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1. Introduction interest in this field. Unlike 1H MRI, which is usually tuned for detec-
tion of the signal of the omnipresent water, a fluorinated contrast agent
The advantages of self-assembled nanoscale polymer systems in is well observable as there is only a very low natural fluorine back-
medical applications are well known [1–3]. One of the main reasons is ground in the human body. This leads to very high contrast and spe-
that some solid tumours possess leaky internal vasculature and poor or cificity of 19F MRI [8–10]. Moreover the MRI instrument can be used for
missing lymphatic drainage which promotes accumulation of nano- acquiring both 1H MRI for spatial information and 19F MRI for visua-
particles of up to 200 nm size in such tumour tissue. This nanoparticle lisation of the contrast agent complementarily improving the obtained
accumulation is called Enhanced Permeation and Retention (EPR) effect information [8–12]. One of the reasons 19F MRI is not so widely used in
[4,5] and can be exploited to achieve targeted delivery of therapeutic or medicine is that most 19F MRI small-molecule contrast agents suffer
diagnostic agents into the tumour [4–6]. from excessive hydrophobicity leading to their very poor solubility in
Currently, there is wide use of contrast agents for the diagnosis of water and unfavourable biodistribution in the body. This problem can
cancer tissues using methods such as positron emission tomography be overcome by using fluorine-containing polymers, whose biodis-
(PET), computed tomography (CT), single-photon emission computed tribution can be adjusted to the required application [6,11,12].
tomography (SPECT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [7]. The In our previous article we described the synthesis and character-
advantages of 1H MRI are non-invasiveness, high-resolution in anato- ization of the biocompatible thermoresponsive diblock copolymer,
mical imaging, and almost no limitations due to sample penetration. which could be used as 19F NMR diagnostic agents [12,13]. This co-
However, for some applications, such as tumour imaging, the contrast polymer was composed of a hydrophilic poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)
should be further improved. This is why 19F MRI recently gained great (PMeOx) block and a thermoresponsive poly[N-(2,2-difluoroethyl)
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mhruby@centrum.cz (M. Hruby).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.109306
Received 28 June 2019; Received in revised form 11 October 2019; Accepted 14 October 2019
Available online 15 October 2019
0014-3057/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
acrylamide] (PDFEA) block. The use of thermosensitive polymers ex- scattering on measurement. The temperature trends were measured in
hibiting a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) [14] is and ap- the following setting: The sample was first allowed to stabilize at 10 °C
pealing strategy how to prepare nanoparticles. These polymerś hydro- for 25 min. After this stabilization the temperature was progressively
phobicity increases with temperature, which means we obtain particles increased up to 50 °C with a step of 1 °C. At each step the sample was
upon heating in aqueous solution without using any additional nano- allowed to equilibrate its temperature for 5 min and then the scattering
precipitation methods. Moreover, we described high suitability of these data were collected for 5 min. After measuring the sample at 50 °C the
polymers for application in 19F MRI. Due to high loading of magneti- temperature was reduced back to 10 °C and after the measurement
cally equivalent atoms of fluorine in polymer (18.7 wt. %), we obtain chamber reached this temperature we immediately started collecting
high intensity signal in relatively short time and low concentrations scattering data. The acquisition time was set to 5 min and waiting time
[12,13]. In our previous research the obtained particles were char- between measurements was set to 5 min as well. At this measurement
acterized using DLS and SLS experiments, which gave us a possible step we collected a total of 31 measurements which took approximately
image of their internal structure. 5 h of measurement time (accounting for the automatic beam intensity
In this study, we focus on uncovering the internal structure of our optimization). This was carried out to analyse the reversibility of
self-assembled polymer particles with greater precision, as it is one of thermally caused assembly in our system.
the determining factors for their ability to carry drugs and it influences The measured data were then analysed using a series of programmes
their behaviour in the body. We present in this contribution a detailed (Zetasizer software, Excel and Matlab as well as two in house softwares
investigation of their structural properties utilizing various physical JMalgen and Genr) to obtain intensity size distributions. First the ob-
methods including dynamic light scattering, small angle x-ray scat- tained results were exported in text format from the Zetasizer software.
tering, small angle neutron scattering and 1H, 13C and 19F NMR spec- These data were then formatted using JMalgen. Genr was used on the
troscopy including DOSY and NOESY experiments. The obtained results obtained files to calculate the actual size distributions which were then
and described methods are of great applicability also for other nano- plotted using Matlab software and analysed numerically in Excel.
particles composed of block copolymers with hydrophilic and thermo- The intensity-based size distributions directly reflect measured
responsive blocks. scattering intensities. Because the scattering intensity Is is directly
proportional to the third power of particle’s size larger particles scatter
2. Materials and methods much more light than smaller particles. Thus in intensity-based size
distributions larger particles might seem to be prevalent over the
2.1. Materials smaller particles. However, in reality, the smaller particles might con-
stitute majority of the sample mass. Of course one could attempt to
Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) – Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Lot # represent this by recalculating the obtained intensity distributions to
SLBW7839, D2O (99.90%) – Eurisotop, Lot #R0991, Milli-Q water volume or number distributions however this carries with it the risk of
(from in house filtration unit). introducing error of such magnitude that one would lose important data
Diblock copolymer poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)-block-poly[N-(2,2- in the process. Thus it is better to represent data obtained from dynamic
difluoroethyl)acrylamide] (MF) was prepared by cationic polymerisa- light scattering as intensity based size distributions and keep in mind
tion of 2-methyl-2-oxazoline terminated with chain transfer agent that populations of smaller particles have substantial presence in the
(CTA) functional group followed by RAFT polymerisation of PDFEA. sample even though their peaks might seem much smaller than those of
The synthesis scheme is depicted in Fig. 1. larger particles.
