The Encyclopedia of Animal Predators

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of More Than 50 Predators Protect Your
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 THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

ANIMAL PREDATORS

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622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 2 2/14/17 3:56 PM
 THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
ANIMAL PREDATORS
Learn about Each Predator’s Traits and Behaviors
Identify the Tracks and Signs of More Than 50 Predators
Protect Your Livestock, Poultry, and Pets

Janet Vorwald Dohner

ß
Storey Publishing

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 3 2/14/17 3:56 PM

 The mission of Storey Publishing is to serve our customers by
publishing practical information that encourages
personal independence in harmony with the environment.

EDITED BY Deborah Burns

ART DIRECTION AND BOOK DESIGN BY Michaela Jebb
TEXT PRODUCTION BY Erin Dawson
INDEXED BY Nancy D. Wood

COVER PHOTOGRAPHY BY © Don Johnston_MA/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top middle); © Donald M. Jones/
Minden Pictures/Getty Images, front (top left); © Fred LaBounty/Alamy Stock Photo, back (top right); © John
Foxx/Getty Images, front (top right); © Juniors Bildarchiv/GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo, back (bottom right);
© Mike Lentz Photography/www.mikelentzphotography.com, back (top left & bottom left); © Robert McGouey/
Wildlife/Alamy Stock Photo, front (bottom)

INTERIOR PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS appear on page 280.

ILLUSTRATIONS BY © Elayne Sears, 117, 242–255, and scat

MAPS, TRACKS, SILHOUETTES, AND GRAPHICS BY Ilona Sherratt

© 2017 by Janet Vorwald Dohner

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher, except
by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credits; nor may
any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means —
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other — without written permission from the publisher.
The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. All recommendations are
made without guarantee on the part of the author or Storey Publishing. The author and publisher disclaim any
liability in connection with the use of this information.
Storey books are available for special premium and promotional uses and for customized editions. For
further information, please call 800-793-9396.

Storey Publishing Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

210 MASS MoCA Way
Names: Dohner, Janet Vorwald, 1951- author.
North Adams, MA 01247
Title: The encyclopedia of animal predators : learn about each predator’s
storey.com
traits and behaviors; identify the tracks and signs of more than 50
predators; protect your livestock, poultry, and pets / Janet Vorwald Dohner.
Printed in China by R.R. Donnelley
Description: North Adams, Massachusetts : Storey Publishing, 2017. |
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016059717 (print) | LCCN 2017004014 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781612127057 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781612126999 (pbk. :
alk. paper) | ISBN 9781612127002 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Predatory animals. | Predatory animals--Control.
Classification: LCC QL758 .D64 2017 (print) | LCC QL758 (ebook) | DDC
591.5/3—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016059717

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 4 2/14/17 3:56 PM

 Dedicated to the belief that, armed
with knowledge, we can coexist with
animal predators on our farms, on
our ranches, in our backyards, and
in the greater world we share.

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 5 2/14/17 3:56 PM

 Contents
PA R T I 1 CHAPTER 6
Weasels: Mustelidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predators in the Wolverine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
124

Modern World Fisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

CHAPTER 1
The Predation Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Mink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
CHAPTER 2
Who’s Out There? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
PA R T I I 23
Predators Up Close
CHAPTER 3
Canines: Canidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Wolves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Foxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
CHAPTER 4
Cats: Felidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar, Panther) . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Jaguar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bobcat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Canada Lynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Other Cats — Jaguarundi, Ocelot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
American Badger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Weasels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
American Marten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
CHAPTER 7
Raccoons: Procyonidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Northern Raccoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
CHAPTER 8
Skunks: Mephitidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Striped Skunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Spotted Skunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
CHAPTER 9
Opossums: Didelphidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Virginia Opossum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
CHAPTER 10
Rats: Muridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Norway Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Black Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Cotton Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

