Wileys Gate Instrumentation Engineering Chapter Wise Solved Papers 2000 2020 Lalit Gupta All Chapter

Wiley's GATE Instrumentation
Engineering Chapter - wise Solved

Papers (2000 - 2020) Lalit Gupta
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/wileys-gate-instrumentation-engineering-chapter-wise
-solved-papers-2000-2020-lalit-gupta/
)#6' /E^dZhDEdd/KE
E'/EZ/E'
,WdZͲt/^^K>sWWZ^
;ϮϬϬϬͲϮϬϮϬͿ
z &GVCKNGF'ZCO#PCN[UKU%JCRVGT9KUGCPF6QRKE9KUG
,QVLGH
z 3WGUVKQPUHTQORTGXKQWU[GCTUŨ Ť RCRGTU

z 7PKSWGUETCVEJEQFGVJCVRTQXKFGUCEEGUUVQ
(TGGQPNKPGVGUVYKVJCPCN[VKEU
&C[HTGGUWDUETKRVKQPHQTVQRKEYKUG)#6'VGUVU
+PUVCPVEQTTGEVKQPTGRQTVYKVJTGOGFKCNCEVKQP
3a;P[XcP6d_cP
GATE
CHAPTER-WISE SOLVED PAPERS
INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
(2000-2020)
Dr. Lalita Gupta
Associate Professor,
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute
of Technology, Bhopal
Engineering Mathematics Contributed by
Dr Anil Kumar Maini Varsha Agrawal Nakul Maini

Outstanding Scientist and former Director of Senior Scientist, Laser Science and Analyst
Laser Science and Technology Centre Technology Centre Ericsson (India)
DRDO, New Delhi DRDO, New Delhi
GATE INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
Chapter-wise Solved Papers 2000-2020
Copyright © 2020 by Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 4436/7, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or scanning without the
written permission of the publisher.
Limits of Liability: While the publisher and the author have used their best efforts in preparing this book,
Wiley and the author make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness
of the contents of this book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness
for any particular purpose. There are no warranties which extend beyond the descriptions contained in
this paragraph. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales
materials.
Disclaimer: The contents of this book have been checked for accuracy. Since deviations cannot be
precluded entirely, Wiley or its author cannot guarantee full agreement. As the book is intended for
educational purpose, Wiley or its author shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
arising out of the use of the information contained in the book. This publication is designed to provide
accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the
understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services.
Other Wiley Editorial Offices:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Pappellaee 3, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany
John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia
John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 1 Fusionpolis Walk #07-01 Solaris, South Tower Singapore 138628
John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada, M9W 1L1
Edition: 2020
ISBN: 978-81-265-5869-8
ISBN: 978-81-265-8958-6 (ebk)
www.wileyindia.com
Printed at:
NOTE TO THE ASPIRANTS
About the Examination Eligibility for GATE Instrumentation Engineering

Bachelor’s degree holders in Instrumentation Engineering
Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) is an (4 years after 10+2 or 3 years after B.Sc./Diploma in Electrical/
examination conducted jointly by the Indian Institute of Electronics/Instrumentation).
Science (IISc), Bangalore and the seven Indian Institutes
of Technology (at Bombay, Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur,
Kharagpur, Madras and Roorkee) on behalf of the National About the Book
Coordination Board (NCB)-GATE, Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development This book GATE Chapter wise-Instrumentation Engineer-
(MHRD), and Government of India. Qualifying in GATE is a ing Solved Papers is designed as a must have resource for
mandatory requirement for seeking admission and/or financial the students preparing for the M.E./M.Tech./M.S./Ph.D. in
assistance to: Instrumentation Engineering. It offers Chapter-wise solved
previous years’ GATE Instrumentation Engineering questions
• M aster’s programs and direct Doctoral programs in for the years 2000-2020. This book will help students become
Engineering/Technology/Architecture. well-versed with the pattern of examination, level of ques-
• Doctoral programs in relevant branches of Science, tions asked and concept distribution in questions.
in the institutions supported by the MHRD and other
Government agencies. Even in some colleges and Key Features of the Book
institutions, which admit students without MHRD • C omplete solutions provided for every question, tagged
scholarship/assistantship, the GATE qualification is for the topic on which the question is based.
mandatory. • Chapter-wise analysis of GATE questions provided at
• M
any Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) have been the beginning of the book to make students familiar
using the GATE score in their recruitment process. with chapter-wise marks distribution and weightage of
each.
Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) is basically • Topic-wise analysis of GATE questions provided
an examination on the comprehensive understanding of the at the beginning of each chapter to make students
candidates in various undergraduate subjects in Engineering/ familiar with important topics on which questions are
Technology/Architecture and post-graduate level subjects in commonly asked.
Science. GATE is conducted for 24 subjects (also referred
• Unique scratch code in the book that provides access to
to as “papers”) are generally held at the end of January or
early February of the year. The GATE examination centres Free online test with analytics.

are spread in different cities across India, as well as, in six 7-Day free subscription for topic-wise GATE tests.

cities outside India. The examination is purely a Computer Instant correction report with remedial action.

Based Test (CBT). The GATE score reflects the relative

performance level of the candidate in a particular subject, These features will help students develop problem-solving
which is quantified based on the several years of examination skills and focus in their preparation on important chapters and
data. topics.
Validity
The GATE score is valid for THREE YEARS from the date of
announcement of the results.
GATE_EE_FM_4th Pass.indd 3 16-Jun-20 2:54:34 PM

GATE_EE_FM_4th Pass.indd 4
Gate Instrumentation Engineering: Chapter-Wise Question Distribution Analysis 2010–2020
The table given below depicts the chapter-wise question and marks distribution of previous years’ (2010-2020) GATE Instrumentation Engineering papers. This will help
students understand the relative weightage of each chapter in terms of number of questions asked and thus bring focus in their preparation.
GATE 2010 GATE 2011 GATE 2012 GATE 2013 GATE 2014 GATE 2015 GATE 2016 GATE 2017 GATE 2018 GATE 2019 GATE 2020
S.No. Chapter Name 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks Mark Marks
Engineering
1 5 5 3 5 4 5 3 3 5 3 4 2 5 4 4 2 5 4 4 3 5 5
Mathematics
2 Electrical Circuits 2 2 2 2 4 6 2 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 5 3 1 2
Signals and
3 3 3 6 0 3 3 7 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 5 3 3 4 2 4 4 2
Systems
4 Control Systems 3 4 2 5 1 6 2 4 2 3 1 3 4 4 1 4 3 3 2 5 3 5
Analog
5 1 4 1 5 1 2 4 7 3 4 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 3 3 3 3
Electronics
6 Digital Electronics 2 3 4 5 3 1 1 2 1 6 3 4 2 4 2 3 3 4 4 3 4 2
7 Measurements 2 3 0 2 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 2 2 4 3 4 2 4 1 2 2 5
Sensors and
8 Industrial 4 6 6 5 3 3 4 5 4 5 5 3 1 2 2 4 2 1 2 2 3 4
Instrumentation
Communication
9 and Optical 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 7 2 3 1 4 2 3 2 5 0 2
Instrumentation
16-Jun-20 2:54:35 PM
CONTENTS
Note to the Aspirants iii Chapter 6: Digital Electronics 261

Important Formulas 262
Chapter 1: Engineering Mathematics 1
Questions 264
Answers with Explanation 288
Questions 29
Chapter 7: Measurements 313
Chapter 2: Electrical Circuits 63 Important Formulas 314
Important Formulas 63 Questions 322
Questions 70 Answers with Explanation 337
Chapter 8: Sensors and Industrial Instrumentation 355
Chapter 3: Signals and Systems 113 Important Formulas 356
Important Formulas 113 Questions 357
Questions 116 Answers with Explanation 383
Chapter 9: C
ommunication and Optical
Chapter 4: Control Systems 149 Instrumentation417
Important Formulas 150 Important Formulas 417
Questions 156 Questions 420
Answers with Explanation 175 Answers with Explanation 434
Chapter 5: Analog Electronics 201 Appendix Solved Gate (IN) 2020 453
Questions 210

CHAPTER1 Engineering Mathematics
SYLLABUS
Linear Algebra: Matrix algebra, systems of linear equations, Eigen values and Eigen vectors.
Calculus: Mean value theorems, theorems of integral calculus, partial derivatives, maxima and minima, multiple integrals,
Fourier series, vector identities, line, surface and volume integrals, Stokes, Gauss and Green’s theorems.
Differential Equations: First order equation (linear and nonlinear), higher order linear differential equations with constant
coefficients, method of variation of parameters, Cauchy’s and Euler’s equations, initial and boundary value problems,
solution of partial differential equations: variable separable method.
Analysis of Complex Variables: Analytic functions, Cauchy’s integral theorem and integral formula, Taylor’s and Laurent’s
series, residue theorem, solution of integrals.
Probability and Statistics: Sampling theorems, conditional probability, mean, median, mode and standard deviation,
random variables, discrete and continuous distributions: normal, Poisson and binomial distributions.
Numerical Methods: Matrix inversion, solutions of non-linear algebraic equations, iterative methods for solving differential
equations, numerical integration, regression and correlation analysis.
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
Topic GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE GATE
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Linear Algebra 2 1 1 3 2 1 1 4 2 1
Calculus 3 2 2 2 2 5 2 3
Differential Equation 1 2 2 3 1 1
Analysis of Complex Variables 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
Probability and Statistics 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 2
Numerical Methods 1 1 1
IMPORTANT FORMULAS
Linear Algebra (d) Diagonal matrix: A square matrix is called a diago-
nal matrix if all the elements except those in the lead-
1. Types of Matrices ing diagonal are zero, that is aij = 0 for all i ≠ j.
(a) Row matrix: A matrix having only one row is (e) Scalar matrix: A matrix A = [aij ]n × n is called a
called a row matrix or a row vector. Therefore, for a scalar matrix if
row matrix, m = 1.
(i) aij = 0, for all i ≠ j .
(b) Column matrix: A matrix having only one column
is called a column matrix or a column vector. There- (ii) aii = c, for all i, where c ≠ 0.
fore, for a column matrix, n = 1. (f) Identity or unit matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n × n
(c) Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of is called an identity or unit matrix if
rows is equal to the number of columns, say n, is (i) aij = 0, for all i ≠ j.
called a square matrix of order n. (ii) aij = 1, for all i.
GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 1 11-Jun-20 9:45:58 PM

2 GATE IN CHAPTER-WISE SOLVED PAPERS
(g) Null matrix: A matrix whose all the elements are (e) Cancellation laws: If A, B and C are matrices of the
zero is called a null matrix or a zero matrix. same order, then
(h) Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix A = [aij] A+B=A+C⇒B=C
is called an upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i > j. B+A=C+A⇒B=C
Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]
(i)
5. Some important properties of matrix multiplication
is called a lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i < j. are:
2. Types of a Square Matrix (a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
(a) Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called a nil- (b) Matrix multiplication is associative, that is (AB)C =
potent matrix if there exists a positive integer n such A(BC).
that An = 0. If n is least positive integer such that (c)
Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix
An = 0, then n is called index of the nilpotent matrix A. addition, that is A(B + C) = AB + AC.
(b) Symmetrical matrix: It is a square matrix in which (d) If A is an m × n matrix, then ImA = A = AIn.
aij = aji for all i and j. A symmetrical matrix is nec- (e) The product of two matrices can be the null matrix
essarily a square one. If A is symmetric, then AT = A. while neither of them is the null matrix.
(c)
Skew-symmetrical matrix: It is a square matrix in
which aij = −aji for all i and j. In a skew-symmetrical 6. Some of the important properties of scalar multipli-
matrix, all elements along the diagonal are zero. cation are:
(a) k(A + B) = kA + kB
(d) Hermitian matrix: It is a square matrix A in which
(i, j)th element is equal to complex conjugate of the (b) (k + l) ⋅ A = kA + lA
(j, i)th element, i.e. aij = a ji for all i and j. (c) (kl) ⋅ A = k(lA) = l(kA)
(e) Skew-Hermitian matrix: It is a square matrix A = (d) (−k) ⋅ A = −(kA) = k(−A)
[aij] in which aij = − aij for all i and j. (e) 1 ⋅ A = A
(f) Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called (f) −1 ⋅ A = −A
orthogonal matrix if AAT = ATA = I. Here, A and B are two matrices of same order and k and
l are constants.
3. Equality of a Matrix
If A is a matrix and A2 = A, then A is called idempotent
Two matrices A = [aij]m × n and B = [bij]x × y are equal if matrix. If A is a matrix and satisfies A2 = I, then A is
(a) m = x, that is the number of rows in A equals the called involuntary matrix.
number of rows in B.
7. Some of the important properties of transpose of a
(b) n = y, that is the number of columns in A equals the
matrix are:
number of columns in B.
(a) For any matrix A, (AT)T = A
(c) aij = bij for i = 1, 2, 3, …, m and j = 1, 2, 3, …, n.
(b) For any two matrices A and B of the same order
4. Some of the important properties of matrix addition (A + B)T = AT + BT
are:
(c) If A is a matrix and k is a scalar, then
(a) Commutativity: If A and B are two m × n matrices,
(kA)T = k(AT)
then A + B = B + A, that is matrix addition is commu-
tative. (d) If A and B are two matrices such that AB is defined,
then
(b) Associativity: If A, B and C are three matrices of
(AB)T = BTAT
the same order, then
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) 8. Some of the important properties of inverse of a
that is matrix addition is associative. matrix are:
(c) Existence of identity: The null matrix is the identity (a) A−1 exists only when A is non-singular, that is |A| ≠ 0.
element for matrix addition. Thus, A + O = A = O + A (b) The inverse of a matrix is unique.
(d) Existence of inverse: For every matrix A = [aij]m × n, (c) Reversal laws: If A and B are invertible matrices of
there exists a matrix [aij]m × n, denoted by −A, such the same order, then
that A + (−A) = O = ( −A) + A (AB)−1 = B−1A−1

CHAPTER 1 • Engineering Mathematics 3
(d) If A is an invertible square matrix, then (AT)−1 = (A−1)T (l) If A is any n-rowed square matrix of rank, n − 1, then
(e) The inverse of an invertible symmetric matrix is a adj A ≠ 0
symmetric matrix. (m) The rank of transpose of a matrix is equal to rank of
(f) Let A be a non-singular square matrix of order n. the original matrix.
Then rank (A) = rank (AT)
|adj A| = |A|n −1 (n) The rank of a matrix does not change by
(g) If A and B are non-singular square matrices of the pre-multiplication or post-multiplication with a

same order, then non-singular matrix.
adj (AB) = (adj B)(adj A) (o) If A − B, then rank (A) = rank (B).
(p) The rank of a product of two matrices cannot exceed
(h)
If A is an invertible square matrix, then
rank of either matrix.
adj AT = (adj A)T rank (A × B) ≤ rank A
(i) If A is a non-singular square matrix, then or rank (A × B) ≤ rank B
adj (adj A) = |A|n − 2 A (q) The rank of sum of two matrices cannot exceed sum
(j) If A is a non-singular matrix, then of their ranks.
(r) Elementary transformations do not change the rank
1
|A−1| = |A|−1, that is | A−1 | = of a matrix.
| A|
10. Determinants
(k) Let A, B and C be three square matrices of same
type and A be a non-singular matrix. Then Every square matrix can be associated to an expression
or a number which is known as its determinant. If A =
AB = AC ⇒ B = C [aij] is a square matrix of order n, then the determinant of
and BA = CA ⇒ B = C A is denoted by det A or |A|. If A = [a11] is a square matrix
of order 1, then determinant of A is defined as
9. The rank of a matrix A is commonly denoted by rank
|A| = a11
(A). Some of the important properties of rank of a
matrix are: ⎡a a12 ⎤
(a) The rank of a matrix is unique. If A = ⎢ 11 ⎥ is a square matrix of order 2, then
a
⎣ 21 a23 ⎦
(b) The rank of a null matrix is zero. determinant of A is defined as
(c) Every matrix has a rank. |A| = a11a23 − a12a21
(d) If A is a matrix of order m × n, then rank (A) ≤ m × n
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤
(smaller of the two) ⎢
If A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥⎥ is a square matrix of order 3,
(e) If rank (A) = n, then every minor of order n + 1,
⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦
n + 2, etc., is zero.
(f) If A is a matrix of order n × n, then A is non-singular then determinant of A is defined as
and rank (A) = n. |A| = a11 (a22a33 − a23a32) − a21 (a12a33 − a13a32)
(g) Rank of IA = n. + a21 (a12a23 − a13a22)
or |A| = a11 (a22a33 − a23a32) − a12 (a21a33 − a23a31)
A is a matrix of order m × n. If every kth order minor
(h)
+ a13 (a21a32 − a22a31)
(k < m, k < n) is zero, then
rank (A) < k 11. Minors
(i) A is a matrix of order m × n. If there is a minor of The minor Mij of A = [aij] is the determinant of the square
order (k < m, k < n) which is not zero, then sub-matrix of order (n − 1) obtained by removing i th row
rank (A) ≥ k and j th column of the matrix A.
(j) If A is a non-zero column matrix and B is a non-zero 12. Cofactors
row matrix, then rank (AB) = 1. The cofactor Cij of A = [aij] is equal to (−1)i + j times the
(k) The rank of a matrix is greater than or equal to the determinant of the sub-matrix of order (n − 1) obtained
rank of every sub-matrix. by leaving i th row and j th column of A.