The molar masses of individual homopolymer blocks PMeOx and Because we measured our size distribution at a range of tempera-
PDFEA of investigated copolymer were 8.1 kDa and 16.4 kDa, respec- tures by obtaining the size distributions for various temperatures we
tively, bringing the total molar mass of the copolymer to 24.5 kDa. The intrinsically obtained also the cloud point temperatures (CPT).
dispersity of the copolymer has been determined as 1.08 [13].
2.3. Small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS)
2.2. Dynamic light scattering (DLS)
SAXS and WAXS experiments were performed using a pinhole
For our primary analysis of size distribution and thermal response of camera (MolMet, Rigaku, Japan, modified by SAXSLAB/Xenocs) at-
our system we utilized Zetasizer Nano series Nano - ZS instrument, tached to a microfocused X-ray beam generator (Rigaku MicroMax 003)
Model ZEN3600 (Malvern Instruments, UK). The scattering angle was operating at 50 kV and 0.6 mA (30 W). The camera was equipped with a
θ = 173°. The measurements were carried out in H2O, D2O and PBS vacuum version of Pilatus 300 K detector. Calibration of primary beam
with polymer concentration of 1 mg/ml and temperature range of 10 °C position and sample-to-detector distances was performed using
to 50 °C. We used semi-micro cuvettes as lower sample volume provides AgBehenate sample. For the measurements samples were sealed into
better conditions for thermal equilibration. The measurement position borosilicate capillaries. Two experimental setups were used to cover the
was set to 2 mm, which puts the focal point at about 1 mm behind the q range of 0.005 – 1.1 Å−1. Scattering vector, q, is defined as q = (4π/
cell wall and significantly decreases the detrimental effects of multiple λ)sinΘ, where λ is the wavelength and 2Θ is the scattering angle.
Fig. 1. Synthesis of diblock copolymer MF with poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) (PMeOx) as hydrophilic block and N-(2,2-difluoroethyl)-acrylamide (PDFEA) as ther-
moresponsive fluorinated block. NsO− in the scheme is a 4-nitrobenzylsulfonate anion.
2
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
Samples were measured at two different temperatures: 22 °C and 40 °C. almost identical. Interestingly in D2O, we observe an additional popu-
Homemade software based on PyFAI Python library [15] was used for lation below the CPT and in PBS we observe another population above
data reduction. SASFit [16] and SASView [17] software was used for CPT as well. The central sizes of the individual particle populations are
fitting of experimental data. listed in Table 1. As discussed above given that the larger particles
scatter light with higher intensity than smaller particles it follows that
2.4. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) the populations I and 1 contain the majority of polymer mass below and
above CPT, respectively, and populations II and 2 contain more parti-
The small angle neutron scattering experiments were carried out at cles than populations III and 3, respectively, if they are present in the
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, ISIS, UK on instrument SANS2d. The sample.
incident neutron wavelengths were in the range of 2.0–14.0 Å. The used It is also important to note that our copolymer responded strongly to
sample-detector distances were 4 and 12 m providing us with a Q range changes in solvent polarity and composition, which manifested by a
of 0.00416–0.72191 A−1 for detector distance of 4 m and shift of CPT from 33 °C in H2O to 31 °C in PBS and to 25 °C in D2O.
0.00156–0.98157 A−1 for detector distance of 12 m. The data were We further investigated particles formed in PBS by SAXS experi-
collected at two 3He-CF4 filled ORDELA detectors with an active area of ments which provided more information about particles in population
more than 1.86 m2 and resolution of 5 mm. Measured data were cor- 1. As can be seen from the scattering intensity profile in Fig. 3 of our
rected with reference to empty cell and D2O. They were then processed sample above CPT we are observing quite a complex state of the
using Mantid software, version 3.13.0, (Mantid—Data analysis and vi- polymer chains.
sualization package for neutron scattering and SR experiments) and ana- At lower temperature, we are observing intensity upraise in the low-
lyzed with SASfit software, version 0.94.10 [16]. q range which is an indication of the presence of larger objects. This
correlates well with DLS measurements which show that portion of
2.5. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) present copolymer forms larger aggregates even at lower temperatures.
These aggregates are however too big for analysis using current dataset.
