KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT

Self-efficacy
Julie Waddington

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Self-efficacy is a construct that focuses on an individual’s evaluation of
their capacity to do something successfully in a given situation. Albert
Bandura defined the construct as ‘people’s judgements of their capabilities
to organise and execute courses of action required to attain designated
types of performances’ (Bandura 1986: 391). A crucial point to understand
is that the concept relates to beliefs about one’s perceived abilities or
inabilities to complete a specific task, and not to one’s actual capabilities
or performance (Mills, Pajares and Herron 2007). Initial interest in self-
efficacy emerged with the development of social cognitive theories in which
individuals are understood to be active agents in control of their own
choices and behaviours (Wyatt 2018a). Bandura (1977) made a significant
contribution to these developments by showing how self-efficacy beliefs
can influence our choice of activities, the amount of effort we expend
on them, and our persistence in completing them, especially in the face
of challenges. To understand how an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs
emerge, Bandura (1977, 1997) identified four different sources: (1) mastery
experiences; (2) vicarious experiences; (3) verbal persuasion; and (4)
physiological and affective states. ‘Mastery experiences’ correspond to a
person’s recollection of and reflection on their own past accomplishments
in similar tasks, while ‘vicarious experiences’ are gained from seeing or
hearing about the accomplishments of others. ‘Verbal persuasion’ relates
to the appraisals or feedback provided by others, while ‘physiological and
affective states’ concern a person’s interpretation of information derived
through their own senses. Being aware of these different sources can help
us gain a better understanding of how self-efficacy beliefs are formed, and,
importantly, how they may be changed.
Research shows that self-efficacy beliefs can influence academic
motivation, learning and achievement (Schunk 1995; Pajares 1996; Schunk
and Pajares 2002). Taking this into account, the most useful efficacy
judgements may be those that slightly exceed one’s actual capabilities, ‘as
this modest overestimation can actually increase effort and persistence
during difficult times’ (Artino 2012: 77). The emphasis, nevertheless, is
on ‘modest’, as over-estimating one’s abilities may lead to inappropriate
behaviour or unrealistic expectations. This is illustrated by Wyatt’s (2018a)

ELT Journal Volume 77/2 April 2023; https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccac046  237

© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
Advance Access publication 9 January 2023
 focus on language teacher self-efficacy, showing how an inflated sense of
ability can lead to effort reduction or complacency. Wyatt’s hypothetical
examples of different teacher expectations and behaviours shows how a
teacher with low self-efficacy may avoid certain tasks, while, at the other
extreme, a teacher with an excessively high sense of efficacy may become
complacent, putting less effort into the task than may be required (Wyatt
2018a: 124). While strong self-efficacy beliefs can help us face challenges
and stay committed to our goals, low levels can have the opposite effect,
generating avoidance behaviour, and negative feelings that can have a
detrimental effect not only on performance, but also on our wellbeing.
Within the specific area of foreign language education, there are two main

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strands of self-efficacy research: one focusing on learners, and the other
focusing on teachers. Work focusing on learner self-efficacy has helped
stress the link between student self-efficacy beliefs and motivation or
achievement in foreign language learning. Identifying low self-efficacy
beliefs can be a first step towards promoting more positive and realistic
attitudes to foreign language learning (Waddington 2019) and improving
language learners’ abilities to develop their own self-regulating strategies
(Zhang 2020). Bandura’s (1977) description of the four different sources
of self-efficacy beliefs can be used to identify specific areas where teachers
can work to boost learners’ self-awareness. For example, in relation to
mastery experiences, understanding how learners interpret and make
sense of their successes or failures is considered a basic component of
motivational teaching practice (Dörnyei 2001). Interpretations of past
successes or failures can reinforce negative self-beliefs (‘I failed because
I’m useless at languages’) or identify aspects that can be worked on
constructively to improve self-efficacy and performance (‘I’ll have more
chance of succeeding if I focus on . . .’). As Ushioda states, ‘the ideal
motivational scenario is one in which students attribute positive outcomes
to personal ability, and negative outcomes to temporary shortcomings
that can be remedied’ (1996: 13). Regarding vicarious experiences, activities
involving peer modelling and peer observation can provide opportunities
for learners to build their own self-efficacy by watching others perform tasks
successfully (Waddington 2019). ‘Near peer role models’ (Muir 2018) can
be particularly inspiring by demonstrating that foreign language learning is
achievable. Defining ‘near peer role models’ as those who are comparable
to us in one or more fundamental ways, Muir (2018) suggests that they
can help their peers establish more attainable and realistic language
learning goals, counteracting the tendency to position native speakers as
the standard benchmark or most desirable model to follow. Considering
verbal persuasion, teachers can play a key role in encouraging positive and
realistic self-efficacy beliefs by providing learners with salient and timely
feedback that encourages them to identify areas for improvement and
to recognise that these improvements are within their reach. Finally, in
relation to physiological and affective states, positive and constructive self-
efficacy beliefs can be fostered by ensuring that learners’ emotions are duly
considered in the language classroom (Miyahara 2015), and that efforts
are taken to detect and minimise the discomforts and anxieties that have
long been recognised as potential barriers to foreign language learning
(Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope 1986).