13. Some of the important properties of determinants are: two equations for x and y using the matrix method.
(a) Sum of the product of elements of any row or col- The values obtained for x and y with z = k is the
umn of a square matrix A = [aij] of order n with solution of the system.
their cofactors is always equal to its determinant.
15. The method to solve a non-homogeneous system of
n n simultaneous linear equations. Please note the num-
∑a c
i =1
ij ij = | A| = ∑ aij cij
j =1
ber of unknowns and the number of equations.
(a) Given that A is a non-singular matrix, then a system
(b) Sum of the product of elements of any row or col- of equations represented by AX = B has the unique
umn of a square matrix A = [aij] of order n with the solution which can be calculated by X = A−1 B.
cofactors of the corresponding elements of other (b) If AX = B is a system with linear equations equal to
row or column is zero. the number of unknowns, then three cases arise:
n n
• I f A ≠ 0, system is consistent and has a unique
∑a c
i =1
ij ik = 0 = ∑ aij ckj
j =1 solution given by X = A−1 B.
(c) For a square matrix A = [aij] of order n, |A| = |AT|. • I f A = 0 and (adj A)B = 0, system is consistent
(d) Consider a square matrix A = [aij] of order n ≥ 2 and and has infinite solutions.
B obtained from A by interchanging any two rows or • If A = 0 and (adj A)B ≠ 0, system is inconsistent.
columns of A, then |B| = −A.
(e) For a square matrix A = [aij] of order (n ≥ 2), if any 16.Cramer’s Rule
two rows or columns are identical, then its determi- Suppose we have the following system of linear equa-
nant is zero, that is |A| = 0. tions:
(f) If all the elements of a square matrix A = [aij] of a1x + b1 y + c1z = k1
order n are multiplied by a scalar k, then the deter- a2x + b2 y + c2z = k2
minant of new matrix is equal to k|A|.
a3x + b3 y + c3z = k3
(g) Let A be a square matrix such that each element of
a row or column of A is expressed as the sum of two Now, if
or more terms. Then |A| can be expressed as the sum
of the determinants of two or more matrices of the ⎡ a1 b1 c1 ⎤
same order. Δ = ⎢⎢ a2 b2 c2 ⎥⎥ ≠ 0
(h) Let A be a square matrix and B be a matrix obtained ⎢⎣ a3 b3 c3 ⎥⎦
from A by adding to a row or column of A a scalar
⎡ k1 b1 c1 ⎤
multiple of another row or column of A, then |B| = |A|.
Δ1 = ⎢⎢ k2 b2 c2 ⎥⎥ ≠ 0
(i) Let A be a square matrix of order n (≥ 2) and also a
null matrix, then |A| = 0. ⎢⎣ k3 b3 c3 ⎥⎦
(j) Consider A = [aij] as a diagonal matrix of order ⎡ a1 k1 c1 ⎤
n (≥ 2), then Δ 2 = ⎢⎢ a2 k2 c2 ⎥⎥ ≠ 0
|A| = a11 × a22 × a33 × … × ann ⎢⎣ a3 k3 c3 ⎥⎦
(k) Suppose A and B are square matrices of same order,
⎡ a1 b1 k1 ⎤
then
Δ 3 = ⎢⎢ a2 b2 k2 ⎥⎥ ≠ 0
|AB| = |A| ⋅ |B|
⎢⎣ a3 b3 k3 ⎥⎦
14. There are two cases that arise for homogeneous sys-
tems: Thus, the solution of the system of equations is given by
(a) Matrix A is non-singular or |A| ≠ 0. Δ1
x=
The solution of the homogeneous system in the Δ
above equation has a unique solution, X = 0, that is Δ2
x1 = x2 = … = xj = 0. y=
Δ
Matrix A is singular or |A| = 0, then it has infinite
(b) Δ
many solutions. To find the solution when |A| = 0, z= 3
Δ
put z = k (where k is any real number) and solve any

17. Augmented Matrix problem. To solve the problem, we need to determine the
Consider the following system of equations: value of X’s and l’s to satisfy the above-mentioned vec-
tor. Note that the zero vector (that is X = 0) is not of our
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1 interest. A value of l for which the above equation has a
solution X ≠ 0 is called an eigenvalue or characteristic
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2 n xn = b2
value of the matrix A. The corresponding solutions
X ≠ 0 of the equation are called the eigenvectors or
characteristic vectors of A corresponding to that eigen-
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + + amn xn = bm
value, l. The set of all the eigenvalues of A is called
This system can be represented as AX = B. the spectrum of A. The largest of the absolute values of
the eigenvalues of A is called the spectral radius of A.
 a11 a12 a1n   x1  The sum of the elements of the principal diagonal of a
a  
a22 a2 n  x matrix A is called the trace of A.
where A =  21 , X =  2  and
    20. Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
   
 am1 am 2 amn   xn  Some of the main characteristics of eigenvalues and
eigenvectors are discussed in the following points:
⎡b1 ⎤ (a) If l1, l2, l3, …, ln are the eigenvalues of A, then kl1,
⎢ ⎥
b kl2, kl3, …, kln are eigenvalues of kA, where k is a
B = ⎢ 2 ⎥.
⎢ ⎥ constant scalar quantity.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣bn ⎥⎦ (b) If l1, l2, l3, …, ln are the eigenvalues of A, then
1 1 1 1
 a11 a12 a1n b1  , , , ..., are the eigenvalues of A−1.
λ1 λ 2 λ3 λn
 
a a22 a2 n b2 
The matrix  A B  =  21 is called (c) If l1, l2, l3, …, ln are the eigenvalues of A, then
 
  λ1k , λ 2k , λ3k , ..., λ nk are the eigenvalues of Ak.
 am1 am 2 amn bm 
(d) If l1, l2, l3, …, ln are the eigenvalues of A, then
augmented matrix.
A A A A
18. Cayley–Hamilton Theorem , , , ..., are the eigenvalues of adj A.
λ1 λ 2 λ3 λn
According to the Cayley–Hamilton theorem, every
square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equations. (e) The eigenvalues of a matrix A are equal to the eigen-
Hence, if values of AT.
(f) The maximum number of distinct eigenvalues is n,
A − λ I = ( −1) n ( λ n + a1λ n −1 + a2 λ n − 2 + + an )
where n is the size of the matrix A.
is the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A of order n, (g) The trace of a matrix is equal to the sum of the
then the matrix equation eigenvalues of a matrix.
X n + a1 X n −1 + a2 X n − 2 + + an I = 0 (h) The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal

to the determinant of that matrix.
is satisfied by X = A. (i) If A and B are similar matrices, that is A = IB, then
A and B have the same eigenvalues.
19. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
If A = [aij]n × n is a square matrix of order n, then the vector (j) If A and B are two matrices of same order, then the
matrices AB and BA have the same eigenvalues.
é x1 ù
êx ú (k) The eigenvalues of a triangular matrix are equal to
ê 2ú the diagonal elements of the matrix.
equation AX = lX, where X = êê . úú is an unknown vector
ê. ú
ê. ú Calculus
ê ú
êë xn úû 21. Rolle’s Mean Value Theorem
and l is an unknown scalar value, is called an eigenvalue Consider a real-valued function defined in the closed
interval [a, b], such that

(a) It is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. Suppose f(x) is a real-valued function defined at the
(b) It is differentiable on the open interval (a, b). interval (a, b). Then f(x) is said to have minimum value,
if there exists a point y in (a, b) such that
(c) f(a) = f(b).
f (x) ≥ f (y) for all x ∈ (a, b)
Then, according to Rolle’s theorem, there exists a real
number c ∈( a, b) such that f ′(c) = 0. Local maxima and local minima of any function can be
calculated as:
22. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Consider that f(x) be defined in (a, b) and y ∈ (a, b).
Consider a function f(x) defined in the closed interval Now,
[a, b], such that (a) If f ′( y ) = 0 and f ′( x ) changes sign from positive
(a) It is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. to negative as ‘x’ increases through ‘y’, then x = y is
(b) It is differentiable on the closed interval (a, b). a point of local maximum value of f(x).
Then, according to Lagrange’s mean value theorem, (b) If f ′( y ) = 0 and f ′( x ) changes sign from negative
there exists a real number c ∈( a, b), such that to positive as ‘x’ increases through ‘y’, then x = y is
a point of local minimum value of f(x).
f ( b) − f ( a)
f ′( c ) =
b−a 27. Some important properties of maximum and minima
are given as follows:
23. Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
(a) If f(x) is continuous in its domain, then at least one
Consider two functions f(x) and g(x), such that maxima and minima lie between two equal values of x.
(a) f (x) and g(x) both are continuous in [a, b]. (b) Maxima and minima occur alternately, that is no
(b) f ′(x) and g ′(x) both exist in (a, b). two maxima or minima can occur together.
Then there exists a point c ∈( a, b) such that
28. Maximum and minimum values in a closed interval
f ′( c ) f ( b) − f ( a) [a, b] can be calculated using the following steps:
=
g ′( c ) g ( b) − g ( a) (a) Calculate f ′( x ).
24. Taylor’s Theorem (b) Put f ′( x ) = 0 and find value(s) of x. Let c1, c2, ..., cn
If f(x) is a continuous function such that f ′(x), be values of x.
f ′( x ), f ′′( x ), …, f n −1 ( x ) are all continuous in [a, a + h] and (c) Take the maximum and minimum values out of the
f n ( x ) exists in (a, a + h) where h = b − a, then accord- values f(a), f(c1), f(c2), …, f(cn), f(b). The maximum
ing to Taylor’s theorem, and minimum values obtained are the absolute max-
imum and absolute minimum values of the function,
h2 respectively.
f ( a + h) = f ( a) + hf ′( a) + f ′′( a)
2!
hn −1 hn n 29. Partial Derivatives
+ + f n −1 ( a) + f ( a)
( n − 1)! n! Partial differentiation is used to find the partial deriva-
tive of a function of more than one independent variable.
25. Maclaurin’s Theorem The partial derivatives of f(x, y) with respect to x and y
If the Taylor’s series obtained in Section 24 is centered are defined by
at 0, then the series we obtain is called the Maclaurin’s
series. According to Maclaurin’s theorem, ∂f f ( x + ay ) − f ( x, y )
= lim
∂x a → 0 a
h2 hn −1
f ( h) = f (0) + hf ′(0) + f ′′(0) + + f n −1 (0) ∂f f ( x , y + b) − f ( x , y )
2! (n − 1)! = lim
∂x b → 0 b
hn n
+ f ( 0) and the above limits exist.
n!
∂f ∂x is simply the ordinary derivative of f with respect
26. Maxima and Minima
to x keeping y constant, while ∂f ∂x is the ordinary
Suppose f(x) is a real-valued function defined at an inter-
derivative of f with respect to y keeping x constant.
nal (a, b). Then f(x) is said to have maximum value, if
there exists a point y in (a, b) such that Similarly, second-order partial derivatives can be calcu-
lated by
f (x) = f (y) for all x ∈ (a, b)

∂ ⎛ ∂ f ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ f ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂f ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂f ⎞ Integration Result
⎜ ⎟, , ⎜ ⎟, and is, respec-
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠
x 1
∫ cos + sin x cos x + C
2
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f xdx
tively, denoted by , , , . 2 2
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y 2
1
∫ cos sin x − sin 3 x + C
3
30. Some of the important relation are given as follows: xdx
3
(a) If u = f(x, y) and y = f(x), then
1 n −1
cos n −1 x sin x +
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂y n n
∫ cos
n
= + ⋅ xdx
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x
∫ cos
n−2
xdx + C
(b) If u = f(x, y) and x = f1(t1, t2) and y = f2(t1, t2), then
tan −1 x
∫ cos n −1 ∫
− tan n − 2 xdx + C
n
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y xdx
= ⋅ + ⋅
∂t1 ∂x ∂t1 ∂y ∂t1
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y dx 1 x−a
and = ⋅ + ⋅ ∫x 2
− a2
ln
2a x + a
+C
∂t 2 ∂x ∂t 2 ∂y ∂t 2
31. Integration Using Table dx

Some of the common integration problems can be
∫ x ±a2 2
ln x + x 2 ± a 2 + C
solved by directly referring the tables and computing the

1
results. Table 1 shows the result of some of the common
∫ x sin nxdx (sin nx − nx cos nx ) + C
integrals we use. n2
Table 1 | Table of common integrals 1
∫ x cos nxdx (cos nx + nx sin nx ) + C
n2
Integration Result
e ax ( a sin bx − b cos bx )
∫ e sin bxdx +C
ax
1 1
∫ ax + b dx a
ln ax + b + C where C is a a2 + b2
constant e ax ( a cos bx + b sin bx )
∫ e cos bxdx +C
ax
1 1 a2 + b2
∫ (ax + b) 2
dx −
a ( ax + b )
+C
1
( − n2 x 2 cos nx + 2 cos nx
∫x
2 3
1 1 sin nxdx n
∫ (ax + b) n
dx −
a ( n − 1) ( ax + b )
n −1
+C + 2nx sin nx ) + C
1 2 2
1 1 ⎛ x⎞ ( n x sin nx − 2 sin nx
∫ a2 + x 2 dx ∫x
2
tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ + C cos nxdx n3
a ⎝ a⎠
+ 2nx cos nx ) + C
f ′ (x)
∫ f ( x ) dx ln f ( x ) + C
32. Integration by Partial Fraction
x 1 The formula which come handy while working with
∫ sin − sin x cos x + C
2
xdx
2 2 partial fractions are given as follows:
1
∫ sin xdx
3 1
− cos x + cos3 x + C ∫ x − a dx = ln ( x − a) + C
3
1 1 1 ⎛ x⎞
− sin n −1 x cos x ∫a +x
dx = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ + C
⎝ a⎠
∫ sin
2 2
n
xdx n a
n −1
n ∫
+ sin n − 2 xdx + C
∫a 2
x
+x 2
1
(
dx = ln a 2 + x 2 + C
2
)
(Continued)

33. Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution the resulting expression is integrated with respect to
Trigonometric substitution is used to simplify certain x within the limits x1, x2.
integrals containing radical expressions. Depending on x2 y2
the function we need to integrate, we substitute one of ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dxdy = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dydx
the following expressions to simplify the integration: Q x1 y1
(a) For a 2 − x 2 , use x = a sin θ . (c) When x1, x2, y1 and y2 are constants, then
y2 x2 x2 y2
(b) For a 2 + x 2 , use x = a tan θ .
∫∫ f ( x, y ) dxdy = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dxdy = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dydx
(c) For x − a , use x = a sec θ .
2 2 Q y1 x1 x1 y1
34. Some of the important properties of definite inte- 36. Change of Order of Integration
grals are given as follows: As already discussed, if limits are constant
(a) The value of definite integrals remains the same y2 x2 x2 y 2
with change of variables of integration provided the ∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dydx

limits of integration remain the same. y1 x1 x1 y1
b b Hence, in a double integral, the order of integration

∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx = ∫ f ( y ) ⋅ dy does not change the final result provided the limits are
a a
changed accordingly.
b a
However, if the limits are variable, the change of order
(b) ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx = − ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx
a b
of integration changes the limits of integration.
b c b 37. The length of the arc of the polar curve r = f (θ ) between

(c) ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx = ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx + ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx if a < c < b
β
a a c ⎡ 2 ⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎤
2a a a
the points where θ = α , β is ∫ ⎢ r + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥ dθ .
dθ ⎦
⎣
∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx = ∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx + ∫ f ( 2a − x ) ⋅ dx α
(d)
0 0 0
The length of the arc of the curve x = f (t ) , y = g (t )
a a
between the points where t = a and t = b is
(e) ∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx = ∫ f (a − x) ⋅ dx
0 0 b
⎡⎛ dx ⎞ 2 ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎤
a a ∫ ⎢⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎥ dt .
⎣ dt dt ⎦
(f) ∫
−a
f ( x ) ⋅ dx = 2∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx , if the function is even.
0
a
a
38. Fourier Series
∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx = 0, if the function is odd. Fourier series is a way to represent a wave-like function

−a as a combination of sine and cosine waves. It decom-
na a poses any periodic function into the sum of a set of sim-
(g) ∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx = n∫ f ( x ) ⋅ dx if f(x) = f(x + a) ple oscillating functions (sines and cosines). The Fourier
0 0 series for the function f(x) in the interval α < x < α + 2π
35. Some of the important properties of double integrals is given by
are: a0 ∞ ∞
(a) When x1, x2 are functions of y and y1, y2 are con- f ( x) = + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
2 n =1 n =1
stants, then f(x, y) is integrated with respect to x
keeping y constant within the limits x1, x2 and the where
resulting expression is integrated with respect to y 1 α + 2π
π ∫α
between the limits y1, y2. a0 = f ( x )dx
y2 x2
1 α + 2π
an = ∫
∫∫
Q
f ( x, y ) dxdy = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy
y1 x1
π α
f ( x ) cos nxdx
1 α + 2π
(b) When y1, y2 are functions of x and x1, x2 are con- bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin nxdx
π α
stants, f(x, y) is first integrated with respect to y,
keeping x constant and between the limits y1, y2 and The values of a0, an and bn are known as Euler’s formulae.

39. Conditions for Fourier Expansion nπ x 1 c nπ x

However, since f ( x ) sin is even, bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin dx = 0.
Fourier expansion can be performed on any function f(x) c c − c c
if it fulfills the Dirichlet conditions. The Dirichlet condi- 1 c nπ x
bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin dx = 0.
tions are given as follows: c −c c
(a) f(x) should be periodic, single-valued and finite. Thus, if a periodic function f(x) is even, its Fourier
(b) f(x) should have a finite number of discontinuities in expansion contains only cosine terms, a0 and an.
any one period. (b) When f(x) is an odd function,
(c) f(x) should have a finite number of maxima and 1 c
c ∫− c
minima. a0 = f ( x )dx = 0
40. Fourier Expansion of Discontinuous Function 1 c nπ x

c ∫− c
an = f ( x ) cos dx = 0
We can define the Euler’s formulae as follows: c
1⎡ c However,
ϕ 2 ( x )dx ⎤
α + 2π
a0 =
π⎣ ⎢ ∫α
ϕ 1 ( x )dx + ∫
c ⎥⎦ 1 c nπ x 2 c nπ x
1 c
bn =
c ∫ −
f ( x ) sin
c
dx = ∫ f ( x ) sin
c 0 c
dx .
an = ⎡ ∫ ϕ 1 ( x ) cos nxdx + ∫ ϕ 2 ( x ) cos nxdx ⎤
α + 2π c
π ⎢
⎣ α c ⎦⎥ T
hus, if a periodic function f(x) is odd, its Fourier
1 c
bn = ⎡ ∫ ϕ 1 ( x ) sin nxdx + ∫ ϕ 2 ( x ) sin nxdx ⎤
α + 2π
expansion contains only sine terms and bn.
π ⎣⎢ α c ⎦⎥
43. Vectors
At x = c, there is a finite jump in the graph of function. Vector is any quantity that has magnitude as well as
Both the limits, left-hand limit (that is, f(c − 0)) and direction. If we have two points
right-hand limit (that is, f(c + 0)), exist and are different. A and B, then vector
between A and B is denoted by AB .
At such a point, Fourier series gives the value of f(x) as
the arithmetic mean of these two limits. Hence, at x = c, Position vector is a vector of any points, A, with respect to
the origin, O. If A is given by the coordinates x, y and z.
1
f ( x) = ⎡ f (c − 0 ) + f (c + 0 )⎤⎦
2⎣ AP = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
41. Change of Interval 44. Zero vector is a vector whose initial and final points
Till now, we have talked about functions having peri- are same. Zero vectors are denoted by 0 . They are also
ods of 2π . However, often the period of the function called null vectors.
required to be expanded is some other interval (say 2c). 45. Unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity or one.
Then, the Fourier expansion is given as follows: It is in the direction of given vector A and is denoted
a0 ∞ nπ x ∞ nπ x by A .
f ( x) = + ∑ an cos + ∑ bn sin 46. Equal vectors are those which have the same magnitude
2 n =1 c n =1 c
and direction regardless of their initial points.
where
47. Addition of Vectors
1 α + 2c
a0 = ∫ f ( x )dx According to triangle law of vector addition, as shown in
c α
Fig. 1,
1 α + 2c nπ x
an = ∫ f ( x ) cos dx
c α c C
1 α + 2c nπ x
bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin dx
c α c c
b
42. Fourier Series Expansion of Even and Odd Functions
(a) When f(x) is an even function,
A B
1 c 2 c a
a0 = ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx
c c 0 Figure 1 | Triangle law of vector addition.
− c
1 c nπ x 2 c nπ x
an = ∫ f ( x ) cos dx = ∫ f ( x ) cos dx c = a+b
c − c c c 0 c

According to parallelogram law of vector addition, as

where a = magnitude of vector a
shown in Fig. 2,
b = magnitude of vector b
B C
q = angle between a and b , 0 ≤ q ≤ p

n = Unit vector perpendicular to both a and b.

b c
The result of a × b is always a vector.
52. Some important laws of cross product are:

O a A
(a) A × B = −B × A
Figure 2 | Parallelogram law of vector addition. (b) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C

c = a+b (c) m(A × B) = (ma) × B = A × (mB)
If we have two vectors represented by adjacent sides of (d) iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0, iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj
parallelogram, then the sum of the two vectors in magni- (e) If A = A iˆ + A ĵ + A k̂ and B = B iˆ + B ĵ + B k̂, then
1 2 3 1 2 3
tude and direction is given by the diagonal of the paral-
lelogram. This is known as parallelogram law of vector iˆ ˆj kˆ
addition. A × B = A1 A2 A3
48. Some important properties of vector addition are: B1 B2 B3

(a) If we have two vectors a and b
53. Derivatives of Vector Functions

a+b = b +a The derivative of vector A(x) is defined as

(b) If we have three vectors a , b and c dA A( x + Δx ) − A( x )
= lim
dx Δx → 0 Δx
( a + b ) + c = a + (b + c )
if the above limits exists.
49. Multiplication of Vectors If A(x) = A1(x)iˆ + A2(x) ĵ + A3(x)k̂, then
(a) Multiplication of a vector with scalar: Consider a dA dA1 ˆ dA2 ˆ dA3 ˆ
= i+ j+ k
vector a and a scalar quantity v. Then
dx dx dx dx

ka = k a If A(x, y, z) = A (x, y, z)iˆ + A (x, y, z) ĵ + A (x, y, z)k̂, then
1 2 3
(b) M ultiplication of a vector with another vector dA dA dA

using dot product: Dot product or scalar product dA = dx + dy + dz
dx dy dz
of two vectors is given by
d
( A ⋅ B) = A
dB dA
+ B
a ⋅ b = a b cos θ
dy dy dy

where a = magnitude of vector a , b = magni- d dB dA
( A × B) = A × + ×B
tude of vector b and q = angle between a and b, 0 dz dz dz
≤ q ≤ p.
A unit vector perpendicular to two given vectors a and
50. Some important laws of dot product are: b is given by

(a) A ⋅B = B ⋅A a×b
c=
(b) A ⋅B + C = A ⋅B + A ⋅C |a×b |
(c) k(A ⋅B) = (kA)⋅B = A ⋅(kB) 54. Gradient of a Scalar Field
(d) iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1, iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0 If we have a scalar function a(x, y, z), then the gradi-
ent of this scalar function is a vector function which is
51. Multiplication of Vectors Using Cross Product defined by
The cross or vector product of two vectors is given by
∂f ˆ ∂f ˆ ∂f ˆ
grad a = ∇a = i+ j+ k
a × b = a b sin θ nˆ,
iˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z

55. Divergence of a Vector If the function f is differentiable at x, then the directional

If we have a differentiable vector A (x, y, z), then diver- derivative exists alone any vector v,

gence of vector A is given by ∇ v f ( x ) = ∇f ( x ) ⋅ v
∂A ∂Ay ∂Az
div A = ∇A = x + + where ∇ on the right-hand side of the equation is the
∂x ∂y ∂z v
gradient and v is the unit vector given by v = .
v
where Ax, Ay and Az are the components of vector A.
The directional derivative is also often written as fol-
56. Curl of a Vector lows:

The curl of a continuously differentiable vector A is d ∂ ∂ ∂
given by = v ⋅ ∇ = vx + vy + vz
dv ∂x ∂y ∂z
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞
curl A = ∇A = ⎜ i + j + k ⎟ × ( Ax i + Ay j + Az k ) 59. Scalar Triple Product
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
The scalar product of three vectors a, b and c is defined
i j k as
∂ ∂ ∂ [a, b, c] = a ⋅ (b × c) = b ⋅ (c × a) = c ⋅ ( a × b)
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
The volume of a parallelepiped whose sides are given by
Ax Ay Az the vectors a, b and c, as shown in Fig. 3, can be calcu-
lated by the absolute value of the scalar triple product.
⎛ ∂A ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ax ∂Az ⎞ ⎛ ∂Ay ∂Ax ⎞
=⎜ z − i+⎜ − ⎟ j+⎜ − k
⎝ ∂y ⎟
∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠ Vparallelepiped = | a ⋅ (b × c) |

where Ax, Ay and Az are the components of vector A. a×b
57. Some important points of divergence and curl are:

∂2 A ∂2 A ∂2 A
(a) ∇ ⋅ ∇ A = ∇ A = 2
+ +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

(b) ∇ × ∇ A = 0

(c) ∇ ⋅ ∇ × A = 0 c

(d) ∇ × (∇ × A ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) × ∇2 A b

(e) ∇ (∇ ⋅ A ) = ∇ × (∇ × A ) + ∇2 A a
Figure 3 | Parallelepiped with sides given by the
(f) ∇ ( A + B ) = ∇ ⋅ A + ∇ ⋅ B
vectors a, b and c.