For NMR measurements, 2 mg of polymer were dissolved in 1 ml of In order to describe higher q-range data at lower temperatures, we have
H2O/D2O (volume ratio 90%/10%) in order to maintain deuterium used generalized Gaussian coil function. The sample exhibits Flory ex-
field-frequency lock and to keep exchangeable amide protons ob- ponent around 0.52 which is in agreement with SANS data and means
servable. The dominant water signal was suppressed using excitation that the copolymer is in a good solvent with rather relaxed and well-
sculpting method [18], in 1D proton, DOSY, and 2D NOESY spectra. solvated chains. The calculated radius of gyration for population I is
Mixing time in the NOESY experiment was set to 100 ms. Multiplicity 12.07 ± 0.13 nm. Given the width of DLS distributions and difference
edited 1H–13C HSQC experiment was measured in order to confirm the between Rg and Rh this is in good agreement with previous results.
spectral assignment. All spectra were acquired on Bruker Avance III While increased temperature generally leads to more flexible chain
NMR spectrometer operating at the 1H resonance frequency of 600 MHz movement in case of PDFEA blocks in aqueous media this does not hold
and using the cryogenically cooled probe. Sample temperature was true as they become more hydrophobic leading to the formation of
calibrated using a perdeuterated methanol sample [19] and stabilized condensed structures. The overall behaviour could be described as a
for 15 min prior to each measurement. The chemical shift was cali- loose sphere of radius 15 ± 1 nm with an internal structure re-
brated using temperature dependent position of water signal according presented by Gaussian chains. The radius of gyration of internal coils is
to reference [20]. 19F NMR spectra were measured using Bruker Avance 1.3 ± 0.7 nm. Based on comparison with DLS results we estimate these
III HD spectrometer with 19F resonance frequency of 376.5 MHz while measured particles belong to population 1.
19
F T1 relaxation times were determined using Varian NMR System at A large amount of solvent inside our spherical objects was con-
the resonance frequency of 282.2 MHz. firmed by calculation of swelling degree:
Mw (V ) − Mw (P )
3. Results Q= ·100%
Mw (V )
Temperature dependence of size distributions of the investigated where Mw(V) is molecular weight calculated from the particle volume
copolymer was measured by DLS. We carried out our measurements in and Mw(P) is the molecular weight of the swollen particle calculated
several solvents (H2O, D2O, and PBS) to account for different solvents from the scattering curve.
required for various experimental methods and biological relevance.
Mw (V ) = V ·d·Na
The results in D2O were an important reference for our SANS mea-
surements which we discuss later and combination of H2O and D2O with d being a bulk density and Na is Avogadro’s number. That gave us
results were used as a reference for NMR measurements. The im- Mw(V) = 1.47 ⋅ 107 g/mol.
portance of these considerations is well documented in [21–24]. Mw(P) was calculated using the classical equation for molecular
From DLS measurements we obtained intensity distributions of Rh weight determination:
and cloud point temperatures (CPT) at which the polymers, which were
I (0) Na
almost exclusively molecularly dissolved (represented by particle po- Mw (P ) =
c Δb2
pulation I), started to aggregate into larger assemblies (represented by
particle populations 1, 2 and 3) and form particles. We also confirmed where I(0) is intensity extrapolated to q = 0, c is concentration and Δb
that the thermally induced self-assembly is reversible in all used sol- is excess scattering amplitude.
vents after cooling the system back below the CPT. While excess scattering amplitude could be calculated from theory
From intensity size distributions depicted in Fig. 2, we observe its value is strongly dependent on polymer density. Thus the experi-
anomalous micellization at CPT as an immediate increase in scattering mental approach is a more suitable method for its determination in this
intensity and particle size, which gets lower after further temperature case.
increase. This would suggest that even though our copolymer chains As has been shown in [26] we can utilize a concentration series
have very low polydispersity of 1.08 [13] there are also some trace measurement to calculate excess scattering amplitude. Integral in-
amounts of homopolymers present, which cause this effect [25]. tensities versus concentration for our sample are shown in Fig. 4. The
It is also evident that our system forms several particle populations slope of the line is equal to −Δb2, 1.09 ⋅ 1021 cm2/g2. Intensity extra-
below as well as above CPT. These populations vary slightly across the polated to q = 0 is I(0)/c = 5392 cm2/g. Thus we have obtained
used solvents however given the width of the individual peaks they are Mw(P) = 3 ⋅ 106 g/mol and from the equation, for Q we obtain the
3
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
Fig. 2. Temperature dependence of intensity distributions of Rh obtained from DLS of our MF sample in (a) H2O, (b) D2O, and (c) PBS.
swelling degree of almost 80%. Given the calculated Rg = 15 ± 1 nm obtained sizes that are in a good agreement with the SAXS results,
and Mw(P) = 3 ⋅ 106 g/mol, we determined the aggregation number of especially considering the influence of different solvent (PBS for SAXS
particles in population 1 as Nagg = 122. This suggests that particles in vs D2O for SANS) on our polymer’s behaviour.
population 1 should be micelles as their radius of gyration Rg, swelling Additionally we obtained data on the evolution of Flory exponent ν
Q and aggregation number Nagg all support this hypothesis. of the present polymer coils with increasing temperature from
The measured SANS data were analysed similarly to the SAXS data ν = 0.560 at 15 °C to ν = 0.368 at 42 °C. The graphical depiction is
as they needed to be fitted by two combined models to describe our shown in Fig. 5. This shift is in accordance with general polymer theory
scattering curves with reasonable reliability. From this analysis we which predicts Flory exponent of ν = 0.6 for polymer chains in good
4
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
Table 1
Central hydrodynamic radii of particle populations present in our samples
across measured temperature range and observed CPTs in H2O, D2O, and PBS.