CHAPTER 5
Bears: Ursidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
American Black Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
North American Grizzly or Brown Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Other Bears — Kodiak Brown Bear, Polar Bear,
Hybrid Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
CHAPTER 11
Domestic and Feral Animals . . . . . . . . . . 171
Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Domestic Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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 CHAPTER 12 PA R T I I I 237
Birds of Prey: Accipitrimorphae . . . . 185
Eagles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Prevention and
Hawks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Protection
Vultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 13 Nonlethal Prevention Methods
True Owls: Strigidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Great Horned Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Barred Owl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 CONCLUSION
Other Owls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Moving Forward Together . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

C H A P T E R 14
Crows: Corvidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Crow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Common Raven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Black-Billed Magpie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
CHAPTER 15
Snapping Turtles: Chelydridae . . . . . . 217
Common Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Alligator Snapping Turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
210 Predator Control Guides for Home, Recreation,
Farm, and Ranch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Organizations Providing Additional Resources
for Predator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Online Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

CHAPTER 16
Gators and Crocs: Crocodilia . . . . . . . . . 222
American Alligator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
American Crocodile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

C H A P T E R 17
Snakes: Colubridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

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 vi i i | 

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 Part I

Predators
in the
Modern
World

 | 1

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 One of the fundamental relationships in nature is that of
predator and prey. To feed her fledglings, an eagle swoops with
speed and grace to snatch a rabbit on the run. A wolf pack
cooperatively chases down an elk, and with that success the
whole pack eats. We humans are the ultimate predators, killing
both to eat and to survive when threatened by an animal.
In the modern world, many of us are somewhat Between the two points of view — protecting
removed from the predatory act, other than observ- our domestic animals and valuing nature and all of
ing a cat catching a mouse. Others of us, however, its inhabitants — lies coexistence. Coexistence is
might walk out in our fields on a beautiful morning possible, and it begins with knowledge. Knowledge
to find a gruesomely slaughtered lamb or a pile of of our predators’ behaviors and habits is essential.
decapitated chickens. Even in that moment of great Knowledge arms us when we encounter a predator
anger and grief, the reality of predator and prey is on a walk in the backcountry. With knowledge, we
inescapable and basic. We can’t live in a world with- learn how to design and implement predator-friendly
out predators; therefore, we must learn to coexist systems that protect both our stock and ourselves.
with the wild hunters around us while protecting Some of the methods of predator protection
what we raise. are old, as ancient as the shepherd who watched
his sheep with his guardian dogs. Others are new, as
Coexistence wildlife biologists help us understand the predators
For a long time, humans believed we could extermi- around us rather than succumb to old myths or prej-
nate all large predators and shape the earth as we udices. These methods may require as much or more
saw fit. We have since found that predators, both effort than simply eliminating all the predators, but
large and small, are essential to the healthy func- when we value a balanced and sustainable world,
tioning of the earth’s ecosystem. We have learned to they are worth the effort.
appreciate the beauty of wild animals and their lives. Consumers of meat, milk, or eggs can come to
Many people now work to save animals threatened value predators and coexistence as well, just as they
with extinction, not only because our world is health- learn more about the reality of the lives of the farm-
ier when it is biologically diverse but also because our ers and ranchers who provide them with food.
lives would be less rich without these animals.

Is not the sky a father and the earth a mother, and are not all living things with
feet or wings or roots their children?
— Black Elk (Oglala Sioux)

2 | P r e dato rs in the Mo der n Wo r l d

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 CHAP TER 1

The
Predation
Situation
When European explorers and colonists arrived in the Americas,
the single word they most often used to describe the “new world”
they encountered was abundance — an abundance of land,
natural resources, and animal life.
Of course, they weren’t the first to discover the Following that post–Ice Age era, some cul-
New World, because native peoples had long tures became nomadic hunter-gatherers while
occupied and used the land, plants, and ani- others formed permanent communities for
mals, trading commodities among one another. fishing or farming. Living more sustainably
They altered the landscape, created agricultural with nature, native peoples generally met their
fields, burned grasslands and forests to keep resource needs without the destruction of diver-
them open for grazing for favored herbivores, sity and balance that lay on the horizon.
and may have been responsible for overhunting
the megafauna after the last Ice Age.