(g) ∇ × ( A + B ) = ∇ × A + ∇ × B
60. Vector Triple Product

(h) ∇ ⋅ ( A × B ) = B ⋅ (∇ × A ) − A ⋅ (∇ × B ) If we have three vectors a, b and c, then the vector triple
product is given by
(i) ∇ × ( A × B ) = (B ⋅ ∇) A − B (∇⋅A) − (A∇) B
+ A (∇B) a × (b × c) = b( a ⋅ c) − c( a ⋅ b)
58. Directional Derivative 61. Line Integrals

The directional derivative of a scalar function, Let us say that points (ak, bk) are chosen so that they lie
f ( x ) = f ( x1 , x2 , …, xn ) along a vector v = ( v1 , …, vn ) is on the curve between points (xk−1, yk−1) and (xk, yk).
a function defined by the limit Now, consider the sum,
n
f ( x + hv ) − f ( x )
∇ v f ( x ) = lim ∑ {P (α k , βk ) Δxk + Q(α k , βk ) Δyk }
h→ 0 h k =1

The limit of the sum as n → ∞ is taken in such a way that

all the quantities Δ xk and Δ yk approach zero, and if such
limit exists, it is called a line integral along the curve C ∆Ck
and is denoted by
C
∫ [ P ( x, y)dx + Q( x, y)dy]
c
The limit exists if P and Q are continuous at all points of

C. To understand better, refer to Fig. 4.
∆Ak = ∆xk ∆yk

y C′
(xk + 1, yk + 1)
B(a2, b2)
(αk + 1, βk + 1)
C (xk, yk) Figure 5 | Surface integrals.

A(α1, β1)
63. Stokes’ Theorem
(x1, y1)
∫ A ⋅ dr = ∫∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ nds
c s
64. Green’s Theorem
⎛ ∂f1 ∂f 2 ⎞
a1 a2 x ∫∫ ⎜⎝ ∂x − ∂y ⎟⎠ dxdy = ∫ ( f dx + f dy)
s c
2 1
Figure 4 | Line integral.

65. Gauss Divergence Theorem
In the same way, a line integral along a curve C in the
three-dimensional space is given by ∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ AdV = ∫∫ A ⋅ ndS
v

s
∫ [ A1dx + A2 dy + A3 dz ]
Differential Equations
c
where A1, A2 and A3 are functions of x, y and z, respec-

tively. 66. Variable Separable
If all functions of x and dx can be arranged on one side
62. Surface Integrals and y and dy on the other side, then the variables are
Suppose g(x, y, z) is single valued and continuous for all separable. The solution of this equation is found by inte-
values of C. Now, consider the sum grating the functions of x and y.
∫ f ( x)dx = ∫ g ( y)dy + C
n
∑ g (α
k =1
k , βk , γ k ) Δc p
67. Homogeneous Equation

where (ak, bk, gk) is any arbitrary point of ΔCk. If the limit
of this sum, n→∞ is in such a way that each ΔCk → 0 Homogeneous equations are of the form
exists, the resulting limit is called the surface integral of
dy f ( x, y )
g(x, y, z) over C. =
dx g ( x, y )
The surface integral is denoted by
where f(x, y) and g(x, y) are homogeneous functions of
∫∫ g ( x, y, z ) ⋅ ds
C
the same degree in x and y. Homogeneous functions are
those in which all the terms are of nth degree. To solve
Figure 5 graphically represents surface integrals. homogeneous equation,

dy dy 70. Integrating Factor

(a) Put y = vx , then = v + x .
dx dx A differential equation which is not exact can be con-
verted into an exact differential equation by multipli-
(b) Separate v and x and then integrate.
cation of a suitable function. This function is called
dy integrating factor.
= f ( y/ x )
dx Some of the important formulae are:
⇒ y/ x = v (a) If the given equation of the form M dx + N dy = 0
dv dx is homogeneous and Mx + Ny ≠ 0, then
⇒ =
f (v) − v x 1
I.F. =
dv Mx + Ny
⇒ ∫ f (v) − v = log x + C
(b) If the given equation is of the form f ( x, y ) y∂x + g ( x, y ) x∂y = 0
f ( x, y ) y∂x + g ( x, y ) x∂y = 0 and Mx − Ny ≠ 0, then
68. Linear Equation of First Order
If a differential equation has its dependent variables and 1
I.F. =
its derivatives occur in the first degree and are not multi- Mx − Ny
plied together, then the equation is said to be linear. The
standard equation of a linear equation of first order is (c) If the given equation is of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0
given as 1 ⎛ ∂M ∂N ⎞
and − = f ( x ) where f ( x ) is a func-
dy N ⎜⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎟⎠
+ Py = Q tion of x, then
dx
I.F. = e ∫
f ( x )⋅∂x
where P and Q are functions of x.
Integrating factor = (I.F.) = e ∫ (d) If the given equation is of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0
P ⋅ dx
1 ⎛ ∂N ∂M ⎞
and − = f ( y ) where f ( y ) in a func-
y ⋅ e∫ = ∫ Q ⋅ e∫ M ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
P ⋅ dx P ⋅ dx
dx + C
tion of y, then
⇒ y(I.F.) = ∫ Q(I.F.) dx + C
I.F. = e ∫
f ( y )⋅∂y
69. Exact Differential Equation

71. Clairaut’s Equation
A differential equation of the form M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy
dy = 0, if df = M dx + N dy where f(x, y) is a function, is An equation of the form y = px + f ( p), where p =
is called a Clairaut’s equation. dx
called an exact differential equation.
Solution of differential equation is f(x, y) = C. We know that
The necessary condition for the differential equation to y = px + f ( p) (1)
be exact is Differentiating above equation with respect to x, we get
∂M ∂N dp dp
= p = p+ x + f ′( p)
∂y ∂x dx dx
dp
The exact differential equation can be solved using the ⇒ [ x + f ′( p)] = 0
dx
following steps:
Therefore,
(a) First, integrate M with respect to x keeping y con-
stant. dp
[ x + f ′( p)] = 0 or =0
dx
(b) Next, integrate the terms of N with respect to y
which do not involve x. dp
Now, if = 0, then p = c.(2)
(c) Then, the sum of the two expressions is equated to dx
an arbitrary constant to give the solution. Thus, eliminating p from Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
y = cx + f (c)
∫ M ⋅ dx + ∫ N ⋅ dy = C as the general solution of the given equation.

Hence, the solution of Clairaut’s equation is obtained on Case III: If the roots of A.E. are complex, that is
replacing p by c. α + iβ , α − iβ , m3 ,..., mn , then
72. Linear Differential Equation

y = eα x (C1 cos β x + C2 sin β x ) + c3 e m3 x + + cn e mn x
The general form of a differential equation of nth order
is denoted by where C1 = c1 + c2 and C2 = i(c1 − c2 ).
n n −1 n−2
d y d y d y If the complex roots are equal, then
n
+ p1 n −1 p2 n − 2 + + pn y = X
dx dx dx
y = eα x [(c1 x + c2 ) cos β x + (c3 x + c4 ) sin β x ] + + cn e mn x
where p1, p2, …, pn and X are functions of x.
73. Particular Integrals
If operator d/dx is denoted by D, then substituting it in
Consider the equation given in the previous section
above equation, we get
( D n + k1 D n −1 + k2 D n − 2 + + kn ) y = X
n −1 n−2
D y + p1 D
n
y + p2 D y + + pn y = X
The particular integral of the equation is given by
⇒ f ( D) y = X
1
where f(D) = Dn + p1Dn - 1 + + pn = 0. P.I. = X
D n + k1 D n −1 + k2 D n − 2 + + kn
As already mentioned before, the equation can be gener-
alized as The following cases arise for particular integrals:
f ( D) y = X (a) When X = eax, then
The general solution of the above equation can be given 1
P.I. = e ax
as f ( D)
y = (Complementary Function) + (Particular Integral) 1 ax
= e , if f ( a) ≠ 0
The general form of the linear differential equation with f ( a)
constant coefficients is given as
If f ( a) = 0, then
dn y d n −1 y d n−2
+ k + k + + kn y = X x
dx n
1
dx n −1
2
∂x n − 2 P.I. = e ax , if f ′( a) ≠ 0
f ′( a)
where k1, k2, …, kn are constants and X is a function of
x only. If f ′( a) = 0, then
The equation x2
P.I. = e ax , if f ′′( a) ≠ 0
dn y d n −1 y d n−2 f ′′( a)
+ k1 n −1 + k2 n − 2 + + kn y = 0
dx n
dx dx (b) When X = sin ax, then
where k1, k2, …, kn are constants can also be denoted as 1
P.I. = sin ax
( D + k1 D
n n −1
+ k2 D n−2
+ + kn ) y = 0 f (D2 )
and the equation D n + k1 D n −1 + k2 D n − 2 + + kn = 0 is 1

sin ax , if f ( − a ) ≠ 0
2
=
called the auxiliary equation (A.E.). f ( −a2 )
Now, if m1, m2, …, mn are the roots, then the comple- (c) When X = cos ax, then
mentary functions can be calculated using the following
cases: 1
P.I. = cos ax
Case I: If the roots of A.E. are distinct and real, that is f (D2 )
m1 ≠ m2 ≠ m3 ≠ ≠ mn, then
1
= cos ax , if f ( − a 2 ) ≠ 0
y = c1e m1 x
+ c2 e m2 x
+ c3 e m3 x
+ f ( −a2 )
Case II: If some roots of A.E. are real and some are (d) When X = xm, then
equal, that is m1 = m2 ≠ m3, then
1
P.I. = x m = [ f ( D )]−1 x m
y = (c1 + c2 x )e m1 x
+ c3 c m3 x
+ f ( D)

Expansion of [ f ( D )]−1 is to be carried up to the term Dm dz

⇒ + P (1 − n) z = Q (1 − n)
because (m + 1)th and higher derivatives of xm are zero. dx
(e) When X = e ax v( x ), then which is Leibnitz’s linear equation in z and can be solved
using the methods mentioned under Integrating Factor.
1
P.I. = e ax v( x )
f ( D) 76. Homogeneous Euler–Cauchy Equation
1 An ordinary differential equation is called homogeneous
P.I. = e ax v( x ) Euler-Cauchy equation, if it is in the form
f ( D + a)
ax 2 y ′′ + bxy ′ + cy = 0 (4)
(f) When X = x v(x), then
where a, b and c are constants. This equation has two
1 linearly independent solutions, which depend on the fol-
P.I. = x v( x )
f ( D) lowing quadratic equation:
⎡ f ′( D ) ⎤ 1 am2 + (b - a) m + c = 0
= ⎢x − ⋅ v( x )
⎣ f ( D ) ⎥⎦ f ( D ) This quadratic equation is known as characteristic equa-
tion. Let us consider Eq. (4) for x > 0 as this equation is
Thus, the following steps should be used to calculate the
singular for x = 0.
complete solution:
(i) Find the auxiliary equation (A.E.) from the differ- (a) If the roots of the characteristic equation are real
ential equation. and distinct, say m1 and m2, two linearly independent
(ii) Calculate the complementary function using the solutions of the differential equations are xm1 and xm2.
cases given before. (b) If the roots of characteristic equation are real and
(iii) Calculate particular integral (P.I.) using the cases equal, that is, m1 = m2 = m; the linearly independent
explained before. solutions of the differential equation are xm and xm
(iv) To find the complete solution, use the following ln x. The general solution for the first case is given by
expression: y = c1xm1 + c2xm2
y = C.F. + P.I.
The general solution for the second case is given by
74. Homogeneous Linear Equation y = (c1 + c2 ln x) xm
Cauchy’s homogeneous linear equation is given by (c) If the roots of characteristic equation are complex
conjugate, that is, m1 = a + jb and m2 = a - jb, line-
dn y d n −1 y ∂n−2
xn + k1 x n −1 n −1 + k2 x n − 2 n − 2 + + kn y = X arly independent solutions of differential are xa cos
dx n
dx ∂x (b ln x) and xa sin (b ln x).
where k1, k2, …, kn are constants and X is a function of x. The general solution is given by
75. Bernoulli’s Equation y = xa [C1 cos (b ln x) + C2 sin (b ln x)]
dy 77. Non-Homogeneous Euler–Cauchy Equation
The equation + Py = Qy n, where P and Q are func-
dx The non-homogeneous Euler-Cauchy equation is of the
tions of x and can be reduced to Leibnitz’s linear equa-
form
tion and is called the Bernoulli’s equation.
To solve the Bernoulli’s equation, divide both sides by ax 2 y ′′ + bxy ′ + cy = r( x )
y n , so that Here, a, b and c are constants. The method of variation
dy of parameters to find solution to non-homogeneous
y−n + Py1− n = Q (3) Euler-Cauchy equation is given. As a first step, divide
dx
equation by ax2 so as to make coefficient of y ′′ as unity.
Putting y1− n = z , we get
b c r( x )
y ′′ + y′ + 2 y =
dy dz ax ax ax 2
(1− n) y − n
=
dx dx b c
or y ′′ + y ′ + 2 y = r( x)
Therefore, Eq. (3) becomes ax ax
1 dz r( x )
+ Pz = Q r( x) =
1− n dx ax 2

Particular solution is given by 81. Exponential Function of Complex Variables

y ( x )r( x ) y ( x )r( x ) z = re i θ .
y p ( x ) = − y1 ( x )∫ 2 dx + y2 ( x )∫ 1 dx
W ( y1 , y2 ) W ( y1 , y2 )
82. Circular Function of Complex Variables
General solution to non-homogeneous Euler-Cauchy The circular functions of the complex variable z can be
equation is therefore given by the following equation: defined by the equations:
y(x) = C1 y1(x) + C2 y2(x) + yp(x) e iz − e − iz
sin z =
78. Variation of Parameters Method 2i
The method of variation of parameters is a general e iz + e − iz
cos z =
method that can be used to solve non-homogeneous lin- 2
ear ordinary differential equations of the form sin z
tan z =
y ′′ + py ′ + qy = x cos z
where p, q and x are functions of x. with cosec z, sec z and cot z as respective reciprocals of
above equations.
The particular integral in this case is given by
y2 X yX e iz + e − iz e iz − e − iz
P.I. = − y1 ∫ dx + y2 ∫ 1 dx Now, cos z + i sin z = +i = e iz , where
W W 2 2i
z = x + iy.
Here, y1 and y2 are the solutions of y ′′ + py ′ + qy = 0
Also, e iy = cos y + i sin y, where y is real.
y1 y2
and W = is called the Wronskian of y1 and y2. Hence, e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ , where θ is real or complex.
y1′ y2′
This is called Euler’s theorem.
79. Separation of Variables Method Now, according to De Moivre’s theorem for complex
(a) Partial differential equations representing engineer- number,
ing problems include the one-dimensional heat flow
(cos θ + i sin θ )n = (eiθ )
n
equation given by = cos nθ + i sin nθ ,
∂u ∂2u whether q is real or complex.

= c2 2
dt dx
83. Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Variables
(b) Wave equation representing vibrations of a stretched Hyperbolic functions can be given as
string given by
ex − e− x
∂2 y 2 ∂ y
2
sin hx =
= c 2
∂t 2 ∂x 2
ex + e− x
(c) Two-dimensional heat flow equation that becomes cos h x =
2
two-dimensional Laplace equation in steady state
and given by ex − e− x
tanh x =
ex + e− x
∂2u ∂2u
+ =0 ex + e− x
∂x 2 ∂y 2 cot h x =
ex − e− x
transmission line equations, two-dimensional wave
2
equation and so on. sec h x =
ex + e− x
2
Complex Variables cosec h x =
e − e− x
x
80. A number of the form x + iy, where x and y are real num- Hyperbolic and circular functions are related as follows:
bers and i = ( −1) , is called a complex number. sin ix = i sin h x
x is called the real part of x + iy and is written as R(x + cos ix = cos h x
iy), whereas y is called the imaginary part and is written tan ix = i tan h x
as I(x + iy).