Particle population Rh [nm] CPT [°C]
I II III 1 2 3
H2O 4 27 – 11 47 – 33
D2O 4 21 131 9 46 – 25
PBS 4 17 99 9 32 185 31
5
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
Fig. 6. Spectral assignment of MF copolymer sample. 1H spectrum acquired at 25 °C in H2O/D2O mixture (volume ratio 90%/10%) with assigned signals.
6
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
19
Fig. 10. F NMR spectra of MF copolymer at different temperatures. Spectra at higher temperatures show increasing linewidth.
7
D. Babuka, et al. European Polymer Journal 121 (2019) 109306
its increase above CPT. This can be seen in the slower decrease of in- 07983S).
tegral intensity of PMeOx in 1D proton spectra (Fig. 7) when compared Kristyna Kolouchova acknowledges financial support from Grant
to PDFEA signals. At temperatures above the CPT relative number of Agency of Charles University (Project No. 602119).
aggregates with slow diffusion increases and as the PMeOx is still well We would also like to thank Dr Stephen King for help on the SANS2d
observable even in the aggregates this then leads to the lowering of instrument in the Materials Characterisation Laboratory at the ISIS
apparent diffusion coefficients. Thus DOSY spectra further confirm our Neutron and Muon Source.
previous conclusion based on SAXS and 1D 1H NMR measurements that This work benefited from the use of the SasView application, ori-
the hydrophilic PMeOx blocks of our polymer retain their mobility and ginally developed under NSF Award DMR-0520547. SasView also
flexibility even when they become part of the particles. contains code developed with funding from the EU Horizon 2020 pro-
These result collectively show that even though the thermo- gramme under the SINE2020 project Grant No 654000.
responsive PDFEA blocks form condensed aggregates whose 1H NMR
signal decrease as their mobility is restricted inside the particles their References
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01602S). P.S. Thanks to Czech Science Foundation (Grant #18-
8
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When the matters are too pasty to be divided in the mortar they should be divided by means
of a knife or a spatula. They should then be incorporated with a known weight of inert,
pulverulent matter such as fine sand, with which they should be thoroughly mixed and in
subsequent calculations the quantity of sand or other inert matter added must be taken into
consideration. Usually a pasty state of a fertilizer is due to the humidity of the mixture. In this
case a considerable volume of the sample is taken and dried and then reduced to a pulverulent
state. In the subsequent calculations, however, the percentage of moisture lost must be taken
into consideration.
Before drying a sample it is necessary to take into consideration whether or not the product
will be modified by desiccation as would be the case, for instance, with superphosphates. With
these, which are often in a state more or less agglomerated, it is recommended to introduce into
them, in order to divide them, a certain quantity of calcium sulfate in order to obtain them in a
pulverulent state.
In the case of animal débris they should be divided as finely as possible with the aid of
scissors and then passed through a drug mill if dry enough. They are then mixed by hand and
may finally be obtained in a state of considerable homogeneity.
When fertilizers are in a pasty state more or less liquid, they are dried at 100°, first
introducing a little oxalic acid in case they contain any volatile ammoniacal compounds. The
product of desiccation is then passed through a mill. Before treating in this way it is necessary to
be sure that the composition will not be altered by drying. In the case of a mixture containing
superphosphates and nitrate, for instance, drying would eliminate the nitric acid. In such a case
the free phosphoric acid should be neutralized with a base like lime. In the case of fertilizers
containing both nitrates and volatile ammoniacal compounds the addition of oxalic acid might
also set free nitric acid during the desiccation. In such a case it is necessary to dry two samples;
one with the addition of oxalic acid for the purpose of estimating the ammonia, and the other
without the acid for the purpose of estimating the nitrate. A qualitative analysis should precede
all the operations so as to determine the nature of the material to be operated on.
14. German Method.—In the method pursued by the German experiment stations it is
directed:[8]
(1) Dry samples of fertilizers must be passed through a sieve and afterwards well mixed.
(2) With moist fertilizers, which can not be subjected to the above process, the preparation
should consist in a careful and thorough mixing, without sieving.
(3) On the arrival of the samples in the laboratory their weight should be determined. The
half of the sample is prepared for analysis and the other part, to the amount of a kilo, should be
placed in a glass vessel, closed air-tight, and placed in a cool place for at least a quarter of a
year from the time of its reception, in order that it may be subjected to any subsequent
investigations which may be demanded.
(4) In the case of raw phosphates and bone-black the amount of water which they contain
should be determined at from 105° to 110°. Samples which in drying lose ammonia in any way,
should have this ammonia determined.
(5) Samples which are sent to other laboratories for control analyses, should be sent
securely packed in air-tight glass bottles.
(6) The weight of the samples sent should be entered in the certificates of analysis.
(7) Samples which, on pulverizing, change their content of water, must have the water
content estimated in both the coarse and powdered condition and the results of the analysis
must be calculated to the water content of the original coarse substance.
15. Special Cases.—Many cases arise of such a nature as to make it impossible to lay
down any rule which can be followed with success. As in almost every other process in
agricultural chemistry the analyst in such cases must be guided by his judgment and
experience. Keeping in view the main object, viz., to secure in a few grams of material a fair
representation of large masses he will generally be able to reach the required result by following
the broad principles already outlined. In many cases the details of the work and the adaptations
necessary to success must be left to his own determination.
