut demander si elle a été aussi impitoyable et féroce que la société qui
contraint toutes les pauvres filles, sous peine de déchéance, à se

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PART I FOOD SCIENCE 18 Starches and Sauces 369

AND NUTRITION 19 Quick Breads 385

Purchasing Vegetables 263 Preparation of Vegetables 275

Chapter 30 Careers in Food C Substitution of Ingredients C-1

Three Major Food and Nutrition E Common Food Additives E-1

Nutrition Science and Dietetics 571 Questions F-1

of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” position of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete

N ot too long ago, whole foods, such

Steve Liss/Time Life Pictures/

that it is used by many law enforcement

© 2010 Amy Brown

Antioxidant A compound that

1. Conventional Foods. These foods

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PSYCHOLOGICAL Psychological factors also influence

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«Le vote est le droit à la considération, le

La mère doit voter pour préparer un bon avenir à ses enfants. La

«Ce que la femme doit vouloir, écrit-il, c’est la reconnaissance

Les hommes qui se moquent de Guillaume II parlant de sa royauté de

«Parce que la femme est mère, elle ne

Les infanticides sont si fréquents, que chacun est forcé de se

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