84. Logarithmic Function of Complex Variables (c) If c1 , c2 , c3 , … be any number of closed curves
If z = x + iy and w = u + iy are related such that e w = z , within c, then
then w is said to be a logarithm of x to the base e and is
written as ∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz = ∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz + ∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz
w = log e z c c1 c2

Also, e w + 2 inπ
= e ⋅e w
=z2 inπ
[∵ e 2 inπ
= 1] + ∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz +
c3
⇒ log z = w + 2 sin π
88. Cauchy’s Integral Formula
85. Cauchy–Riemann Equations
If f(x) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve c
A necessary condition for w = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) to be and a is any point interior to c, then
analytic in a region R is that u and v satisfy the following
1 f ( z ) dz
equations: f (α ) = ∫
∂u ∂v 2π i c z − α
=
∂z ∂y f (z)
Consider in above equation, which is analytic at
∂u ∂v z −α
=
∂y ∂x all points within c except at z = α . Now, with a as cen-
ter and r as radius, draw a small circle c1 lying entirely
Above equations are called Cauchy–Riemann equations.
within c.
If the partial derivatives in above equations are contin-
Generally, we can write that
uous in R, the equations are sufficient conditions that
f ( z ) be analytic in R. n! f (z)
f n (α ) = ∫ dz
The derivative of f ( z ) is then given by 2π i c ( z − α )n +1
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ∂u ∂v 89. Taylor’s Series of Complex Variables

f ′ ( z ) = lim ⎜ + i ⎟ = +i = ux + iv x
Δy → 0 ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ∂x ∂x If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a, then
⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ for z inside C,
or f ′ ( z ) = lim ⎜ +i
Δx → 0 ⎝ i∂y i∂y ⎟⎠ f ′′ (α )
f ( z ) = f (α ) + f ′ (α ) ( z − α ) + ( z − α )2
1 ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u 2!
f ′ (z) = + = −i = v y − iu y
i ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y f n
(α )
The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are
+ + ( z − α )n
n!
called conjugate functions.
90. Laurent’s Series of Complex Variables
86. Cauchy’s Theorem
If f(z) is analytic in the ring-shaped region R bounded
If f ( z ) is an analytic function and f ′ ( z ) is continu- by the two concentric circles C and C1 of radii r and r1
ous at each point within and on a closed curve c, then (such that r > r1 ) and with center at a, then for all z in R
according to Cauchy’s theorem,
∞
f ( z ) ⋅ dz = 0
∫ f ( z ) = ∑ α ( z − α ) = a0 + a1 ( z − α ) + a2 ( z − α ) +
n 2
c −∞
+ a−1( z − α ) + a−2 ( z − α )
−1 −2
87. Some of the important results that can be concluded
are:
(a) The line integral of a function f ( z ) , which is ana- 1 f (t )
lytic in the region R, is independent of the path join-
where an = ∫

2π i (t − α )n +1
dt .
ing any two points of R.
(b)
Extension of Cauchy’s theorem: If f(z) is ana- 91. Zeros and Poles of an Analytic Function
lytic in the region R between the two simple closed (a) A zero of an analytic function f(z) is the value of z
curves c and c1, then for which f(z) = 0.
∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz = ∫ f ( z ) ⋅ dz
(b) A singular point of a function f(z) is a value of z at
c c1
which f(z) fails to be analytic.

92. Residues (e) If the union of two or more events associated with a
The coefficient of ( z − α ) in the expansion of f ( z )
−1
random experiment includes all possible outcomes,
around an isolated singularity is called the residue of then the events are called exhaustive events.
f ( z ) at the point. (f) If the occurrence or non-occurrence of one event
does not affect the probability of the occurrence
It can be found from the formula or non-occurrence of the other, then the events are
1 d n −1 ⎡ independent.
a−1 = lim
z → α ( n − 1)! dz z −1 ⎣
( z − α )n f ( z )⎤⎦ (g) Two events are equally likely events if the p robability
of their occurrence is same.
where n is the order of the pole.
(h) An event which has a probability of occurrence equal
The residue of f(z) at z = a can also be found by to 1− P, where P is the probability of o ccurrence of
1 an event A, is called the complementary event of A.
Res f (α ) = ∫c f ( z )
2π i

96. Axioms of Probability
93. Residue Theorem (a) The numerical value of probability lies between 0
If f(z) is analytic in a region R except for a pole of order and 1.
n at z = a and let C be a simple closed curve in R con- Hence, for any event A of S, 0 ≤ P ( A) ≤ 1 .
taining z = a, then (b) The sum of probabilities of all sample events is
unity. Hence, P(S) = 1.
∫ f ( z ) dz = 2π i × (sum of the residue at the singular
c (c) Probability of an event made of two or more sample
points within C ) events is the sum of their probabilities.
94. Calculation of Residues 97. Conditional Probability
(a) If f (z) has a simple pole at z = a, then Let A and B be two events of a random experiment. The
Res f (α ) = lim ⎡⎣( z − α ) f ( z )⎤⎦ probability of occurrence of A if B has already occurred
z →α and P ( B ) ≠ 0 is known as conditional probability. This
(b) If f ( z ) = ϕ ( z ) /ψ ( z ) , where is denoted by P ( A/B). Also, conditional probability
can be defined as the probability of occurrence of B if
ψ ( z ) = ( z − α ) f ( z ) , f (α ) ≠ 0 , then
A has already occurred and P ( A) ≠ 0 . This is denoted
by P ( B /A).
ϕ (α )
Res f (α ) =
ψ (α ) 98. Geometric Probability
Due to the nature of the problem or the solution or both,
(c) If f (z) has a pole of order n at z = ∞, then
random events that take place in continuous sample space
1 ⎧ d n −1 ⎡ ⎫ may invoke geometric imagery. Hence, geometric proba-
Res f (α ) = ⎨ n −1 ⎣( z − α ) f ( x )⎤⎦ ⎬
n
bilities can be considered as non-negative quantities with
( )⎩
n − 1 ! dz ⎭ z =α maximum value of 1 being assigned to subregions of a
given domain subject to certain rules. If P is an expres-
Probability and Statistics sion of this assignment defined on a domain S, then
0 < P ( A) ≤ 1, A ⊂ S and P ( S ) = 1
95. Types of Events
(a) Each outcome of a random experiment is called an The subsets of S for which P is defined are the random
elementary event. events that form a particular sample spaces. P is defined
by the ratio of the areas so that if σ ( A) is defined as the
(b) An event associated with a random experiment
area of set A, then
that always occurs whenever the experiment is per-
formed is called a certain event. σ ( A)
P ( A) =
σ ( s)
(c) An event associated with a random experiment that
never occurs whenever the experiment is performed 99. Rules of Probability
is called an impossible event.
Some of the important rules of probability are given as
(d) If the occurrence of any one of two or more events, follows:
associated with a random experiment, presents the (a) Inclusion–Exclusion principle of probability:
occurrence of all others, then the events are called
mutually exclusive events. P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B) − P ( A ∩ B)

I f A and B are mutually exclusive events, 100. Arithmetic Mean

P ( A ∩ B) = 0 and then formula reduces to Arithmetic Mean for Raw data
P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B) Suppose we have values x1 , x2 ,..., xn and n are the total
number of values, then arithmetic mean is given by
(b) Complementary probability:
1 n
P ( A) = 1 − P ( Ac ) x= ∑ xi
n i =1
where P ( Ac ) is the complementary probability of A. where x = arithmetic mean.
(c) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ∗ P ( B /A) = P ( B ) ∗ P ( A/B) Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data (Frequency

Distribution)
where P ( A/B) represents the conditional prob
Suppose f i is the frequency of xi , then the arithmetic
ability of A given B and P ( B /A) represents the con-
mean from frequency distribution can be calculated as
ditional probability of B given A.
If B1 , B2 ,..., Bn are pairwise disjoint events of posi- 1 n
x= ∑ f i xi
N i =1
tive probability, then
n
⎛ A⎞ ⎛ A⎞ where N = ∑ fi
i =1
P ( A) = P ⎜ ⎟ P ( B1 ) + P ⎜ ⎟ P ( B2 )
⎝B ⎠
1 ⎝B ⎠ 2 101. Median
⎛ A⎞ Median for Raw Data
+ + P ⎜ ⎟ P ( Bn )
⎝ Bn ⎠ Suppose we have n numbers of ungrouped/raw values
and let values be x1 , x2 ,..., xn . To calculate median,
(d) Conditional probability rule: arrange all the values in ascending or descending order.
th
P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( B ) ∗ P ( A/B) ⎡ ( n + 1) ⎤
Now, if n is odd, then median = ⎢ ⎥ value
P ( A ∩ B) ⎣ 2 ⎦
⇒ P ( A/B ) = If n is even, then median
P ( B)
P ( A ∩ B) ⎡⎛ n ⎞ th ⎛n ⎞
th
⎤
Or P ( B /A) = = ⎢⎜ ⎟ value + ⎜ + 1⎟ value ⎥
P ( A) ⎝
⎢⎣ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
(e) Bayes’ theorem: Suppose we have an event A 2
corresponding to a number of exhaustive events Median for Grouped Data
B1 , B2 ,..., Bn . To calculate median of grouped values, identify the
If P ( Bi ) and P ( A/Bi ) are given, then class containing the middle observation.
P ( Bi ) P ( A/Bi ) ⎡ ( N + 1) ⎤
P ( Bi /A) = ⎢ − ( F + 1) ⎥
∑ P ( Bi ) P ( A/Bi ) Median = L + ⎢ 2 ⎥×h
⎢ fm ⎥
(f) Rule of total probability: Consider an event E which ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
occurs via two different values A and B. Also, let
A and B be mutually exhaustive and collectively where L = lower limit of median class
exhaustive events. N = total number of data items = ∑ f
Now, the probability of E is given as F = cumulative frequency of class immediately
P( E ) = P( A ∩ E ) + P( B ∩ E ) preceding the median class
= P ( A) ∗ P ( E /A) + P ( B) ∗ P ( E /B) = frequency of median class

f m
This is called the rule of total probability. h = width of class

(a) (b)
102. Mode
Mode of raw values of data is the value with the high-
est frequency or simply the value which occurs the most
number of times.
Mode of Raw Data
Mode of raw data is calculated by simply checking
which value is repeated the most number of times.
Mode of Grouped Data
Mode of grouped values of data is calculated by first (c)
identifying the modal class, that is, the class which has
the target frequency. The mode can then be calculated Figure 6 | (a) Symmetrical frequency distribution,
using the following formula: (b) positively skewed frequency distribution and
(c) negatively skewed frequency distribution.
f m − f1
Mode = L + ×h
2 f m − f1 − f 2 104. Geometric Mean
where Geometric Mean of Raw Data
L = lower limit of modal class Geometric mean of n numbers x1 , x2 ,..., xn is given by
f m = frequency of modal class 1/ n
⎛ n⎞
f1 = frequency of class preceding modal class ⎜⎝ iπ=1⎟⎠ = n x1 ⋅ x2 ⋅ x3 ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ xn

f 2 = frequency of class following modal class
Geometric Mean of Grouped Data
h = width of model class
Geometric mean for a frequency distribution is given by
103. Relation Between Mean, Median and Mode 1 n
Empirical mode = 3 Median − 2 Mean

log G.M. =
N
∑f
i =1
i log( xi )
When an approximate value of mode is required, the n

where N = ∑ f i .
given empirical formula for mode may be used. i =1
There are three types of frequency distribution: 105. Harmonic Mean

(a) Symmetric distribution: It has lower half equal to
upper half of distribution. For symmetric distribution, Harmonic Mean of Raw Data
Mean = Median = Mode Harmonic mean of n numbers x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn is calcu-
lated as
(b)
Positively skewed distribution: It has a longer tail
on the right than on the left. n
H.M. = n
1
Mode ≤ Median ≤ Mean ∑x
i =1 i
(c) Negatively skewed distribution: It has a long tail
on the left than on the right. Harmonic Mean of Grouped Data
Mean ≤ Median ≤ Mode Harmonic mean for a frequency distribution is calcu-
lated as
Figure 6 shows the three types of frequency distribution.
N
H.M. = n
∑ ( f /x )
i =1
i i
n
where N = ∑ f i .
i =1
106. Mean Deviation

Mean Deviation of Raw Data
Suppose we have a given set of n values x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn ,
(a) (b) then the mean deviation is given by

1 n The following steps should be followed to calculate

M.D. = ∑ xi − X standard deviation for discrete data:
n i =1
where x = mean. (a) Calculate mean ( X ) for given observations.
The following steps should be followed to calculate (b) Take deviations of observations from the mean, that
mean deviation of raw data: is, ( xi − X ) .
(a)
Compute the central value or average ‘A’ about (c) Square the deviations obtained in the previous step
which mean deviation is to be calculated. and find
(b)
Take mod of the deviations of the observations n
about the central value ‘A’, that is xi − x . ∑ (xi =1

i − X )2
n
(d) Divide the sum by n to obtain the value of variance,
(c) Obtain the total of these deviations, that is ∑ x2 − X .
i =1 that is
(d) Divide the total obtained in step 3 by the number of 1 n
observations. σ2 = ∑ ( xi − X )2
n i =1
Mean Deviation of Discrete Frequency Distribution
(e) T
ake out the square root of variance to obtain stand-
For a frequency deviation, the mean deviation is given by ard deviation,
n
1
M.D. =
N
∑f
i =1
i xi − x
σ2 =
1 n
∑ ( xi − X )2
n i =1
n
where N = ∑ f i . Standard Deviation of Discrete Frequency Distribution
i =1
The following steps should be followed to calculate If we have a discrete frequency distribution of X, then
mean deviation of discrete frequency deviation:
1 ⎡ n ⎤
(a) Calculate the central value or average ‘A’ of the σ2 = ⎢ ∑
N ⎣ i =1
( xi − X ) 2 ⎥
given frequency distribution about which mean ⎦
deviation is to be calculated. 1 ⎡ n ⎤
(b) Take mod of the deviations of the observations from
σ= ⎢ ∑
N ⎣ i =1
( xi − X ) 2 ⎥
⎦
the central value, that is xi − x . n
(c) Multiply these deviations by respective frequencies where N = ∑ f .

i =1
and obtain the total ∑ f i xi − x . The following steps should be followed to calculate var-
(d) Divide the total obtained by the number of observa- iance if discrete distribution of data is given:
n
tions, that is N = ∑ f i to obtain the mean deviation. (a) Obtain the given frequency distribution.
i =1
(b) Calculate mean ( X ) for given frequency distribu-
Mean Deviation of Grouped Frequency Distribution tion.
For calculating the mean deviation of grouped frequency (c) Take deviations of observations from the mean, that
distribution, the procedure is same as for a discrete fre- is ( xi − X ).
quency distribution. However, the only difference is that
we have to obtain the mid-points of the various classes (d) Square the deviations obtained in the previous step
and take the deviations of these mid-points from the and multiply the squared deviations by respective
given central value. frequencies, that is f i ( xi − X ).
n
107. Standard Deviation (e) Calculate the total, that is ∑ f i ( xi − X ) 2 .
i =1
Standard Deviation of Raw Data n
If we have n values x1 , x2 , ..., xn of X, then (f) Divide the sum ∑ f i ( xi − X ) 2 by N, where N = ∑ f i

i =1
1 n N = ∑ f i , to obtain the variance, σ 2.

σ2 = ∑ ( xi − x )2
n i =1 (g) Take out the square root of the variance to obtain
1 n 1⎡n ⎤
⇒ σ= ∑ ( xi − x )2 standard deviation, σ = ∑ f i ( xi − X ) 2 ⎥ .
n i =1 n ⎢⎣ i =1 ⎦

Standard Deviation of Grouped Frequency Distribution (d) P ( a < x < b) = P ( a ≤ x ≤ b) = P ( a < x ≤ b)

b
For calculating standard deviation of a grouped fre-
= P ( a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
quency distribution, the procedure is same as for a
a
discrete frequency distribution. However, the only dif-
ference is that we have to obtain the mid-point of the 112. General Discrete Distribution
various classes and take the deviations of these mid- Suppose a discrete variable X is the outcome of some
points from the given central point. random experiment and the probability of X taking the
108. Coefficient of Variation value xi is Pi , then
Coefficient of variation (C.V.) is a measure of variability P ( X = xi ) = Pi for i = 1, 2,...
which is independent of units and hence can be used to
compare two data sets with different units. where, P ( xi ) ≥ 0 for all values of i and ∑ P ( xi ) = 1.
σ The set of values xi with their probabilities Pi of a dis-
C.V. =
× 100
X crete variable X is called a discrete probability distribu-
where σ represents standard deviation and X rep- tion. For example, the discrete probability distribution of
resents mean. X, the number which is selected by picking a card from a
well-shuffled deck is given by the following table:
109. Random Variable
Random variable can be discrete and continuous. X = xi : Ace 2 3 4 5 6 7
Discrete random variable is a variable that can take a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Pi :
value from a continuous range of values. 13 13 13 13 13 13 13
Continuous random variable is a variable that can take a X = xi : 8 9 10 Jack Queen King
value from a continuous range of values. 1 1 1 1 1 1
Pi :
If a random variable X takes x1 , x2 ,..., xn with respective 13 13 13 13 13 13
probabilities P1 , P2 ,..., Pn , then
The distribution function F(x) of discrete variable X is
X : x1 x2 x3 ... xn defined by
P ( X ) : P1 P2 P3 ... Pn n
F ( x ) = P ( X ≤ x ) = ∑ Pi
is known as the probability distribution of X. i =1
110. Properties of Discrete Distribution where x is any integer.

The mean value ( x ) of the probability distribution of
(a) ∑ P ( x ) = 1
a discrete variable X is known as its expectation and is
(b) E ( x ) = ∑ xP ( x ) denoted by E(x). If f(x) is the probability density func-
tion of X, then
(c) V ( x ) = E ( x 2 ) − [ E ( x )] = ∑ x 2 P ( x ) − [ ∑ xP ( x )]
2 2
n
E ( x ) = ∑ xi f ( xi )
where E(x) denotes the expected value or average value i =1
of a random variable x and V(x) denotes the variable of a
random variable x. Variable of a distribution is given by
n
111. Properties of Continuous Distribution σ 2 = ∑ ( xi − x ) 2 f ( xi )
i =1
(a) Cumulative distribution function is given by
x 113. Binomial Distribution
F ( x) = ∫ f ( x) dx
−∞
Binomial distribution is concerned with trails of a
respective nature whose outcome can be classified as
∞
either a success or a failure.
(b) E ( x ) = ∫
−∞
xf ( x ) dx
Suppose we have to perform n independent trails, each
∞ of which results in a success with probability P and in
(c) V ( x ) = E ( x 2 ) − [ E ( x )] = ∫x a failure with probability X which is equal to 1 − P. If
2 2
f ( x )dx
−∞ X represents the number of successes that occur in the n
2
⎡∞ ⎤ trails, then X is said to be binomial random variable with
− ⎢ ∫ xf ( x )dx ⎥ parameters (n, p).
⎣ −∞ ⎦

The binomial distribution occurs when the experiment For hypergeometric distribution,
performed satisfies the following four assumptions of
n n
Bernoulli’s trails.
∑ p( x) = 1, since ∑ m
C xnC y − x = m + nC y
(a) They are finite in number. i =1 i =1
(b) There are exactly two outcomes: success or failure. 116. Geometric Distribution
(c) The probability of success or failure remains same Consider repeated trails of a Bernoulli experiment E
in each trail. with probability of success, P, and probability of failure,
q = 1 − p . Let x denote the number of times E must be
(d) They are independent of each other.
repeated until finally obtaining a success. The distribu-
The probability of obtaining x successes from n trails is tion is
given by the binomial distribution formula,
Also, p( x ) = q x p, x = 0, 1, 2, ..., q = 1 − p
P ( X ) = nC x P x (1 − p) n − x
∞ ∞
1
where P is the probability of success in any trail and ∑ P( x) = P ∑ q x = p
x=0 x=0 1− q
=1
(1 − p) is the probability of failure.
The mean of geometric distribution = q /p.
114. Poisson Distribution
Poisson distribution is a distribution related to the prob- The variance of geometric distribution = q /p 2.
abilities of events which are extremely rare but which
have a large number of independent opportunities for 117. General Continuous Distribution
occurrence. When a random variable X takes all possible values in an
interval, then the distribution is called continuous distri-
A random variable X, taking on one of the values 0, 1,
bution of X.
2, …, n, is said to be a Poisson random variable with
parameters m if for some m > 0, A continuous distribution of X can be defined by a prob-
ability density function f(x) which is given by
e−m mx
P( x) = ∞
x!
p( −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞) = ∫
−∞
f ( x )dx = 1
For Poisson distribution,
Mean = E ( x ) = m The expectation for general continuous distribution is
given by
Variance = V ( x ) = m
∞
Therefore, the expected value and the variable of a Pois- E (x) = ∫ x f ( x ) dx
son random variable are both equal to its parameters m. −∞
The variance for general continuous distribution is given

115. Hypergeometric Distribution by
If the probability changes from trail to trail, one of the ∞
assumptions of binomial distribution gets violated; V (x) = σ 2 = ∫ ( x − X ) f ( x ) dx
2
hence, binomial distribution cannot be used. In such −∞

cases, hypergeometric distribution is used; say a bag
contains m white and n black balls. If y balls are drawn 118. Uniform Distribution
one at a time (with replacement), then the probability If density of a random variable X over the interval
that x of them will be white is −∞ < a < b < ∞ is given by
m
C nx C y − x 1
P( x) = m+ n
, x = 0, 1, ..., y, y ≤ m, n f (x) = , a< x<b
Cx b−a
This distribution is known as hypergeometric distribu- Then the distribution is called uniform distribution.
tion.