16. Drying Samples of Fertilizers.—The determination of the uncombined moisture in a
sample of fertilizer is not an easy task. In some cases, as in powdered minerals, drying to
constant weight at the temperature of boiling water is sufficient. In organic matters containing
volatile nitrogenous compounds, these must first be fixed by oxalic or sulfuric acid, before the
desiccation begins. If any excess of sulfuric acid be added, however, drying at 100° becomes
almost impossible. Particular precautions must be observed in drying superphosphates. In
drying samples preparatory to grinding for analysis, it is best to stop the process as soon as the
materials can be pulverized. In general, samples should be dried only to determine water, and
the analytical processes should be performed on the undried portions. It is not necessary, as a
rule, to dry samples of fertilizers in an inert atmosphere, such as hydrogen or carbon dioxid.
Drying in vacuo may be practiced when it is desired to secure a speedy desiccation or one at a
low temperature.
17. Official Methods.—The Official Agricultural Chemists direct, in the case of potash salts,
sodium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate, to heat from one to five grams in a flat platinum or
aluminum dish at 130° until the weight is constant.[9] The loss in weight is taken to represent the
water. In all other cases heat two grams, or five grams if the sample be very coarse, for five
hours in a steam-bath.
In the German stations in the case of untreated phosphates and bone-black the moisture is
estimated at from 105° to 110°. Samples which lose ammonia should have the weight of
ammonia given off at that temperature, determined separately.
For purposes of comparison it would be far better to have all contents of moisture
determined at the boiling-point of water. While this varies with the altitude and barometric
pressure yet it is quite certain that the loss on drying to constant weight at all altitudes is
practically the same. Where the atmospheric pressure is diminished for any cause the water
escapes all the more easily. This, practically, is a complete compensation for the diminished
temperature at which water boils.
Where the samples contain no ingredient capable of attacking aluminum, they can be
conveniently dried, in circular dishes of this metal about seven centimeters in diameter and one
centimeter deep, to constant weight, at the temperature of boiling water.
18. Moisture in Monocalcium Phosphates.—In certain fertilizers, especially
superphosphates, containing the monocalcium salt, the estimation of water is a matter of
extreme difficulty on account of the presence of free acids and of progressive changes in the
sample due to different degrees of heat.
Stoklasa has studied these changes and reaches the following results[10]:
A chemically pure monocalcium phosphate of the following composition, viz.,
CaO 22.36 per cent.
P₂O₅ 56.67 “ “
H₂O 21.53 “ “
was subjected to progressive dryings. The loss of water after ten hours was 1.83 per cent; after
twenty hours, 2.46 per cent; after thirty hours, 5.21 per cent; after forty hours, 6.32 per cent;
after fifty hours, 6.43 per cent. This loss of water remained constant at 6.43 per cent. This loss
represents one molecule of water as compared with the total molecular magnitude of the mass
treated. A calcium phosphate, therefore, of the following composition, CaH₄(PO₄)₂·H₂O loses,
after forty hours, drying at 100°, its water of crystallization. The calcium phosphate produced by
this method forms opaque crystals which are not hygroscopic and which give, on analysis, the
following numbers:
CaO 24.02 per cent.
P₂O₅ 16.74 “ “
H₂O 15.09 “ “
The temperature can be raised to 105° without marked change. If the temperature be raised
to 200° the decomposition of the molecule is hastened according to the following formula:
COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF
MINERAL PHOSPHATES.
19. Constituents to be Determined.—The most important point in the analysis of mineral
phosphates is to determine their content of phosphoric acid. Of equal scientific interest,
however, and often of great commercial importance is the determination of the percentage of
other acids and bases present. The analyst is often called on, in the examination of these
bodies, to make known the content of water both free and combined, of organic and volatile
matter, of carbon dioxid, sulfur, chlorin, fluorin, silica, iron, alumina, calcium, manganese,
magnesia, and the alkalies. The estimation of some of these bodies presents problems of
considerable difficulty, and it would be vain to suppose that the best possible methods are now
known. Especially is this the case with the processes which relate to the estimation of the
fluorin, silica, iron, alumina, and lime. The phosphoric acid, however, which is the chief
constituent from a commercial point of view, it is believed, can now be determined with a high
degree of precision. Often the estimation of some of the less important constituents is of great
interest in determining the origin of the deposits, especially in the case of fluorin. While the
merchant is content with knowing the percentage of phosphoric acid and the manufacturer asks
in addition only some knowledge of the quantity of iron, alumina, and lime the analyst in most
cases is only content with a complete knowledge of the constitution of the sample at his
disposal.
20. Direct Estimation of the Phosphoric Acid.—It often happens, in the case of a mineral
phosphate, that the only determination desired is of the phosphoric acid. In this instance the
analyst may proceed as follows: If the qualitative test shows the usual amount of phosphoric
acid, two grams of the sample passed through a sieve, with a millimeter mesh, are placed in a
beaker and thoroughly moistened with water. The addition of water is to secure an even action
of the hydrochloric acid on the carbonates present. The beaker is covered with a watch-glass
and a little hydrochloric acid is added from time to time until all effervescence has ceased. There
are then added about thirty cubic centimeters of aqua regia and the mixture raised to the boiling-
point on a sand-bath or over a lamp. The heating is continued until chlorin is no longer given off
and solution is complete. The volume of the solution is then made up to 200 cubic centimeters
without filtering, filtered, and an aliquot part of the filtrate, usually fifty cubic centimeters,
representing half a gram of the original sample, taken for the determination of the phosphoric
acid according to the method of the Official Agricultural Chemists. The small quantity of
insoluble material does not introduce any appreciable error into the process when the volume is
made up to 200 or 250 cubic centimeters.