238 Julie Waddington

Work focusing on language teachers’ self-efficacy has emerged this century
(Wyatt 2018b), underpinned by the growing awareness that teacher efficacy
can significantly influence student achievement levels, teacher attitudes
towards innovations, and beliefs in their ability to cope with changes
(Thompson and Woodman 2019). Attending to teacher self-efficacy could be
implemented as part of a wider focus on self-care and self-development to
promote teacher wellbeing, which is a fundamental basis for effective teaching
(Mercer and Gregerson 2020). Mercer and Gregerson (2020) present several
practical tasks that could be used in teacher training settings, or indeed by
individual teachers, to build healthy and realistic self-efficacy beliefs. One
task resonates with the mastery experiences discussed above, concerning how
learners interpret and make sense of their successes or failures:

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As a language teacher, you will have a greater sense of control and
efficacy if you can attribute successes and failures to elements over
which you can have an impact, rather than elements that are beyond your
control – a type of attribution which can ultimately lead to a sense of
helplessness. (Mercer and Gregerson 2020: 42)
Exploring attitudes and beliefs to language teaching ideologies and
practices can also help identify issues that can impact self-efficacy levels,
as demonstrated in a recent study which detected a strong link between
low self-efficacy beliefs among preservice preschool teachers and the
prevalence of the ‘ideal native speaker teacher’ model (Waddington 2022).
The assumption that ‘native must be best’ held by most participants had
a negative effect on their self-beliefs, leading to disempowering views
about their capacity to be effective early years language teachers, and
reinforcing discriminatory attitudes in which they assumed positions
of inferiority. Reflecting on these views and assumptions throughout
a focused teaching intervention led to a readjustment of beliefs and a
significant increase in self-efficacy levels. Interventions like this can have a
significant impact on future teachers by raising awareness of debilitating
beliefs that affect ‘non-native English-speaking teachers’ (Selvi 2011),
challenging ‘imposter syndrome’ (Bernat 2009), or the feeling that they
will never be good enough. On the other hand, the self-efficacy beliefs of
‘native-speaker teachers’ may also be affected if their own variety of English
use is being dismissed or questioned (Dörnyei and Ushioda 2011), or if
they are being positioned negatively as unqualified backpackers (Wyatt
2018a). Considering these issues in the context of teacher education,
Banegas (2020) shows how teacher development needs to be considered
in the widest sense of the term, taking into account personal as well
as professional experiences. Working with ELT educators, his work
demonstrates how self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by the range of
cultural, individual, and professional funds of knowledge that teachers
draw on to support their teaching. Recognising and leveraging the diverse
funds of knowledge and skills that teachers bring to the classroom can help
challenge deficit views and foster more affirmative self-beliefs with clear
and realistic future development goals.
Advancing knowledge on psychological issues that affect learners is crucial
to inform and enhance foreign language teaching and learning (Williams,
Mercer, and Ryan 2015). The self-efficacy of learners and teachers should

Self-efficacy 239
 receive greater attention in all spheres of learning and development in
order to positively influence achievement levels and contribute to the
wellbeing of both students and teachers.
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The author
Julie Waddington Dept. Didàctiques Específiques /
Facultat d’Educació i Psicologia, University of Girona,
17004 Girona, Spain.
Email: julie.waddington@udg.edu