The mean of uniform distribution is given by upper triangular system from which the unknowns are
b found by back substitution.
E ( x ) = ∫ x ⋅ F ( x )dx Now, consider the following equations:
a
b a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 (5)
1 x2
=
b−a 2 a
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 (6)
a+b a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 (7)
=
2
In uniform distribution, x takes the values with the same Step 1: Eliminate x from Eqs. (6) and (7)
probability. Assuming a1 ≠ 0, we eliminate x from Eq. (6) by sub-
The variance of uniform distribution is given by tracting (a2 /a1 ) times Eq. (5) from Eq. (7). Similarly,
we eliminate x from Eq. (7) by subtracting (a3 /a1 ) times
1
V (x) = σ 2 = ( b − a )2 Eq. (5) from Eq. (7). Hence, the new set of equations is
12 given by
119. Exponential Distribution
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 (8)
If density of a random variable x for λ > 0 is given by
b2′ y + c2′ z = d 2′ (9)
⎧λ e − λ x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = ⎨ b3′ y + c3′ z = d3′ (10)
⎩ 0 if x < 0
Then the distribution is called exponential distribution Here, Eq. (8) is called the pivotal equation and a1 is
with parameter l. called the first pivot.
The cumulative distribution function F(a) of an expo- Step 2: Eliminate y from Eq. (7)
nential random variable is given by
Assuming b2 ≠ 0, we eliminate y from Eq. (7), by sub-
a
tracting (b3′ /b2′ ) times Eq. (6) from Eq. (7). Hence, the
F ( a) = P ( x ≤ a) = ∫ λ e − λ x dx = ( −e − λ x ) a new set of equations is given by
0
= 1 − e− λa , a ≥ 0
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 (11)
Mean for exponential distribution is given by b2′ y + c2′ z = d 2′ (12)
E ( x ) = 1/λ
c3′′z = d3′′ (13)
Variance of exponential distribution is given by
1 Now, Eq. (12) is called the pivotal equation and b′2 is
V ( x) = called the new pivot.
λ2
Step 3: Evaluate the unknowns
120. Normal Distribution
The values of x, y and z are found from Eqs. (11), (12)
A random variable X is a normal random variable with and (13) by back substitution.
parameters μ and σ 2, if the probability density function
is given by 122. Matrix Decomposition Methods (LU Decomposition
1 2 2
Method)
f ( x) = e −( x − μ ) / 2σ
, −∞ < x < ∞ In this section, we will discuss some more numeric
σ 2π
methods for solving linear systems of n equations in n
where μ is mean for normal distribution and σ is stand- unknowns x1, …, xn,
ard deviation for normal distribution.
AX = B (14)
Numerical Methods
where A is the n × n coefficient matrix, X = [ x1 … xn ]
121. Gauss Elimination Method and B = [b1 … bn ] . This method is based on the fact that
The Gauss elimination method is a basic method of every matrix can be expressed as the product of a lower
obtaining solutions. In this method, the unknowns are and an upper triangular matrix, provided all the princi-
eliminated successively, and the system is reduced to an pal minors are non-singular.

An LU-factorization of a given square matrix A is of the If we assume | a1 | ≥ | b1 | + | c1 |; | b2 | ≥ | a2 | + | c2 |; | c3 | ≥ | a3 | + | b3 |

form | a1 | ≥ | b1 | + | c1 |; | b2 | ≥ | a2 | + | c2 |; | c3 | ≥ | a3 | + | b3 | to be true, then this iterative method
can be used for the above system to calculate x, y and z.
A = LU(15)
where L is the lower triangular and U is the upper trian- Step 2: Suppose
gular. Since AX = B and A = LU,
1
x= (d1 − b1 y − c1 z ) (20)
LUX = B(16) a1
Putting UX = Y where Y is n × 1 matrix, we get 1
y= (d 2 − a2 x) (21)
LY = B(17) b1
The equivalent system can be solved by forward substi- 1

z= (d3 − a3 x − b3 y ) (22)
tution for y1 , y2 and y3 . Now, using UX = Y, this can be c3
solved by backward substitution.
(0) (0) (0)
Step 3: If x , y , z are the initial values of x, y, z,
123. Doolittle’s Method respectively, then
Now, we can conclude that L and U in Eq. (15) can
be computed directly, without solving simultaneous 1
x (1) = (d1 − b1 y (0) − c1 z (0) ) (23)
equations (thus, without using the Gauss elimination a1
method). Once we have Eq. (15), we can use it for
1
solving AX = B in two steps, simply by noting that AX = y (1) = (d 2 − a2 x (0) − c2 z (0) ) (24)
LUX = B may be written as b2
1
LY = B(18) z (1) = (d3 − a3 x (0) − b3 y (0) ) (25)
c3
UX = Y(19)
and solving first Eq. (18) for Y and then Eq. (19) for X. Step 4: Similarly, we can conclude that
Here we require that L have main diagonal 1, …, 1 1
then this is called Doolittle’s method. Both systems in x ( r +1) = (d1 − b1 y ( r ) − c1 z ( r ) ) (26)
a1
Eqs. (18) and (19) are triangular, so we can solve them
as in the back substitution for the Gauss elimination. 1
y ( r +1) = (d 2 − a2 x ( r ) − c2 z ( r ) ) (27)
b2
124. Crout’s Reduction
A similar method is obtained from Eq. (15) if U (instead 1
z ( r +1) = (d3 − a3 x ( r ) − b3 y ( r ) ) (28)
of L) is required to have main diagonal 1, …, 1, and this c3
method is called Crout’s method. The rest of the steps
for obtaining the solution are similar to those in 122. This process is continued till the convergence is
obtained.
125. Gauss–Jordan Method
Gauss-Jordan method is a modification of the Gauss 126. Iterative Methods of Solution
elimination method. In this method, the elimination of The methods described till now are known as direct
the unknowns is performed not only in the equations methods as they give exact solutions. We start from
below the primary diagonal, but also in the equations an approximation to the true solution and obtain better
above it. Hence, the system is ultimately reduced to a approximations from a computation cycle repeated until
diagonal matrix form; that is, each equation involving we obtain the desired accuracy.
only one unknown. From these equations, x, y and z are The Gauss–Seidel iteration method can be explained by
obtained easily. the following steps:
The Jacobi iteration method can be explained by the fol-
lowing steps: Step 1: Consider the system of equation as
Step 1: Consider the system of equation as a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2  → 0

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2  → 0 a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 

If we assume | a1 | ≥ | b1 | + | c1 |; | b2 | ≥ | a2 | + | c2 |; | c3 | ≥ | ainterval
3 | + | b3 | ( x0 , x1 )
is bisected and its midpoint x2 is
+ | c1 |; | b2 | ≥ | a2 | + | c2 |; | c3 | ≥ | a3 | + | b3 | to be true, then the iterative method obtained as
can be used for the above system to find the values of x,
y and z. x2 = ( x1 + x0 )/2
Step 2: Suppose If f ( x2 ) = 0, then x2 itself is the root. If not, the root

lies either between x0 and x2 or between x1 and x2.
1 That is, if f ( x0 ) and f ( x1 ) are of opposite signs, then
x= (d1 − b1 y − c1 z ) (29)
a1 root lies between x0 and x2 ; otherwise if f (x1) and f(x2)
are of opposite signs, the root lies between x1 and x2.
1 The new interval for searching the root is therefore
y= (d 2 − a2 x − c2 z ) (30)
b2 ( x0 , x1 ) in the first case and ( x1 , x2 ) in the second case,
1 which is much less compared to the first interval ( x0 , x1 ).
z= (d3 − a3 x − b3 y ) (31) This process is illustrated in Fig. 7. This new interval
c3
will be the beginning interval for the next iteration, and
(0) (0) the processes of bisection and finding another such x2
Step 3: We start with the initial values y , z for y
(1) are repeated.
and z, respectively, and get x from the first equation:
1 y or f(x)
x (1) = (d1 − b1 y (0) − c1 z (0) ) (32)
a1
(0) Actual root f(x)
Step 4: For the second equation, substitute z for z and
(1) (0)
x for x instead of x .
1
x0
y (1) = (d 2 − a2 x (1) − c2 z (0) ) (33)
b2 x′ x =(x0+x1) x1
x
(1) (1)
Step 5: Now substitute x for x and y for y in the
2
third equation.
Third
1 iteration
z (1) = (d3 − a3 x (1) − b3 y (1) ) (34) Second
c3 iteration
Starting
Step 6: In finding the values of the unknowns, we use interval
(r ) (r ) (r )
the latest available values on R.H.S. If x , y , z are
Figure 7 | Illustration of bisection method.
the rth iterates, then the iteration scheme will be
1 128. Regula–Falsi Method (Method of False Position
x ( r +1) = (d1 − b1 y ( r ) − c1 z ( r ) ) (35)
a1 Method)
The iterative procedure is started by choosing two
1
y ( r +1) = (d 2 − a2 x ( r +1) − c2 z ( r ) ) (36) values x0 and x1 such that f ( x0 ) and f ( x1 ) are of
b2 opposite signs. Then the two points [ x0 , f ( x0 )] and
[ x1 , f ( x1 )] are joined by a straight line. The intersec-
1
z ( r +1) = (d3 − a3 x ( r +1) − b3 y ( r +1) ) (37) tion of this line with the x-axis gives x2. If f ( x2 ) and
c3
f ( x0 ) are of opposite signs, then replace x1 by x2; oth-
erwise, replace x0 by x2. This yields a new set of values
This process is continued till the convergence is for x0 and x1. The present range is much smaller than
assumed. the range or interval between the first chosen set of x0
127. Bisection Method and x1. The convergence is thus established, and the
iterations are carried over with the new set of x0 and x1.
We begin the iterative cycle by choosing two Another x2 is found by the intersection of the straight
trial points x0 and x1 , which enclose the actual root. line joining the new f ( x0 ) and f ( x1 ) points with
Then f ( x0 ) and f ( x1 ) are of opposite signs. The x-axis. Each new or successive interval is smaller than

the previous interval, and it is guaranteed to converge In the third step x3 from x2 again by the same formula,
to the root. and so on.
The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 8.
y
y
A (x0, f(x0))
y =f(x)
f(x0)
x3 x2 x1 b
0 x0 x
P(x) x
x2 x1 x0
B (x1, f(x1))
Figure 9 | Newton–Raphson method.
Figure 8 | Illustration of Regula–Falsi method.
130. Secant Method
From Fig. 8, it can be seen (from the equation of the
straight line) that The secant method can be thought of as a finite differ-
ence approximation of Newton–Raphson method.
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 )
y − f ( x0 ) = ( x − x0 )
x1 − x0
x0 − x1
where x2 = x0 − f ( x0 )
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 )
which is an approximation to the root.
129. Newton–Raphson Method

Newton’s method, also known as Newton–Raphson
method, is another iteration method for solving e quations x3 x0 x2 x1
f ( x ) = 0, where f is assumed to have a continuous deriv-
ative f ′. The underlying idea is that we approximate the
graph of f by suitable tangents. The Newton–Raphson
method has second-order convergence.
Using an approximate value x0 obtained from the graph
of f, we let x1 be the point of intersection of the x-axis
and the tangent to the curve of f at x0 (Fig. 9). Then
f(x)
f ( x0 )
tan β = f ′( x0 ) =
x0 − x1
Hence, Figure 10 | Secant method.
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 − Consider Fig. 10. The slope of line from points (x0, f(x0))
f ′( x0 )
to (x1, f(x1)) can be given by the following equation.
In the second step, we compute
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 )
x2 =
x1 − f ( x1 ) y=
x1 − x0
( x − x1 ) + f ( x1 )
f ′( x1 )

We now calculate the solution of x by putting y = 0.

r=
(∑ fd d ) − (∑ fd ) (∑ fd )
n x y x y
x1 − x0
x = x1 − f ( x1 ) ⎡{n∑ fd − (∑ fd )} × {n∑ fd − (∑ fd )}⎤
2 2 2 2
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) ⎣ x x ⎦y y
We use the new value of x as x2 and repeat the same where d x is deviation of the central values from the
process using x1 and x2 instead of x0 and x1. This pro- assumed mean of x-series, d y is deviation of the cen-
cess is continued in the same manner unless we obtain tral values from the assumed mean of y-series, f is the
xn = xn −1 . frequency corresponding to the pair (x, y) and n is total
number of frequencies ( = ∑ f ) .
x1 − x0
x2 = x1 − f ( x1 )
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) 133. Lines of Regression
x2 − x1 Sometimes, the dots of the scatter diagram tend to
x3 = x2 − f ( x2 )
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) cluster along a well-defined direction which suggests
a linear relationship between the variables x and y
The generalized solution for the secant method as as shown in Fig. 11. Such a line giving the best fit
xn −1 − xn − 2 for the given distribution of dots is known as line of
xn = xn −1 − f ( xn −1 ) regression.
f ( xn −1 ) − f ( xn − 2 )
The line giving the best possible mean values of y for
131. Jacobian each specified value of x is called the line of regression
If u and v are functions of two independent variables x of y on x and the line giving the best possible mean val-
∂ u /∂ x ∂ u /∂ y ues of x for each specified value of y is called the line of
and y, then the determinant is called the regression of x on y.
∂ v /∂ x ∂ v /∂ y
σy
Jacobian of u, v with respect to x, y and is written as The regression coefficient of y on x is r .
σx
∂ (u, v ) ⎛ u, v ⎞
or J ⎜ .
∂ ( x, y ) ⎝ x, y ⎟⎠ σx
The regression coefficient of x on y is r .
σy
132. Coefficient of Correlation
Coefficient of correlation is defined as the numerical y Line of regression of x on y
measure of correlation and can be calculated by the fol- x = a′+b′y
lowing relation:
Line of regression of y on x
r=
∑ XY y = a +bx
nσ xσ y x′ x
°
where X is deviation from the mean ( x − x ) , Y is devi-
ation from the mean ( y − y ) , σ x is standard deviation
of x-series, σ y is standard deviation of y-series, and n is y′
number of values of the two variables.
Coefficient of correlation for grouped data can be calcu- Figure 11 | Line of regression.
lated using the following relation:

QUESTIONS
Linear Algebra 7. Identify which one of the following is an eigenvector of

1 0
1 2 3 the matrix A =  
1. The rank of the matrix A =  3 4 5  −1 −2
  , is
 4 6 8 (a) [−1 1]
T
(b) [3 −1]
T
(a) 0 (b) 1 T T
(c) 2 (d) 3 (c) [1 −1] (d) [−2 1]

(GATE 2000: 1 Mark) (GATE 2005: 1 Mark)
2. For a singular matrix. 8. For a given 2 × 2 matrix A, it is observed that
(a) At least one eigen value would be at the origin
(b) All eigen values would be at the origin 1 1 1 1
A   = −   and A   = −2  
(c) Half eigen values would be at the origin  −1  −1  −2  −2
(d) No eigen value would be at the origin
(GATE 2000: 2 Marks) Then matrix A is
3. The necessary condition to diagonalise a matrix is that  2 1   −1 0   1 1 

(a) A=    
(a) its Eigen values should be distinct  −1 −1  0 −2  −1 −2
(b) its Eigen vectors should be independent
 1 1  1 0   2 1 
(c) its Eigen values should be real (b) A=   
 −1 −2 0 2  −1 −1
(d) the matrix is non-singular
(GATE 2001: 1 Mark)  1 1   −1 0   2 1 
(c) A=   
4. A system of equations represented by AX = 0, where X is  −1 −2  0 −2  −1 −1
a column vector of unknowns and A is a matrix contain-
0 −2
ing coefficients, has a non-trivial solutions when A is (d) A= 
(a) nonsingular (b) singular 1 −3
(c) symmetric (d) Hermetian (GATE 2006: 2 Marks)
(GATE 2003: 1 Mark)
Statement for Linked Answer Questions 9 and 10:
5. Vectors x1 = 5iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ and x2 = 4iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ are trans-
A system of linear simultaneous equations is given as Ax = b
formed into y1 = Ax1 and y2 = Ax2 using an orthogonal where
 2/3 1/3 2/3 
  1 0 1 0  0
matrix A =  −2/3 2/3 1/3  . The cosine of the angle 0  0
1 0 1
A=  and b =  
 1/3 2/3 −2/3 1 1 0 0  0
 
between y1 and y2 is  
0 0 0 1 1 
8 3
(a) (b) 9. The rank of matrix A is
70 2
1 1 (a) 1 (b) 2
(c) (d) (c) 3 (d) 4
70 2
(GATE 2004: 2 Marks) (GATE 2006: 2 Marks)
6. Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix with rank 2. Then AX = 0 has 10. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) only the trivial solution X = 0 (a) x is a null vector
(b) one independent solution (b) x is unique
(c) two independent solutions (c) x does not exist
(d) three independent solutions (d) x has infinitely many values
(GATE 2005: 1 Mark) (GATE 2006: 2 Marks)

11. Let A be an n × n real matrix such that A2 = I and y 17. X and Y are non-zero square matrices of size n × n. If
be an n-dimensional vector. Then the linear system of XY = 0n × n , then
equations Ax = y has (a) |X| = 0 and |Y| ≠ 0 (b) |X| ≠ 0 and |Y| = 0
(a) no solution (c) |X| = 0 and |Y| = 0 (d) |X| ≠ 0 and |Y| ≠ 0
(b) a unique solution (GATE 2010: 2 Marks)
(c) more than one but finitely many independent
 −2 2 −3
solutions
18. The matrix M =  2 1 −6 has eigenvalues –3,
(d) infinitely many independent solutions  
(GATE 2007: 1 Mark)  −1 −2 0 
–3, 5. An eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
12. Let A = [ai , j ],1 ≤ i, j ≤ n , with n ≥ 3 and aij = i ⋅ j
5 is [1 2 −1] . One of the eigenvectors of the matrix
T
Then the rank of A is

M 3 is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) n – 1 (d) n (a) [1 8 −1]
T
(b) [1 2 −1]
T
(GATE 2007: 2 Marks)

(c) [1 2 −1]T (d) [1 1 −1]
T
13. Let P ≠ 0 be a 3 × 3 real matrix. There exist linearly (GATE 2011: 1 Mark)
independent vectors x and y such that Px = 0 and Py = 0.
The dimension of the range space of P is  −5 −3 1 0
19. Given that A =   and I =   the value of
(a) 0 (b) 1 A3 is 2 0 0 1
(c) 2 (d) 3 (a) 15A + 12I (b) 19A + 30I
(GATE 2009: 1 Mark) (c) 17A + 15I (d) 17A + 21I
14. The eigenvalues of a (2 × 2) matrix X are –2 and –3. The (GATE 2012: 2 Marks)
−1
eigenvalues of the matrix ( X + I ) ( X + 5 I ) are 20. The dimension of the null space of the matrix
(a) –3, –4 (b) –1, –2 0 1 1
(c) –1, –3 (d) –2, –4 1 − 1 0 
  is
(GATE 2009: 2 Marks)  −1 0 − 1 
0 0 1 (a) 0 (b) 1
P = 1 0 0 (c) 2 (d) 3
15. The matrix   rotates a vector about the
0 1 0 (GATE 2013: 1 Mark)
1 21. If the A matrix of the state space model of a SISO linear
 time invariant system is rank deficient, the transfer func-
axis 1 by an angle of
tion of the system must have
1
(a) a pole with a positive real part
(a) 30° (b) 60°
(b) a pole with a negative real part
(c) 90° (d) 120°
(c) a pole with a positive imaginary part
(d) a pole at the origin
16. A real n × n matrix A = [aij ] is defined as follows: (GATE 2013: 1 Mark)
i, if i = j 22. One pair of eigenvectors corresponding to the two eigen-

aij = 
0, otherwise 0 −1
values of the matrix   is
1 0 
The summation of all n eigenvalues of A is
1  i  0  −1
n(n + 1) n(n − 1) (a)  −i  ,  −1 (b) 1  ,  0 
(a) (b)        
2 2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 1 0 1 i 
(c) (d) n 2 (c)  ,  (d)  , 
6  i  1  i  1
(GATE 2010: 1 Mark)