21. Method of the Official Agricultural Chemists for Total Phosphoric Acid.—To the hot
solution, for every decigram of phosphorus pentoxid which may be present, add fifty cubic
centimeters of the molybdic solution. Digest at 65° for an hour, filter, and wash with water or
ammonium nitrate solution[11]. Test the filtrate by renewed digestion with additional molybdate
reagent. Dissolve the precipitate on the filter with ammonia in hot water and wash into a beaker,
making the volume of filtrate and washings not more than 100 cubic centimeters. Nearly
neutralize with hydrochloric acid, cool, and add magnesia mixture from a burette at the rate of
about one drop a second, stirring vigorously, meanwhile. The quantity of magnesia mixture to be
added is not prescribed in the official method but it should always be in excess of the amount
necessary for complete precipitation. For each decigram of phosphorus pentoxid, from eight to
ten cubic centimeters should be used. Fifteen minutes after the last of the magnesia mixture has
been stirred in, thirty cubic centimeters of ammonia of 0.95 specific gravity are added and the
beaker set aside for two hours or longer. The ammonium magnesium phosphate is separated by
filtration, dried, ignited gently at first, and finally over a blast-lamp and weighed as magnesium
pyrophosphate. The factors for calculating the phosphorus pentoxid and tricalcium phosphate
from the weight of pyrophosphate are given below on the two bases; viz., hydrogen equals 1,
and oxygen equals 16.
H = 1.
Mg₂P₂O₇ × 0.63976 = P₂O₅
Mg₂P₂O₇ × 1.3964 = Ca₃(PO₄)₂
P₂O₅ × 2.1827 = Ca₃(PO₄)₂
O = 16.
Mg₂P₂O₇ × 0.63792 = P₂O₅
Mg₂P₂O₇ × 1.3926 = Ca₃(PO₄)₂
P₂O₅ × 2.1831 = Ca₃(PO₄)₂
22. Preparation of Solutions.—Molybdic Solution.—Dissolve 100 grams of molybdic acid in
400 grams or 417 cubic centimeters of ammonia, of 0.96 specific gravity, and pour the solution
thus obtained into 1,500 grams or 1,250 cubic centimeters of nitric acid, of 1.20 specific gravity.
Keep the mixture in a warm place for several days, or until a portion heated to 40° deposits no
yellow precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate. Decant the solution from any sediment and
preserve in glass-stoppered vessels.
Magnesia Mixture.—Dissolve twenty-two grams of recently ignited calcined magnesia in
dilute hydrochloric acid, avoiding an excess of the latter. Add a little calcined magnesia in
excess, and boil a few minutes to precipitate iron, alumina, and phosphoric acid; filter, add 280
grams of ammonium chlorid, 700 cubic centimeters of ammonia of specific gravity 0.96, and
water enough to make a volume of two liters. Instead of the solution of twenty-two grams of
calcined magnesia, 110 grams of crystallized magnesium chlorid may be used.
Dilute Ammonia for Washing.—One volume of ammonia, of 0.96 specific gravity, mixed with
three volumes of water, or usually one volume of concentrated ammonia with six volumes of
water.
23. Use of Tartaric Acid in Phosphoric Acid Estimation.—In the presence of iron the
molybdate mixture is likely to carry down some ferric oxid with the yellow precipitate. To prevent
this, and also hinder the separation of molybdic acid in the solution on long standing, tartaric
acid has been recommended.
Jüptner has found that the presence of tartaric acid does not interfere with the separation of
the yellow precipitate, as some authorities assert.[12] Even 100 grams of the acid in one liter of
molybdate solution produce no disturbing effect. Molybdate solution treated with tartaric acid did
not show any separation of molybdic acid when kept for a year at room temperatures. The
presence of tartaric acid, therefore, is highly recommended by him to prevent the danger of
obtaining both ferric oxid and molybdic acid with the yellow precipitate.
24. Water and Organic Matters.—The sample, according to the practice of Chatard, should
be ground fine enough to leave no residue on an eighty mesh sieve, and should be thoroughly
mixed by passing it three times through a forty mesh sieve[13].
Two grams are weighed into a tared platinum crucible. This, with its lid, is placed in an air-
bath at 105°, and heated for at least three hours. The lid is then put on, and the crucible is
placed in a desiccator and weighed as soon as cold. The loss in weight is the moisture.
Wyatt recommends that two grams of the fine material be heated in ground watch-glasses,
the edges of which are separated so as to allow the escape of the moisture.[14] The heating is
continued for three hours at 110°, the watch-glasses then closed and held by the clip, cooled in
a desiccator, and weighed. This method is excellent for very hygroscopic bodies, but where
quick-acting balances are used, scarcely necessary for a powdered mineral.
The residue from the moisture determination is gradually heated to full redness over a
bunsen, and then ignited over the blast-lamp. This operation is repeated after weighing until a
constant weight is obtained. The loss (after deducting the percentage of carbon dioxid as found
in another portion) may be taken as water and organic matter. This method is sufficient for all
practical purposes; but when minerals containing fluorin are strongly ignited, a part of the fluorin
is expelled; hence, if more accurate determinations are required, the loss of fluorin must be
taken into account. In this laboratory it has been proved that a pure calcium fluorid undergoes
progressive decomposition at a bright red heat with formation of lime.
Wyatt directs that the combined water and organic matters be determined in the residue from
the moisture estimation as follows: The residue is brushed into a weighed platinum crucible,
which is heated over a small bunsen for ten minutes and then brought to full heat of a blast-lamp
for five minutes. After cooling, the total loss is determined by weighing. After deducting the
carbon dioxid determined in a separate portion, the residual loss is regarded as due to
combined moisture and organic matter.
25. Carbon Dioxid.—Many forms of compact apparatus have been devised for this
estimation, but none of them is satisfactory if accurate results are desired.[15] Not to mention
other objections, many phosphates must be heated nearly to the boiling-point with dilute acid to
effect complete decomposition of the carbonates. The distillation method described by
Gooch[16] is excellent, and when once the apparatus is set up, its work will be found to be rapid
and satisfactory.
Wyatt regards the estimation of carbon dioxid as one of the most important for factory use.
The carbonates present in a sample indicate the loss of an equivalent amount of acid in the
process of conversion into superphosphate.[17]
The apparatus employed for estimating carbon dioxid may be any one of those in ordinary
use for this purpose. The principle of the process depends on the liberation of the gas with a
mineral acid, its proper desiccation, and subsequent absorption by a caustic alkali, best in
solution.
The apparatus of Knorr, described in volume first, page 338, may be conveniently used. The
weight of the sample to be used should be regulated by the content of carbonate. When this is
very high, from one to two grams will be found sufficient; when low, a larger quantity must be
used. Hydrochloric is preferred as the solvent acid. Those forms of apparatus which are
weighed as a whole and the carbon dioxid determined by reweighing after its expulsion, are not
as reliable as the absorption apparatus mentioned.
26. Soluble and Insoluble Matter.—Five grams of the fine phosphate are put into a beaker,
twenty-five cubic centimeters of nitric acid, (specific gravity 1.20) and 12.5 cubic centimeters of
hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.12) are added. The beaker, covered with a watch-glass, is
placed upon the water-bath for thirty minutes[18]. The contents of the beaker are well stirred
from time to time, and at the end of the period the beaker is removed from the bath, filled with
cold water, well stirred, and allowed to settle. The solution is next filtered into a half liter flask,
and the residue is thoroughly washed with cold water, partially dried, and then ignited, (finishing
with the blast-lamp) and brought to constant weight. The figures thus obtained will, however, be
incorrect, because the fluorin liberated during the solution of the phosphates dissolves a portion
of the silica. Hence, the results are too low. Nevertheless, as the same action would occur in the
manufacture of a superphosphate from the material, the determination may be considered, as a
fair approximation to commercial practice. The ignited residue must be tested for phosphorus
pentoxid.
27. Preparation of the Solution.—The flask containing the filtrate is filled to the mark with
cold water, and the solution is thoroughly mixed by twice pouring into a dry beaker and returning
it to the flask. Cold water is used for washing the residue, since if hot water be used, the
sesquichlorids are apt to become basic and insoluble, and hence to remain in the residue and
on the filter paper. Besides, as the flask is to be filled to the mark, the contents must be cold
before any volumetric measurements can be made.
28. Silica and Insoluble Bodies.—Wyatt describes the following method for determining the
total insoluble or siliceous matters in a mineral phosphate[19]. Five grams of the fine sample are
placed in a porcelain dish with about thirty cubic centimeters of aqua regia. The dish is covered
with a funnel, placed on a sand-bath and, after solution is complete, evaporated to dryness with
care to prevent sputtering. When dry the residue is moistened with hydrochloric acid and again
dried, rubbing meanwhile to a fine powder. The heat of the bath is then increased to 125° and
maintained at this temperature for about ten minutes. When cool, the residue is treated with fifty
cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid for fifteen minutes. The acid is then diluted and filtered on
a gooch, which is washed with hot water until the filtrate amounts to a quarter of a liter. The
residue in the crucible is dried, ignited, and weighed. This method, unless the solution be
subsequently boiled with nitric acid, may not retain all the phosphoric acid in the ortho form.