23. A scalar valued function is defined as 0 1  0 1

f ( x) = xT Ax + bT x + c, where A is a symmetric positive (a) 1 0 (b)  
definite matrix with dimension n × n ; b and x are vec-    −1 0
tors of dimension n × 1. The minimum value of f(x) will
 −1 0 1 0 
occur when x equals (c)  0 1 (d)  
T
(a) ( A A) b
−1 T
(b) −( A A) b
−1   0 −1
 A−1b  (GATE 2017: 1 Mark)

(c) − (d) None of these
 2 
(GATE 2014: 2 Marks) 1 −1 5
 
29. The eigenvalues of the matrix A = 0 5 6 are
24. For the matrix A satisfying the equation given below, the
eigenvalues are 0 −6 5
 1 2 3  1 2 3 (a) −1, 5, 6 (b) 1, −5 ± i6

[ A] 7 8 9 =  4 5 6 (c) 1, 5 ± i6 (d) 1, 5, 5
(GATE 2017: 1 Mark)
 4 5 6 7 8 9 
T
(a) (1, -1, 1) (b) (1,1, 0) 30. The angle between two vectors x1 = [2 6 14] and
T
(c) (1,1, −1) (d) (1,1, 0) x2 = [−12 8 16] in radian is _______ .
25. Let A be an n × n matrix with rank r (0 < r < n). Then 31. Let N be a 3 by 3 matrix with real number entries. The
Ax = 0 has p independent solutions, where p is matrix N is such that N2 = 0. The eigen values of N are
(a) r (b) n (a) 0, 0, 0 (b) 0, 0, 1
(c) n − r (d) n + r (c) 0, 1, 1 (d) 1, 1, 1
2 1 1 32. Consider the following system of linear equations:

26. Consider the matrix A =  2 3 4  whose eigen-
  3 x + 2ky = −2
 −1 −1 −2 
3 2
kx + 6 y = 2
values are 1, –1 and 3. Then Trace of ( A − 3 A )
is _________. Here x and y are the unknowns and k is a real constant.
(GATE 2016: 2 Marks) The value of k for which there are infinite number of
solutions is
27. If v is a non-zero vector of dimension 3 × 1, then the
T (a) 3 (b) 1
matrix A = vv has a rank = ________.
(c) −3 (d) −6
(GATE 2017: 1 Mark)
28. The figure shows a shape ABC and its mirror image
A1B1C1 across the horizontal axis (x-axis). The coordi- 33. A 3 × 3 matrix has eigenvalues 1, 2 and 5. The determi-
nate transformation matrix that maps ABC to A1B1C1 is nant of the matrix is _____ .
y (GATE 2019: 1 Mark)
B
Original
A Calculus
C 34. A vector normal to iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ is
0
x
C1 (a) iˆ − ˆj – kˆ (b) −iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ
A1 Mirror image (c) −iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ (d) 2iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ
(GATE 2001: 1 Mark)

B1

  π  41. The plot of a function f(x) is shown in the following fig-

 sin 2  x − 4   ure. A possible expression for the function f(x) is
35. lim   equals f(x)
π
x→  π 
4
 x− 
4
1
(a) 0 (b)
2 1
(c) 1 (d) 2
x
36. If a vector R(t ) has a constant magnitude, then 0

dR dR
(a) R ⋅ = 0 (b) R × =0 (a) exp ( x ) (b) exp ( − x )
dt dt
 −1  1
dR dR (c) exp   (d) exp  
(c) R ⋅ R = (d) R × R =  x x
dt dt
(GATE 2005: 1 Mark)
42. The function y = sin φ , (φ > 0) is approximated as
1 1
y = φ , where ϕ is in radian. The maximum value of ϕ
37. The value of the integral ∫ 2 dx is
−1 x for which the error due to the approximation is within
(a) 2 (b) does not exist ±2% is
(c) −2 (d) ∞ (a) 0.1 rad (b) 0.2 rad
(GATE 2005: 1 Mark) (c) 0.3 rad (d) 0.4 rad
38. Given a real-valued continuous function f(t) defined (GATE 2006: 2 Marks)
1 t
over [0,1], lim ∫ f ( x)dx is 43. Which of the following integrals provides a measure of
t →0 t 0
the rapidity of change in a random variable f(t)?
(a) ∞ (b) 0
(c) f(1) (d) f(0) 1 +T

(a) lim
T →∞ 2T ∫ −T
f (t )dt
1 +T
39. The curves, for which the curvature ρ at any point is (b) lim
T →∞ 2T ∫ −T
f 2 (t )dt
equal to cos3θ, where θ is the angle made by the tangent
1/ 2
at that point with the positive direction of the x-axis, are  1 +T 
2 3/ 2
(given ρ = y ′′ /[1 + ( y ′ ) ] where y′ and y′′ are the first (c) Tlim
→∞ 2T ∫ −T
f (t )dt 

and second derivatives of y with respect to x)
1 +T
(a) circles (b) parabolas (d) lim
T →∞ 2T ∫ −T
f (t ) f (t + τ )dt
(c) ellipses (d) hyperbolas
2/3 2/3
40. A scalar field is given by f = x + y , where x and y 44. The solution of the integral equation
t
are the cartesian coordinates. The derivative of f along y (t ) = t exp(t ) − 2 exp(t ) ∫ exp(−τ ) y (τ )d τ
0
the line y = x directed away from the origin, at the point
(8, 8) is (a) 1/2(exp(t ) − exp( −t ))
(b) 1/2(exp(t ) + exp( −t ))
2 3
(a) (b) (exp(t ) − exp(−t ))
3 2
(c)
(exp(t ) + exp(−t ))
2 3
(c) (d) (exp(−t ) + exp(t ))
3 2 (d)
(exp(−t ) − exp(t ))

5
45. The polynomial p ( x) = x + x + 2 has 53. It is known that two roots of the nonlinear equation
(a) all real roots x 3 – 6 x 2 + 11x – 6 = 0 are 1 and 3. The third root will be
(b) 3 real and 2 complex roots (a) j (b) –j
(c) 1 real and 4 complex roots (c) 2 (d) 4
(d) all complex roots (GATE 2008: 2 Marks)
(GATE 2007: 2 Marks) − at
54. The Fourier transform of x(t ) = e u (−t ), where u(t) is
the unit step function,
esin x
46. For real x, the maximum value of is (a) exists for any real value of a
ecos x
(b) does not exist for any real value of a
(a) 1 (b) e
2 (c) exists if the real value of a is strictly negative
(c) e (d) ∞
(d) exists if the real value of a is strictly positive
3
47. Consider the function f ( x) = x , where x is real. Then
the function f(x) at x = 0 is 55. A sphere of unit radius is centered at the origin. The unit
normal at a point (x, y, z) on the surface of the sphere is
(a) continuous but not differentiable
the vector
(b) once differentiable but not twice
 1 1 1 
(c) twice differentiable but not thrice (a) ( x, y, z ) (b)  , ,
 3 3 3 
(d) thrice differentiable
(GATE 2007: 2 Marks)  x y z   x y z 
(c)  , ,  (d)  , , 
∞ ∞ 3 3 3 2 2 2
∫ ∫
2 2
48. The value of the integral e − x e − y dx dy is
0 0 (GATE 2009: 1 Mark)
π
(a) (b) π 56. A quantity x is calculated by using the formula
2
x = ( p − q )/r , the measured values are p = 9, q = 6,
π
(c) π (d) r = 0.5. Assume that the measurement errors in p, q and
4 r are independent. The absolute maximum error in the
(GATE 2007: 2 Marks) measurement of each of the three quantities is ε. The
dy absolute maximum error in the calculated value of x is
2
49. Given y = x + 2 x + 10, the value of is equal to (a) ε (b) 2ε
dx x =1
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 3ε (d) 16ε
(c) 12 (d) 13 (GATE 2009: 2 Marks)
(GATE 2008: 1 Mark) x3 x5 x 7
sin x 57. The infinite series f ( x) = + + ∞ converges
50. lim is to 3! 5! 7!
x→0 x
(a) cos( x) (b) sin( x)
(a) indeterminate (b) 0 x
(c) 1 (d) ∞ (c) sinh( x) (d) e
∞
51. The expression e − ln x for x > 0 is equal to 58. The integral ∫ −∞

δ (t − π /6) 6sin(t )dt evaluates to
(a) –x (b) x (a) 6 (b) 3
(c) x–1 (d) –x–l (c) 1.5 (d) 0
(GATE 2008: 2 Marks) (GATE 2010: 1 Mark)
52. Consider the function y = x 2 – 6 x + 9 . The maximum 59. The electric charge density in the region
value of y obtained when x varies over the interval 2 to 5 R : x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1, y ≤ 0 is given as σ ( x, y ) = 1 C/m 2 , where
is x and y are in meters. The total charge (in coulomb) con-
tained in the region R is
(a) 1 (b) 3
(a) 4π (b) 2π
(c) 4 (d) 9
(c) π /2 (d) 0

1 ∞ 67. The magnitude of the directional derivative of the func-

∫
2
60. The integer t 2 et / 2δ (1 − 2t )dt is equal to 2 2
tion f ( x, y ) = x + 3 y in a direction normal to the circle
2π −∞
x 2 + y 2 = 2, at the point (1,1), is

1 1
(a) e −1/8 (b) e −1/8 (a) 4 2 (b) 5 2
8 2π 4 2π
1 (c) 7 2 (d) 9 2
(c) e −1/ 2 (d) 1
2π (GATE 2015: 1 Mark)
(GATE 2011: 1 Mark)
68. A straight line of the form y = mx + c passes through
the origin and the point ( x, y ) = (2, 6). The value of m
1
61. The series ∑ m = 0
∞
( x − 1) 2 m converges for is _______.
4m
(GATE 2016: 1 Mark)
(a) –2 < x < 2 (b) –1 < x < 3
(c) –3 < x < 1 (d) x < 3 69. lim( n 2 + n − n 2 + 1) is _______.
n →∞

62. The direction of vector A is radially outward from the 70. The vector that is not perpendicular to the vectors
n 2 2 2 2 (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) and (iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ) is _________.
origin, with A = kr where r = x + y + z and k is a

constant. The value of n for which ∇ ⋅ A = 0 is (a) (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) (b) ( − iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ)
(a) –2 (b) 2
(c) (0iˆ + 0 ˆj + 0kˆ) (d) (4iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ)
(c) 1 (d) 0
3 2
63. The maximum value of f ( x) = x − 9 x + 24 x + 5 in the 71. In the neighbourhood of z = 1, the function f ( z ) has a
interval [1, 6] is power series expansion of the form
(a) 21 (b) 25
f ( z ) = 1 + (1 − z ) + (1 − z ) 2 + . Then f(z) is
(c) 41 (d) 46
(GATE 2012: 2 Marks) 1 −1
(a) (b)
π
z z−2

64. Given x(t ) = 3sin(1000π t ) and y (t ) = 5cos 1000π t +  .
 4 z −1 1
The x-y plot will be (c) (d)
z +1 2z − 1
(a) a circle
(GATE 2016: 1 Mark)
(b) a multi-loop closed curve
(c) a hyperbola 72. Let f : [−1,1] → , where f ( x) = 2 x 3 − x 4 − 10 . The
(d) an ellipse minimum value of f (x) is ______.

65. A vector is defined as f = yiˆ + xjˆ + zkˆ where iˆ, ˆj and kˆ 73. Consider two functions f (x) = (x – 2)2 and g(x) = 2x
are unit vectors in Cartesian(x, y, z) coordinate system. – 1, where x is real. The smallest value of x for which

f ( x) = g ( x) is _______.
The surface integral ÚÚ f ◊ ds over the closed surface (GATE 2018: 1 Mark)
S of a cube with vertices having the following coordi-

nates: (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (1,1,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1), (1,0,1), 74. Given F = ( x 2 − 2 y )iˆ − 4 yz ˆj + 4 xz 2 kˆ, the value of the
(1,1,1), (0,1,1) is___________.
line integral ∫ F ⋅ dl along the straight-line c from
(GATE 2014: 1 Mark) c
(0,0,0) to (1,1,1) is
a y
66. The double integral ∫ ∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dxdy is equivalent to
3
(a) (b) 0
x y a y
16
(a) ∫ ∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dxdy (b) ∫ ∫
0 x
f ( x, y )dxdy
a y a a 5
−
(c) ∫ ∫
0 x
f ( x, y )dxdy (d) ∫ ∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dxdy (c)
12
(d) −1


75. a , b , c are three orthogonal vectors. Given that 81. For an initial value problem y + 2 y + 101 y = 10.4e x ,

a = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 5kˆ and b = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ , the vector c is par- y (0) = 1.1 and y = −0.9 . Various solutions are written
allel to in the following groups. Match the type of solution with
the correct expression.
(a) iˆ + 2 ˆj + 3kˆ (b) 2iˆ + ˆj
Group 1 Group 2
(c) 2iˆ − ˆj (d) 4kˆ P. General solution 1. 0.1e x
(GATE 2019: 1 Mark) of homogeneous
equations
76. The vector function A is given by A = ∇u , where u ( x, y ) −x
Q. Particular integral 2. e ( A cos10 x + B sin 10 x)
is a scalar function. Then ∇ × A is −x x
R.
Total solution 3. e cos10 x + 0.1e
(a) −1 (b) 0 satisfying boundary
(c) 1 (d) ∞ conditions
(GATE 2019: 1 Mark)
(a) P−2, Q−1, R−3 (c) P−1, Q−2, R−3
77. The curve y = f ( x) is such that the tangent to the curve (b) P−1, Q−3, R−2 (d) P−3, Q−2, R−1
at every point (x, y) has a y-axis intercept c, given by
c = − y. Then, f( x) is proportional to
(a) x−1 (b) x2 82. The boundary-value problem y ′′ + λ y = 0 ,
(c) x3 (d) x4 y (0) = y (π ) = 0 will have non-zero solutions if and
(GATE 2019: 2 Marks) only if the values of λ are
(a) 0, ± 1, ± 2, ... (b) 1, 2, 3, …
(c) 1, 4, 9, … (d) 1, 9, 25, …
Differential Equations
78. The characteristic roots of the system described as dy
dx dy 83. Consider the differential equation = 1 + y 2 . Which
= y, = − x are at dx
dt dt one of the following can be a particular?
(a) +1, +1 (b) −1, +1 solution of this differential equation?
(c) − j ,+ j (d) None of these (a) y = tan( x + 3) (b) y = tan x + 3

(GATE 2000: 2 Marks) (c) x = tan( y + 3) (d) x = tan y + 3
79. If f = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 y + + an −1 xy n −1 + an y n , where (GATE 2008: 2 Marks)
∂f ∂f dy
ai (i = 0 to n) are constants, then x +y is 84. Consider the differential equation + y = e x with
∂x ∂y y(0) = 1. The value of y(l) is dx
f n 1
(a) (b) (a) e + e
−1
(b) (e + e −1 )
n f 2
1
(c) nf (d) n f (c) (e − e −1 ) −1
(d) 2(e − e )
2
80. The general solution of the differential equation 85. Consider the differential equation y + 2 y + y = 0 with
( D 2 − 4 D + 4) y = 0 , is of the form (given D = d /dx ), boundary conditions y (0) = 1, y (1) = 0 .
and c1 and c2 are constants The value of y(2) is
−1
(a) C1e 2 x (b) C1e 2 x + C2 e −2 x (a) –1 (b) −e
2x 2x
(c) C1e + C2 xe (d) C1e 2 x + C2 xe −2 x (c) −e2 (d) –e
−2

1 92. The figure shows the plot of y as a function of x

86. Consider the difference equation y[n] − [n − 1] = x[n] 5
n
3
1
and suppose that x[n] =   u[n] . Assuming the con-
2 3
x2
dition of initial rest, the solution for y[n], n > 0 is y=
2
1
n n n n
1 1 1 1 0
3  − 2  −2   + 2  
y
(a) (b) 0,0
3 2 3 2 −1
2
x
n n n n
y= -
2 1 1 1  1 1  2 1 2
−3
(c)   +   (d)   +  
3 3 3  2 3  2 3 3
−5
(GATE 2011: 2 Marks) −4 −2 0 2 4
x
87. With initial condition x(1) = 0.5, the solution of the dif-
dx The function shown is the solution of the differential
ferential equation, t + x = t
dt equation (assuming all initial conditions to be zero) is:
1 2 1 d2y dy
(a) x = t − (b) x = t − (a) =1 (b) =x
2 2 dx 2 dx
t2 t dy dy
(c) x= (d) x= (c) = −x (d) = x
2 2 dx dx
88. Consider the differential equation 93. Consider the following equations
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
+2 + y (t ) = δ (t ) with y (t ) t = 0 = −2 and ∂V ( x , y )
dt 2 dt = px 2 + y 2 + 2 xy
dy dy ∂x
= 0 . The numerical value of is ∂V ( x , y )
dt t = 0 − dt t = 0+ = x 2 + qy 2 + 2 xy
∂y
(a) –2 (b) –1
(c) 0 (d) 1 where p and q are constants. V(x, y) that satisfies the
(GATE 2012: 2 Marks) above equations is
∂f ∂ 2 f x3 y3
89. The type of the partial differential equation = is (a) p + q + 2 xy + 6
∂t ∂x 2 3 3
(a) Parabolic (b) Elliptic x3 y3
(c) Hyperbolic (d) Nonlinear (b) p +q +5
3 3
(GATE 2013: 1 Mark)
x3 y3
90. While numerically solving the differential equation (c) p + q + x 2 y + xy 2 + xy
3 3
dy
+ 2 xy 2 = 0 , y (0) = 1 using Euler’s predictor-corrector
dx x3 y3
(d) p + q + x 2 y + xy 2
(improved Euler–Cauchy) method with a step size of 0.2, 3 3
the value of y after the first step is (GATE 2018: 2 Marks)
(a) 1.00 (b) 1.03
(c) 0.97 (d) 0.96
Analysis of Complex Variables
91. The maximum value of the solution y (t ) of the differ- 94. Consider the circle z – 5 – 5i = 2 in the complex plane
ential equation y (t ) + y (t ) = 0 with initial conditions (x, y) with z = x + iy . The minimum distance from the
y (0) = 1 , for t ≥ 0 is
y (0) = 1 and
origin to the circle is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (a) 5 2−2 (b) 54
(c) π (d) 2 (c) 34 (d) 5 2

95. Let z 3 = z , where z is a complex number not equal to sin z

zero. Then z is a solution of
101. The value of Ú z
dz, where the contour of integration
2
(a) z = 1
3
(b) z = 1 is a simple closed curve around the origin, is
4
(c) z = 1
9
(d) z = 1 (a) 0 (b) 2π i
(GATE 2005: 2 Marks) 1
(c) ∞ (d)
2π i
96. The value of the integral of the complex function
(GATE 2009: 1 Mark)
3s + 4
f (s) = 102. One of the roots of the equation x 3 = i , where i is the
( s + 1)( s + 2) positive square root of –1, is
Along the path | s | = 3 is 3 1
(a) i (b) +i
(a) 2π i (b) 4π i 2 2
(c) 6π i (d) 8π i 3 1 3 1
(c) −i (d) − −i
(GATE 2006: 2 Marks) 2 2 2 2
i
97. Let i = −1. Then one value of i is (GATE 2009: 2 Marks)
(a) i (b) –1 103. The contour C in the adjoining figure is described by

π z2 + 8
(c)
2
(d) e
−π / 2
ÚC 0.5z - 1.5i dz is (Note:
x 2 + y 2 = 16 . The value of
(GATE 2007: 1 Mark)
i = −1 )
sin z y
98. For the function 3 of a complex variable z, the point
z = 0 is z
z plane
(a) a pole of order 3 (b) a pole of order 2
(c) a pole of order 1 (d) not a singularity
x
0
99. A complex variable z = x + i 0.1 has its real part x vary-
ing in the range −∞ to +∞. Which one of the following C
is the locus (shown in thick lines) of 1/z in the complex
plane?
Imag. axis
Imag. axis
(a) −2π i (b) 2π i