It is difficult to estimate the total silica by the ordinary methods of mineral analysis. This is
due to the fact that in an acid solution of a substance containing silicates and fluorids the whole
of the silica or the fluorin, as the case may be may escape as silicofluorid on evaporation. Again,
it is not easy to decompose calcium phosphate by fusing with sodium carbonate. If an attempt
be made to do this, however, the process should be conducted as follows: A portion of the
sample is ground to an impalpable powder in an agate mortar. From one to two grams of the
substance are mixed with five times its weight of sodium carbonate and fused with the
precautions given in standard works on quantitative analysis. The fused mass is digested in
water, boiled, and filtered, and the residue washed first with boiling water and afterwards with
ammonium carbonate. The filtrate contains all the fluorin as sodium fluorid and, in addition to
this, sodium carbonate, silicate, and aluminate. Mix the filtrate with ammonium carbonate and
heat for some time, replacing the ammonium carbonate which evaporates. Separate by filtration
the silicic acid hydrate and aluminum hydroxid which are formed and wash them with
ammonium carbonate. To separate the last portions of silica from the filtrate, add a solution of
zinc oxid in ammonia. Evaporate until no more ammonia escapes and separate, by filtration, the
zinc silicate and oxid. Determine the silica in this precipitate by dissolving in nitric acid,
evaporating to dryness, taking up with nitric acid and separating the undissolved silica by
filtration. In the alkaline filtrate the fluorin may be estimated by the usual method as calcium salt.
29. Estimation of Lime.—One hundred cubic centimeters of the solution (containing one
gram of the original substance) are evaporated in a beaker to about fifty cubic centimeters; ten
cubic centimeters of dilute sulfuric acid (one to five) are added; and the evaporation is continued
on the water-bath until a considerable crop of crystals of gypsum has formed[20]. The solution is
then allowed to cool, when it generally becomes pasty, owing to the separation of additional
gypsum. When it is cold, 150 cubic centimeters of ninety-five per cent alcohol are slowly added,
with continual stirring, and the whole is allowed to stand for three hours, being stirred from time
to time. After three hours, it is filtered, with the aid of a filter-pump, into a distillation flask, and
the beautifully crystalline precipitate, which does not adhere to the beaker, is washed with
ninety-five per cent alcohol. The filter, with the precipitate, is gently removed from the funnel and
inverted into a platinum crucible, so that, by squeezing the point of the filter, the precipitate is
made to fall into the crucible, and the paper can be pressed down smoothly upon it. On gentle
heating of the crucible, the remaining alcohol burns off, and when the paper has been
completely destroyed, the heat is raised to the full power of a bunsen for about five minutes.
After cooling in a desiccator the crucible containing the calcium sulfate, is weighed. The filtration
may also be accomplished on asbestos felt.
30. The Ammonium Oxalate Method.—This method has been extensively used in this
country in commercial work, and is best carried out as described by Wyatt.[21] The total filtrates
from the iron and alumina precipitates, secured as described in paragraph 33, are well mixed
and concentrated to a volume of about 100 cubic centimeters. There are added about twenty
cubic centimeters of a saturated solution of ammonium oxalate, and after stirring, the mixture is
allowed to cool and remain at rest for six hours. The supernatant liquid is poured through a filter,
the residue washed three times by decantation with hot water and brought upon the filter. The
beaker and precipitate are washed at least three times. The precipitate is dried and ignited at
low redness for ten minutes. The temperature is then raised by a blast and the ignition
continued for five minutes longer, or until the lime is obtained as oxid. The precipitate is likely to
contain magnesia. The magnesia is estimated in the filtrates from the lime determination by first
mixing them and concentrating to 100 cubic centimeters, which, after cooling, are made strongly
alkaline with ammonia. After allowing to stand for twelve hours the ammonium magnesium
phosphate is collected and reduced to magnesium pyrophosphate by the usual processes. If
one gram of the original material has been used the pyrophosphate obtained, multiplied by 0.36,
will give the weight of magnesia contained therein.
31. Lime Method of Immendorff.—The tedious processes required to determine the lime in
the presence of iron, alumina, and large quantities of phosphoric acid are well known to
analysts. Immendorff has published a method, accompanied by the necessary experimental
data, based on the comparative insolubility of calcium oxalate in very dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid. He has shown in the data given that the lime is all precipitated in the
conditions named and that the precipitate, when properly prepared, is not contaminated with
weighable amounts of the other substances found in the original solution[22]. The ease with
which oxalic acid can be determined volumetrically with potassium permanganate solution aids
greatly in the time-saving advantages of the process.
In a hydrochloric acid solution of a mineral phosphate an aliquot part of the filtrate
representing about 250 milligrams of calcium oxid, usually about twenty-five cubic centimeters,
should be taken for the analysis. Ammonia is added in slight excess and then the acid reaction
restored with hydrochloric until shown plainly by litmus. The solution is then heated and the lime
thrown down by adding a solution of ammonium oxalate in excess. In order to secure a greater
dilution of the hydrochloric acid after the precipitation has been made, water should be added
until the volume is half a liter. Before filtering, the whole should be cooled to room temperature.
The precipitate should be washed first with cold and afterwards with warm water. The well-
washed precipitate is dissolved in hot dilute sulfuric acid and the solution, while hot, titrated with
a standard solution of potassium permanganate set by a solution of ammonio-ferrous sulfate.
If one cubic centimeter of the permanganate represent 0.005 gram of iron it will correspond
almost exactly to 0.0035 gram of calcium oxid.
Example.—Sample of rather poor mineral phosphate, five grams in
half a liter. Strength of potassium permanganate, one cubic centimeter
equivalent to 0.00697 gram of iron and to 0.003484 gram of calcium
oxid.
Twenty-five cubic centimeters of the solution, representing one
quarter of a gram, in which the lime was precipitated as above described,
required 9.6 cubic centimeters of the potassium permanganate to
saturate the oxalic acid. Then