(c) 4π i (d) −4π i
(a) (b) (GATE 2010: 1 Mark)
Real axis Real axis
- i10 − i10 104. The velocity v (in m/s) of a moving mass, starting from
dv
rest, is given as = v + 1 . Using Euler forward differ-
dt
ence method (also known as Cauchy–Euler method)
Imag. axis
Imag. axis
with a step size of 0.1 s. The velocity at 0.2 s evaluates to

(a) 0.11 m/s (b) 0.1 m/s
(c) (d)
Real axis (c) 0.2 m/s (d) 1 m/s
Real axis − i10
− i10 (GATE 2010: 2 Marks)
105. The contour integral
∫ e
1/ z
(GATE 2008: 2 Marks) dz
C
iz with C as the counter-clockwise unit circle in the z-plane

100. If z = x + iy, where x and y are real, the value of | e | is
is equal to
(a) 1 (b) + y2 (a) 0 (b) 2 π
(c) e y
(d) e–y (c) 2π −1 (d) ∞

106. If x = −1, then the value of xx is: Probability and Statistics

−π / 2 π /2
(a) e (b) e
113. A real valued random variable lying between 0 and 100
(c) x (d) 1
has a uniform probability density function. The proba-
(GATE 2012: 1 Mark) bility that the value of the variable is greater than 20 is,
1 2 1 1
107. Given f ( z ) = − . If C is a counterclockwise (a) (b)
z +1 z + 3 5 2
path in the z-plane such that | z + 1|= 1, the value of
4
1 (c) (d) 1
Ú C f (z)dz is
2π j
5
(GATE 2000: 1 Mark)
(a) –2 (b) –1
114. The probability that there are 53 Sundays in a randomly
(c) 1 (d) 2 chosen leap year is
(GATE 2012: 1 Mark)
1 1
1 (a) (b)
7 14
108. The value of Ú z 2 dz, where the contour is the unit circle 1 2
traversed clockwise, is (c) (d)
28 7
(a) −2π i (b) 0
(GATE 2005: 1 Mark)
(c) 2πi (d) 4πi
(GATE 2015: 1 Mark) 115. A mass of 10 kg is measured with an instrument and
2 the readings are normally distributed with respect to the
1 z +1
2π i ∫C z 2 − 1
109. The value of the integral dz where z is a com- 2 0.84  η2 
mean of 10 kg. Given that
2π 0
∫ exp  − 2  d η = 0.6
plex number and C is a unit circle with center at 1+0i in
the complex plane is _____ and that 60 per cent of the readings are found to be
(GATE 2016: 2 Marks) within 0.05 kg from the mean, the standard deviation of
the data is
110. Let z = x + iy where i = −1. Then cos z = (a) 0.02 (b) 0.04
(a) cos z (b) cos z (c) 0.06 (d) 0.08
(c) sin z (d) sin z (GATE 2005: 1 Mark)
(GATE 2017: 1 Mark)
116. The measurements of a source voltage are 5.9 V, 5.7 V
111. Let f1 ( z ) = z 2 and f 2 ( z ) = z be two complex vari- and 6.1 V. The sample standard deviation of the readings
able functions. Here z is the complex conjugate of z. is
Choose the correct answer. (a) 0.013 (b) 0.04
(a) Both f1 ( z ) and ( ) are analytic (c) 0.115 (d) 0.2
(b) Only f1 ( z ) is analytic (GATE 2005: 1 Mark)
(c) Only f 2 ( z ) is analytics 117. Using the given data points tabulated below, a straight
(d) Both f1 ( z ) and f 2 ( z ) are not analytic line passing through the origin is fitted using least square
(GATE 2018: 1 Mark) method. The slope of the line is
112. A complex function f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) and its x 1.0 2.0 3.0
complex conjugate f * ( z ) = u ( x, y ) − iv( x, y ) are both y 1.5 2.2 2.7
analytic in the entire complex plane, where z = x + iy
and i = −1. The function f is then given by (a) 0.9 (b) 1.0
(a) f ( z ) = x + iy (c) 1.1 (d) 1.5
(b) f ( z ) = x 2 − y 2 + i 2 xy (GATE 2005: 2 Marks)
(c) f ( z ) = constant 118. You have gone to a cyber-cafe with a friend. You found
f ( z) = x2 + y 2 that the cyber-café has only three terminals. All termi-
(d)
nals are unoccupied. You and your friend have to make
(GATE 2019: 2 Marks) a random choice of selecting a terminal. What is the

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Pasinkov astui muutamaan kertaan edes takaisin yli lattian.
"Ja tyttö, rakastaako hän häntä?" kysyi hän.
"Rakastaa."
Pasinkov käänsi silmänsä alas ja katsoi kauan lattiaan, niitä

väräyttämättä.
"No hyvä, tämä täytyy selvitellä jälleen", sanoi hän, nostaen

päänsä pystyyn.
Hän otti hattunsa.
"Mihinkä sinä menet?"
"Asanovin luo."
Minä hyppäsin ylös sohvalta.
"Mutta minä en sitä salli! Mitenkä se olisi mahdollista kaiken sen

jälkeen, mitä me äsken puhelimme? Mitä hän ajattelisi!"
Pasinkov katsoi minuun lempeästi ja vakavasti.
"Onko sinusta sitte parempi mennä vielä pitemmälle tässä

ikävässä asiassa, saattaa itsesi turmioon ja nuori tyttö pahaan
huutoon?"
"Mitä sinä sitte aiot sanoa Asanoville?"
Minä koetan näyttää hänelle asiata järkevässä valossa. "Minä

sanon hänelle, että sinä pyydät hänellä anteeksi, että…"
"Mutta minä en tahdo pyytää häneltä mitään anteeksi!"
"Etkö tahdo? Etkö sinä silloin ole syypää, etkö sinä ole tehnyt
pahoin?"
Minä katsoin Pasinkoviin. Hänen kasvojensa levollinen ja ankara,

mutta surullinen muoto liikutti minua kovin. Sellaisena minä en ollut
häntä ennen nähnyt, Vastaamatta kävin minä ihan ääneti istumaan
sohvalle.
Pasinkov läksi.
*****
Miten tuskissani minä odotteita hänen palaamistansa! Miten

sietämättömän hitaasti kuluivat minuutit ja hetket! Viimein hän palasi
myöhään illalla.
"Sano, kuinka kävi", kysyin minä arasti.
"Jumalan kiitos!" vastasi hän, "kaikki on jälleen sovitettuna!"
"Olitko Asanovin luona?"
"Olin."
"Mitä sanoi hän? Oliko hän vaativainen ja pöyhkeä, arvattavasti?"

utelin minä hätäisesti.
"Ei, sitä en voi sanoa. Minä odotin paljon enempää vastusta. Hän
ei ole niin tyhjä eikä ylpeä kuitenkaan, kuin minä hänestä luulin."
"Ja sitte, kävitkö kenenkään muunkin luona?" kysyin minä

hetkisen päästä.
"Kävin Slotsnitskissa."
"Vai niin…"
Sydämmeni sykki kovasti. Minä en uskaltanut katsoa Pasinkoviin.
"Mitä hän…"
"Sofia Nikolajevna on hyvä ja ymmärtäväinen tyttö. Niin, hän on

tosiaankin hyvä tyttö. Alussa oli hän hyvin levoton, mutta sitte tyyntyi.
Muuten meidän keskustelumme ei kestänytkään kauempaa kuin viisi
minuuttia."
"Ja sinä, puhuitko sinä hänelle kaikki, minusta, kaikki tyyni?"
"Minä sanoin hänelle, mitä hänen oli välttämätön saada tietää."
"Ja nyt minä tietysti en enää saata käydä heillä?" sanoin minä
murheissani.
"Miksi et? Silloin tällöin sinä kyllä saatat käydä siellä, ja sinun
pitääkin käydä, ett'ei saataisi aihetta lörpötyksiin ja väärin käsityksiin.
"Voi Jakov, sinä et nyt voi muuta kuin halveksia minua!" vaikeroin
minä, jaksaen töin tuskin pidättää kyyneliäni.
"Minäkö? halveksia sinua?" Hänen hyvistä, ystävällisistä

silmistään alkoi loistaa hellintä rakkautta. "Halveksia sinua! Kuinka
saatatkaan sinä ajatella niin? Oliko sitte sinun niin helppo kestää tätä
iskua? Etkö sinä sitte enää olekaan tuskissasi?"
Hän ojensi minulle kätensä ja minä heittäydyin nyyhkien hänen

rinnoilleen.
*****
Muutamien päivien kuluttua, joina minä hyvin huomasin, että

Pasinkov ei ollut hyvällä mielellä kuten tavallisesti, päätin minä
viimein lähteä käymään Slotnitskissa.
Vaikea olisi sanoin kuvata, mitä minä tunsin astuessani saliin.

Minä muistan, että tuskin voin erottaa perheen jäseniä toisistaan ja
että ääni takertui minulle kurkkuun joka kerran, kuin yritin puhumaan.
Sofian ei ollut myöskään helpompi olla. Hän koetti pakottaa

itseään puhelemaan minun kanssani, mutta hänen silmänsä
karttoivat minun katsettani ja päin vastoin, ja jokaisessa hänen
liikkeessään, koko hänen olemuksessaan oli selvästi huomattavaa
pakkoa ja — miksikään lausuisi totuutta — salaista inhoa. Minä
kiiruhdinkin vapauttamaan niin pian kuin mahdollista sekä häntä että
itseäni siitä kiusallisesta tilasta.
Tämä yhtyminen onneksi olikin viimeinen ennen hänen häitänsä

Asanovin kanssa. Äkisti tapahtui muutos minun omassa elämässäni
ja vei minut pois Venäjänmaan toiseen laitaan, niin että minun täytyi
pitkäksi ajaksi erota Pietarista, Slotnitskeista ja, ikävintä kaikesta,
myöskin hyvästä ystävästäni Jakov Pasinkovista.
VI.
Seitsemän vuotta oli kulunut. Minä en katso tarpeelliseksi kertoa,

mitä minulle oli tapahtunut koko sinä aikana. Minä olin vaellellut
ympäri Venäjänmaata, ollut kaukana etäisissä erämaissa, ja
Jumalan olkoon kiitos, ne etäiset erämaat eivät olekaan niin
hirvittävät, kuin moni luulee. Keskellä suurinta saloa kasvaa tuulen
kaatamien puiden alla ja tiheiköissä kuitenkin varsin monta kaunista
ja tuoksuvaa kukkaa.
Eräänä päivänä aikaisin keväällä matkustin minä virkatoimissa

pienen piirikaupungin läpi eräässä Itä-Venäjän etäisessä
kuvernementissa. Torin poikki ajaessa minä mitään ajattelematta
tirkistellessäni ulos himmeästi vaununikkunasta yhtäkkiä näin
miehen, jonka kasvot näyttivät minusta erittäin tutuilta.
Hän seisoi erään puodin erässä eikä hänellä näyttänyt olevan

mitään erityistä tekemistä. Minä katselin häntä tarkemmin ja suureksi
ilokseni tunsin hänet Pasinkovin palvelijaksi Jeliseiksi.
Minä heti pysäytin vaunut hyppäsin alas ja riensin Jelisein luo.
"Hyvää päivää, ystäväni!" sanoin minä, töin tuskin jaksaen hillitä

liikutustani. "Oletko sinä täällä herrasi kanssa?"
"Niin, minä se olen", vastasi hän hitaasti, mutta heti sitte riemastui:
"Ah, oletteko se te, pikku isä! Ja minä kun en ollut tuntea teitä!"
"Onko Jakov Ivanits siis täällä?"
"On tietysti, kuinka minä muuten voisin olla täällä!"
"Missä hän sitte on? Vie minut heti hänen luoksensa."
"Sen minä kyllä teen! Olkaa hyvä, lähtekää minun kanssani. Me

asumme tuossa ravintolassa."
Jelisei vei minut torin poikki ravintolaan, lakkaamatta laususkellen:
"Miten Jakov Ivanits nyt tulee iloiseksi! Miten hän ilostuu!"
Jelisei, synnyltänsä kalmukkilainen, oli muodoltaan erittäin

vastenmielisen, melkeinpä hurjan näköinen, mutta kuitenkin oli hän
perin hyväsydämminen ja ymmärtäväinen mies. Hän oli jo
kymmenen vuotta ollut Pasinkovin palveluksessa ja rakasti häntä
rajattomasti.
"Kuinka Jakov Ivanits nyt jaksaa?" kysyin minä häneltä.
Jelisei käänsi pienet mustankellertävät kasvonsa minuun päin.
"Voi, pikku isä, huonosti, hyvin huonosti!" vastasi hän huoaten. "Te
ette suinkaan tunne häntä enää. Näyttää, kuin hänellä ei enää olisi
pitkää elonaikaa jäljellä. Juuri sentähden me vain oleskelemmekin
täällä, että hän on niin heikko. Me olemme matkalla Odessaan,
näettäkös, oikein kunnolliseen parannuslaitokseen."
"Mistä te sitte tulette?"

"Siperiasta, pikku isä."
"Siperiastako!"
"Niin, se on varma, se. Jakov Ivanitsilla oli siellä hyvä paikka.

Mutta siellä hän myöskin sai haavansa."
"Haavansako? Onko hänestä tullut sotilas?"
"Ei suinkaan. Sivilivirassa hän oli."
"Sepä merkillistä", ajattelin minä itsekseni.
Tällä välin olimme saapuneet ravintolaan, ja Jelisei riensi edeltä

ilmoittamaan minun tuloani.
Ensi vuosina eromme jälkeen olimme Pasinkov ja minä hyvin

usein kirjoittaneet toinen toisellemme, mutta viimeinen kirje, kuin
minä olin saanut häneltä, oli nyt neljä vuotta vanha, ja siitä saakka
minä en ollut millään muullakaan tavalla saanut mitään tietoa
hänestä.
"Olkaa hyvä, tulkaa ylös, olkaa niin hyvä!" huusi Jelisei rapuilta.
"Jakov Ivanits ikävöitsee teitä nähdäksensä."
Nopein askelin juoksin minä huonoja, heiluvia rappusia ylös ja

astuin pieneen puolipimeään huoneesen. Sydämmeni sykähti
rinnassani. Kapeassa sängyssä, kappa peitteenä, makasi Pasinkov
kalpeana kuin ruumis ja ojensi toista paljasta, laihaa käsivarttansa
minua kohti.
Minä riensin vuoteen viereen ja puristin hänen kättänsä huumeen

tapaisella kiihkolla, mutta en saanut pitkään aikaan sanotuksi
sanaakaan.
"Jakov, rakas Jakov, kuinka sinä jaksat?" virkoin viimein.
"Oh, ei mitään hätää", vastasi hän heikolla äänellä. "Minä olen

vähän sairas, siinä kaikki tyyni. Mutta miten ihmeellä sinä tulit
tänne?"
Minä kävin istumaan luolille Pasinkovin vuoteen viereen ja katsoin

kauan hänen kasvojansa, päästämättä irti hänen kättään. Minä kyllä
tunsin rakkaat kasvot, silmäin katse ja muodon hymy olivat
entisellään, mutta muuten näkyi koko olennossa selviä taudin
hävityksen jälkiä.
Pasinkov huomasi, miten minua tuskastutti hänen näkönsä.
"Minä en ole ajellut partaani kolmeen päivään", sanoi hän, "enkä

luullakseni kammannut tukkaanikaan, mutta muuten ei ole mitään
hätää."
"Sanos minulle, Jakov", aloin minä, "mitä juttuja ne olivat, joita

Jelisei minulle kertoi. Oletko sinä haavoitettu?"
"Niin, se on kokonainen historia", vastasi hän, "ja minä sitte kerron

sen sinulle. Minä olen tosiaankin haavoitettu, ja arvaapas, mistä
aseesta. Nuolesta!"
"Nuolestako!"
"Niin, nuolesta, en tuollaisesta tarumaisesta Amorin nuolesta,

vaan oikeasta ampumanuolesta, joka oli tehty jostakin notkeasta
puusta, päässä taidokkaasti tehty kärki. Omituisen tunteen vaikuttaa
sellainen nuoli, varsinkin kun se sattuu rintaan ja tunkeutuu
keuhkoihin asti."
"Mutta miten ihmeen tavalla se tapahtui?"
"Aivan yksinkertaisesti. Kuten tiedät, on aina ollut vähän

naurettava, vähän hullunkurinen koko minun elämäni. Muistathan,
mikä naurettava kirjeenvaihto minulla oli virastojen kanssa,
ennenkuin sain paperini ylioppilaaksi pyrkiessäni, ja samoin on
tosiaankin ihan hullunkurista, että minä haavoituin nuolesta. Kukapa
tavallinen ihminen meidän valistuneena aikanamme enää antaisi
itseänsä nuolen haavoittaa? Ja huomaa, se ei tapahtunut sattumasta
eikä missään urheilun harjoituksessa, vaan tosi taistelussa."
"Mutta sinähän kuitenkin jätät sanomatta, millä tavalla."
"Malta, malta, kyllä saat kuulla", keskeytti hän. "Tiedäthän, että

minut kohta sinun lähdettyäsi Pietarista siirrettiin Novgorodiin. Siellä
minä asuin jotenkin kauan, ja totta puhuakseni minulla oli siellä hyvin
ikävä, vaikka minä tapasinkin…" — hän huokasi syvään — "mutta
siitä saamme puhua toiste. Kaksi vuotta sitte sain minä toisen, varsin
edullisen paikan. Se tosin oli vähän liian kaukana, Irkutskin
kuvernementissa, mutta mitäpä siitä! Nähtävästi oli sallimuksen
tarkoitus, että minun kuten isänikin piti joutua Siperiaan. Mutta onpa
se kuitenkin ihana maa se Siperia! Rikas, komea, suurenmoinen,
sen voi kuka hyvänsä todistaa, joka on siellä käynyt. Minä viihdyin
erinomaisen hyvin. Minulla oli komennettavana koko joukko siellä
syntyneitä asujamia, mutta pahaksi onneksi muutamille heistä,
kymmenkunnalle varmaankin, johtui mieleen ruveta salakuljettajiksi
ja kiellettyjen tavarain kauppiaiksi. Minut lähetettiin ottamaan heitä
kiinni. Sen minä ihan oikein teinkin, mutta silloin yksi heistä
varmaankin pelkästä tyhmyydestä ja ajattelemattomuudesta ryhtyi
tekemään vastarintaa ja ampui minua nuolella rintaan. Minä
tosiaankin olin vähällä siihen kuolla, mutta viimein sentään toinnuin
ja aloin parata. Nyt minä matkustan Odessaan voimistumaan siellä
kokonaan. Hallitus, jolle minä olen suuressa kiitollisuuden velassa,
myönsi minulle pienen erityisen matkarahan sitä varten."
Väsyksissä puheen ponnistuksesta laski Pasinkov päänsä

painumaan alas tyynylle ja vaikeni. Heikko puna kirkasti hänen
kasvojansa ja silmät painuivat kiinni.
"Te ette jaksa puhua niin paljoa", sanoi Jelisei, joka oli koko ajan
huoneessa.
Oltiin sitte hetkinen vaiti. Kuului ainoastaan sairaan raskasta

hengitystä.
"Ja nyt", jatkoi Pasinkov, avaten silmänsä, mutta pää vielä tyynyn
varassa, "olen minä jo toista viikkoa maannut tähän pikku komeroon
suljettuna. Luullakseni lienen jollakin tavalla vilustunut. Piirilääkäri
hoitelee minua. Hänet kyllä saat kohta nähdä luullakseni. Hän
näyttää ymmärtävän asian varsin hyvästi. Muuten minä olen iloissani
tästä sattumasta, sillä mitenpä minä muulla tavalla olisin saanutkaan
nähdä sinua."
Hän otti minua kädestä ja puristi sitä heikosti. Hänen kätensä,

äsken jääkylmä, oli nyt polttava kuumeesta.
"Kerro minulle jotakin itsestäsi", alkoi hän jälleen ja työnsi kapan

pois ryntäiltänsä. "Kukapa muistaakaan, kuinka pitkään aikaan
emme ole nähneet toisiamme."
Minä täytin hänen toivonsa, vaikka vain estääkseni häntä
puhumasta, ja aloin kertoa. Ensin hän kuunteli minua hyvin
tarkkaavasti, mutta pyysi sitte vähän vettä juodaksensa, sulki
silmänsä ja alkoi levottomasti liikahdella vuoteellaan.
Minä kehoitin häntä vähän nukkumaan ja sanoin, ett'en aikonut

ennen lähteä edelleen, kuin hän paranisi, vaan asettua ravintolaan
viereiseen huoneesen.
"Tässä on kaikki hyvin huonoa", alkoi Pasinkov estellä, mutta minä

painoin hiljaa hänen huulensa kiinni ja läksin pois huoneesta.
Jelisei seurasi minua.
"Kuinka oikeastaan on, Jelisei? Hänhän on ihan kuolemaisillaan,

kuten näyttää?" kysyin minä uskolliselta palvelijalta.
Jelisei kääntyi pois, vastaamatta mitään.
Minä maksoin rahat kyytimiehelle, joka oli tällä aikaa odotellut

torilla, ja saatuani sitte vähällä vaivalla tavarani järjestykseen
Pasinkovin huoneen viereen, menin hiljaa hänen huoneesensa
katsomaan, nukkuiko hän.
Ovessa kohtasin ison, lihavan ja kömpelön miehen. Hänen

suurista, rokonarpisista ja leveistä kasvoistaan ei näkynyt mitään
muuta kuin laiskuutta ja unteloisuutta. Pikku silmät näyttivät melkein
kiinni liimatuilta ja huulet loistivat kuin juuri makaamasta noustua.
"Suokaa anteeksi, että kysyn", sanoin minä, "oletteko tohtori?"
Lihava mies suurella ponnistuksella pingoitti ylös otsaansa ja

kulmiaan, kun koetti katsoa minuun.
"Niin, kyllä minä se olen", sanoi hän viimein.
"Olisitteko, herra tohtori, hyvä ja tulisitte minun huoneeseni; se on

tässä vieressä. Jakov Ivanits makaa nyt, kuten näyttää; minä olen
hänen vanha ystävänsä ja tahtoisin puhella teidän kanssanne hänen
taudistaan, joka minua huolettaa kovin."
"Kyllä, tietysti", vastasi lääkäri sen näköisenä, kuin olisi sanonut:

"Miksi suotta lörpöttelette niin paljon, kyllä minä vähemmälläkin
tulisin."
Raskain, hitain askelin seurasi hän minua huoneeseni.
"Olkaa hyvä, sanokaa, herra tohtori", aloin minä heti, kuin hän
pääsi istumaan suureen, mukavaan nojatuoliin, "millainen on
ystäväni tila? Onko hän vaarassa?"
"On", sanoi hän levollisesti.
"Onko tauti hyvin vaarallinen?"
"On se."
"Onko siis syytä peljätä kuolemaa?"
"Kyllä sitä voi peljätä."
Myönnän, että minua vähän inhotti tuon lihavan lääkärin levollinen,

unelias muoto.
"Siispä kaiketi täytyy", alotin uudestaan, "ryhtyä joihinkin erityisiin

keinoihin, kutsua joku toinen lääkäri neuvottelemaan, vai mitä?
Jotain kaiketi on tehtävä, herra tohtori."
"Neuvottelemaan, niin, se kävisi päinsä, miksikä ei, saatettaisiin
kutsua Ivan Jefremits."
Lääkäri puhui vaivalloisesti ja lakkaamatta puhkaen. Suuri vatsa

nousi ja laski joka sanalle, aivan kuin hän olisi tarvinnut sen erityistä
apua, saadakseen esiin sanoja.
"Kuka on Ivan Jefremits?"
"Kaupungin lääkäri."
"Eikö kävisi lähettää noutamaan lääkäriä kuvernementin

pääkaupungista?
Siellä varmaankin on monta taitavaa lääkäriä."
"Kyllä se kävisi päinsä."
"Ketä siellä pidetään taitavimpana lääkärinä."
"Taitavimpanako? Oli siellä tohtori Kolrabus, mutta hänet on

varmaankin siirretty jonnekin muuanne. Muuten minä luulen, ett'ei
ollenkaan tarvitse lähettää noutamaan ketään."
"Miksikä ei?"
"Teidän ystäväänne ei voi kuvernementinlääkärikään auttaa."
"Onko hänen tilansa niin huono?"
"On, hän on saanut aika pahan taudin."
"Millä tavalla hän oikeastaan on sairas?"

"Hän on haavoittunut, keuhkot ovat vialla. Sitte hän on vilustunut,
saanut kuumetta ja sen mukaan kaikkea muuta pahoin vointia.
Hänellä ei ole mitään terveyttä varastossa, ja ilman sitä, kuten
tiedätte, ei kestetä niin ankaraa iskua."
Oltiin hetkinen vaiti.
"Saatettaisiin ehkä koettaa homolopatiaa", alkoi jälleen puhetta

lihava lääkäri, katsahtaen minuun sivulta.
"Homolopatiaako? Mutta ettekö te ole täysi lääkäri?"
"Mitäpä siitä, että olenkin täysi lääkäri. Ettekö ehkä luule minun
sillä ymmärtävän homoiopatiaakin? Kyllä, yhtä hyvin kuin kuka muu
hyvänsä. Täällä on apteekkari, joka parantelee homolopatialla eikä
hän ole edes suorittanut mitään tieteellistä tutkintoakaan."
"Tuopa ei kuulu hyvältä ", ajattelin minä itsekseni, mutta jatkoin

kuuluvasti:
"Ei, herra tohtori, paras on teidän jatkaa tavallista keinoanne."
"Niin kuin tahdotte."
Hän nousi ylös kovasti puhisten.
"Menettekö nyt hänen luoksensa?" kysyin minä.
"Menen, minun täytyy käydä häntä katsomassa."
Ja hän läksi raskain, hitain askelin.
Minä en seurannut häntä. Luultavasti en olisi sietänyt nähdä

sellaista lääkäriä ystäväni sairasvuoteen vieressä.
Minä soittamalla kutsuin palvelijani ja annoin hänelle käskyn heti
matkustaa kuvernementin pääkaupunkiin, etsiä sieltä paras lääkäri ja
kaikin mokomin tuoda hänet kanssansa.
Taas kuului raskasta astuntaa käytävästä. Minä avasin äkisti oven.
Tohtori siinä juuri tuli Pasinkovin huoneesta.
"Kuinka hän nyt voi?" kysyin minä kuiskaten.
"Ei mitään erityistä. Minä kirjoitin hänelle uutta lääkettä."
"Minä puolestani, herra tohtori, olen päättänyt lähettää noutamaan

kuvernementin pääkaupungista parasta lääkäriä. Minä en suinkaan
epäile teidän taitoanne, mutta tiedättehän itse, mitä sananlasku
sanoo: Kahdet silmät enemmän näkee kuin yhdet."
"Vai niin, no, siinä teitte hyvin, siinä", vastasi hän ja läksi hitaasti
laskeutumaan alas rappusia.
Selvästi näkyi, että minä olin hänestä ikävä.
Minä menin Pasinkovin luo.
"No, näitkö lääkäriä?" kysyi hän.
"Näin", vastasin minä.
"Minua", jatkoi Pasinkov, "miellyttää hänen ihmetyttävä

levollisuutensa. Lääkärin sopiikin varsinkin hyvin olla hidasluontoinen
ja rauhallinen, eikö totta? Se vaikuttaa sairaassa luottamusta ja
antaa toivoa."
Tietysti minä en koettanutkaan saada häntä luopumaan niistä
ajatuksista.
Vastoin luuloani oli Pasinkov paljon parempi illan suussa. Hän

käski Jelisein laittaa teekeittiön kuntoon, kutsui minua luoksensa
teelle ja sanoi itsekin juovansa kupin. Ihan nähtävästi tunsi hän
itsensä iloiseksi ja varmaksi pikaisesta parantamisestaan. Kuitenkin
koetin minä niin paljon kuin mahdollista estää häntä puhumasta, ja
kun huomasin, että hän ei mielellään tahtonut pysyä vaiti ja hiljaa,
ehdotin minä, että lukisin hänelle jotakin.
"Niin, tee niin, siitä tulee hauskaa!" vastasi hän iloisesti. "Kuten
ennen Winterkellerissä, muistatko? Mutta mitä lukisimme? Katso
tuolta ikkunalta, siellä minun kirjani ovat."
Minä menin ikkunan luo ja otin ensimmäisen kirjan, kuin käsiini

sattui.
"Mikä kirja se on?" kysyi hän.
"Lermontov."
"Vai niin, Lermontov! Sepä oli hyvä. Puschkin on tosin ylevämpi."

Muistatko:
Pilvet taas kokouvat

Hiljaa ylleni…
taikka tätä:
Nyt viime kerran uskallan

Aatteissain suudella sun sulokasvojais.
"Ah, se on ihmeellistä, kaunista! Mutta Lermontov on myöskin
oikea runoilija. Tiedäpäs, ystäväni, avaa kirja sattumalta ja lue siitä
paikasta, joka tulee auki."
Minä avasin kirjan, mutta jouduin vähän hämilleni ja levottomaksi,

kun avautui "Testamentti". Minä yritin kääntämään lehteä, mutta
Pasinkov huomasi sen ja huusi:
"Älä, älä, lue, mistä aukesi!"
Ei siinä mikään auttanut. Minä luin Testamentin.
"Ihana runoelma", sanoi Pasinkov hiljaa heti, kuin minä lopetin

viime värsyn. "Ihana runoelma! Mutta olipa se kuitenkin
kummallista", jatkoi hän puhettaan, oltuaan hiukan aikaa vaiti, "että
sinulle juuri sattui aukeamaan Testamentti. Hyvin ihmeellistä!"
Minä aloin lukea toista Lermontovin runoelmaa, mutta Pasinkov ei

sitä enää kuunnellut, katsoi syrjään ja toisti vielä pariin kertaan:
"Ihmeellistä, hyvin ihmeellistä!" Minä päästin kirjan putoamaan
polvilleni.
"Sinulla on naapurina nainen", alkoi hän hiljaa sanella, mutta

kääntyi sitte äkisti minuun päin ja kysyi: "Muistatko Sofia
Slotnitskia?"
Minä punastuin.
"Ettäkö minä en muistaisi häntä?"
"Onhan hän nyt naimisissa?"
"On aikaa sille Asanovin kanssa. Kirjoitinhan minä sinulle."

"Niin tosiaankin, sinä kirjoitit siitä. Hänen isänsä, antoiko hän
hänelle viimein anteeksi?"
"Niin, hän antoi anteeksi, mutta ei tahtonut koskaan nähdä

Asanovia."
"Se oli itsepäinen ukko, se. No, oletko kuullut, ovatko he

onnelliset?"
"Siitä minä en mitään tiedä, mutta luultavasti he ovat. He asuvat

maalla Tulan kuvernementissa. Minä kerran matkustin heidän
maatilansa ohitse, mutta en huolinut käydä heitä tervehtimässä."
"Onko heillä lapsia?"
"Luullakseni on. Kuulepas, Pasinkov, minä kysyisin sinulta yhtä

asiaa."
Hän katsoi minuun, tapansa mukaan lempeästi hymyillen.
"Sanos minulle nyt, muistathan, silloin et tahtonut vastata

kysymykseeni. Kerroitko hänelle, että minä rakastin häntä?"
"Minä sanoin hänelle kaikki, koko totuuden. Minä puhuin aina totta
hänen kanssansa. Kaikki teeskenteleminen hänen edessään olisi
ollut synti."
Pasinkov oli hetkisen vaiti.
"Mutta, sanos sinä minulle", alkoi hän taas, "unhotitko sinä hänet
pian?"
"En pian, mutta unhotin sitte kuitenkin, Mitäpä auttaa turhaa

huokaileminen?"
Pasinkov kääntyi minuun päin.
"Mutta minä, ystäväni", sanoi hän, huulet vapisevina liikutuksesta,

"minä en olen sinun kaltaisesi. Minä en ole koskaan voinut enkä ole
tahtonutkaan unhottaa häntä."
"Kuinka!" lausuin ilmi sanomatonta kummastustani. "Oletko sinä

rakastanut häntä?"
"Niin, minä olen rakastanut häntä", sanoi Pasinkov hitaasti ja nosti

molemmat kätensä päänsä päälle, "ja miten minä olen rakastanut
häntä, tietää yksin Jumala. Minä en ole puhunut sitä kellekään
ihmiselle, enkä oikeastaan aikonut puhua sitä nytkään, mutta olkoon
menneeksi! Minullahan ei enää ole pitkää elonaikaa, sanotaan."
Pasinkovin odottamaton tunnustus kummastutti minua niin, että en

saanut sanaakaan suustani, ja alinomaa palasi takaisin sama ajatus:
"Kuinka se voi olla mahdollista ja ihan minun aavistamattani siitä
vähääkään!"
"Niin, minä rakastin häntä", jatkoi hän ikään kuin puhuen

itsekseen. "Minä en edes silloinkaan lakannut rakastamasta, kuin
sain tietää, että hän rakasti Asanovia. Mutta se tuntui katkeralta.
Jospa hän edes olisi rakastanut sinua, olisin minä ainakin voinut
iloita sinun tähtesi, mutta Asanovia! Mitä olikaan siinä miehessä
sellaista, joka saattoi herättää tytössä rakkautta? Ei mitään, se oli
vain Asanovin onni, että niin tapahtui. Ja tulla omille tunteilleen
uskottomaksi, luopua omasta rakkaudestaan, sitä Sofia ei voinut.
Rehellinen, uskollinen sielu ei koskaan muutu."
Minä johduin muistelemaan Asanovin käyntiä minun luonani tuon

onnettomuuden päivän iltapuolella ja Pasinkovin sekautumista
asiaan, ja tahtomattani alkoi mielessäni kuohua syvää sääliä, niin
että minä lausuin:
"Ja kaiken sen sinä sait tietää minulta, ystävä parka, etkä sinä
sanallakaan, et ainoallakaan äänen väräyksellä ilmaissut, mitä sinä
itse kärsit, läksit vain selvittelemään asiata hänen kanssansa."
"Niin, sitä selitystä hänelle", jatkoi Pasinkov, "minä en voi koskaan

unhottaa. Silloin minä vasta sain tietää, silloin vasta minä ymmärsin,
mitä se sana: mielenmaltti, merkitsi, jonka minä jo kauan sitä ennen
olin valinnut elämäni tunnussanaksi. Mutta ainiaan on hän yksin ollut
minun unelmani, minun ihanteeni. Ja köyhä se on, joka elää ikänsä
ilman ihannetta!"
Minä katsoin Pasinkovia. Hänen silmänsä näyttivät katselevan

kauas etäisyyteen ja säteilevän kuumeen loistosta.
"Minä rakastin häntä", jatkoi hän, "sitä hiljaista, uskollista,

luopääsemätöntä ja lahjomatonta olentoa. Kun hän läksi
Moskovasta, olin minä vähällä tulla mielipuoleksi surusta. Siitä
saakka minä en ole koskaan rakastanut ketään muuta."
Ja äkisti kääntyen painoi hän kasvonsa syvälle tyynyn sisään ja

itki hiljaa.
Minä riensin hänen vuoteensa luo ja kumarruin lähelle häntä,

koettaen lohduttaa…
"Ei tässä mitään hätää ole", sanoi hän, nostaen päätänsä ja

pudistaen tukan pois silmiltään, "jo se nyt on ohitse. Se tuntui vähän
katkeralta, oma itseni säälitti minua vähän. Mutta mitäpä siitä, se on

Wileys Gate Instrumentation Engineering Chapter Wise Solved Papers 2000 2020 Lalit Gupta All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wileys Gate Instrumentation Engineering Chapter Wise Solved Papers 2000 2020 Lalit Gupta All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wiley's GATE Instrumentation

Engineering Chapter - wise Solved

z 3WGUVKQPUHTQORTGXKQWU[GCTUŨ Ť RCRGTU

Engineering Mathematics Contributed by

Dr Anil Kumar Maini Varsha Agrawal Nakul Maini

Other Wiley Editorial Offices:

About the Examination Eligibility for GATE Instrumentation Engineering

Based Test (CBT). The GATE score reflects the relative

GATE_EE_FM_4th Pass.indd 3 16-Jun-20 2:54:34 PM

Note to the Aspirants iii Chapter 6: Digital Electronics 261

GATE_EE_FM_4th Pass.indd 5 16-Jun-20 2:54:35 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 1 11-Jun-20 9:45:58 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 2 11-Jun-20 9:45:58 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 3 11-Jun-20 9:45:59 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 4 11-Jun-20 9:46:00 PM

X n + a1 X n −1 + a2 X n − 2 +  + an I = 0 (h) The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 5 11-Jun-20 9:46:02 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 6 11-Jun-20 9:46:04 PM

31. Integration Using Table dx

solved by directly referring the tables and computing the

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 7 11-Jun-20 9:46:09 PM

with change of variables of integration provided the ∫ ∫ f ( x, y) dxdy = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dydx

b b Hence, in a double integral, the order of integration

b c b 37. The length of the arc of the polar curve r = f (θ ) between

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 8 11-Jun-20 9:46:12 PM

39. Conditions for Fourier Expansion nπ x 1 c nπ x

40. Fourier Expansion of Discontinuous Function 1 c nπ x

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 9 11-Jun-20 9:46:14 PM

According to parallelogram law of vector addition, as  

52. Some important laws of cross product are:

(b) M ultiplication of a vector with another vector dA dA dA

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 10 11-Jun-20 9:46:19 PM

55. Divergence of a Vector If the function f is differentiable at x, then the directional

58. Directional Derivative 61. Line Integrals

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 11 11-Jun-20 9:46:24 PM

The limit of the sum as n → ∞ is taken in such a way that

The limit exists if P and Q are continuous at all points of

∆Ak = ∆xk ∆yk

C (xk, yk) Figure 5 | Surface integrals.

64. Green’s Theorem

Figure 4 | Line integral.

where A1, A2 and A3 are functions of x, y and z, respec-

67. Homogeneous Equation

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 12 11-Jun-20 9:46:26 PM

dy dy 70. Integrating Factor

69. Exact Differential Equation

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 13 11-Jun-20 9:46:30 PM

72. Linear Differential Equation

and the equation D n + k1 D n −1 + k2 D n − 2 +  + kn = 0 is 1

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 14 11-Jun-20 9:46:34 PM

Expansion of [ f ( D )]−1 is to be carried up to the term Dm dz

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 15 11-Jun-20 9:46:37 PM

Particular solution is given by 81. Exponential Function of Complex Variables

∂u ∂2u whether q is real or complex.

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 16 11-Jun-20 9:46:40 PM

⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ ∂u ∂v 89. Taylor’s Series of Complex Variables

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 17 11-Jun-20 9:46:44 PM

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 18 11-Jun-20 9:46:47 PM

I f A and B are mutually exclusive events, 100. Arithmetic Mean

(c) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ∗ P ( B /A) = P ( B ) ∗ P ( A/B) Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data (Frequency

= P ( A) ∗ P ( E /A) + P ( B) ∗ P ( E /B) = frequency of median class

GATE_IN_Ch1_4th_Pass.indd 19 11-Jun-20 9:46:51 PM

Empirical mode = 3 Median − 2 Mean

z 3WGUVKQPUHTQORTGXKQWU[GCTUŨ Ť RCRGTU

Note to the Aspirants iii Chapter 6: Digital Electronics 261

X n + a1 X n −1 + a2 X n − 2 + + an I = 0 (h) The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal

According to parallelogram law of vector addition, as

(b) M ultiplication of a vector with another vector dA dA dA

and the equation D n + k1 D n −1 + k2 D n − 2 + + kn = 0 is 1

I f A and B are mutually exclusive events, 100. Arithmetic Mean

(c) Multiply these deviations by respective frequencies where N = ∑ f .

If we have n values x1 , x2 , ..., xn of X, then (f) Divide the sum ∑ f i ( xi − X ) 2 by N, where N = ∑ f i

79. If f = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 y + + an −1 xy n −1 + an y n , where (GATE 2008: 2 Marks)