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 Taming Nature
European settlement would usher in an era of
reckless exploitation that, from our contemporary
viewpoint, was a truly stunning destruction of wild-
life. The Merriam’s elk, passenger pigeon, Carolina
parakeet, and Labrador duck all went extinct due to
relentless hunting. It was an extremely close call for
the American bison, reduced from a population of
60 million to just 300 animals by 1900. Herons and
egrets died by the thousands, primarily for plumes
to decorate ladies’ hats. Even the white-tailed deer
became exceedingly rare in the eastern United States
due to human activities. Animals were killed for their
fur, hide, or feathers, but none of those was the pri-
mary reason that the large predators were destroyed.
The reason was that these animals were
regarded as dangerous. As their natural prey was
decimated, they became an increasing threat to the
colonists’ livestock. England, Scotland, Ireland, and
other European homelands of the colonists had been
eradicating wolves and other large predators for
centuries. Since these animals were already extinct
in the United Kingdom, livestock raisers there had
no need to protect their livestock from large or even
medium-sized predators. With their only predator
being the fox, which was widely hunted on foot
and on horseback, sheep were turned loose to graze
without active shepherding or livestock guardian
όό Wolf όό Mountain Lion
όό By the 1930s, the three large North American predators — wolves, mountain lions, and grizzly bears — were nearly
eliminated from the continental United States.
4 | P r e dato rs in the Mo der n Wo r l d
622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 4
dogs (LGDs). There was no tradition of protecting
sheep or cattle from serious predation.
It is therefore not surprising that the wolves,
bears, and mountain lions of the eastern colonies
seemed terrifying. Taming nature was the first order
of business. The first wolf bounty was set in 1630
in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. From that point
forward, the colonies and later the states set bounties
for killing the large predators. Thus the hunting,
trapping, and poisoning commenced.
By 1870, no mountain lions remained in the
eastern states or provinces. By the beginning of the
20th century, wolves were gone from the continental
United States and the adjoining areas of Canada
except the northernmost Great Lakes region and
northern and western Canada. By the 1930s, wolves,
mountain lions, and grizzly bears were nearly elim-
inated from the Intermountain West, except for
isolated pockets.
The loss of the large predators and the changing
landscape allowed the opportunistic coyote, origi-
nally a resident of the Great Plains and arid West,
to expand its territory throughout the continent. The
widespread coyote is now the single greatest threat
to livestock and poultry raisers. The loss of large
predators also allowed small predators — raccoons,
opossums, and skunks — to increase in numbers and
to expand their ranges as well.
όό Bear
2/14/17 3:56 PM
 όό John James Audubon’s illustrations brought viewers face-to-face with wild animals in their own element.
Efforts to Coexist
While the destruction proceeded, the foundations
of the conservation movement were also being laid.
The 19th century saw the origin of a number of pro-
gressive movements — to abolish slavery, fight for
women’s rights, establish laws regarding child labor
and food and drug safety, and regulate animal welfare.
Alongside this progressivism, the love of nature grew.
With it came efforts to preserve and protect lands,
animals, and natural resources. As the cities became
increasingly crowded, people grew to value parks and
recreation land for camping, hiking, and bird watching.
Sympathy and empathy grew for wild animals.
This renaissance was fostered by a number
of famous writers, artists, and naturalists. Some
were both conservationists and hunters, which was
not a contradiction. Others were explorers of the
wilderness, writing and making images to reveal
its natural beauty. Among the first and foremost
was John James Audubon, an artist, naturalist, and
the most famous ornithologist of his time. Other
artists included George Catlin, Thomas Moran,
Albert Bierstadt, and Frederic Edwin Church. John
Burroughs, Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo
Emerson, John Muir, William Cullen Bryant,
George Perkins March, Ernest Thompson Seton,
and Theodore Roosevelt wrote about nature and
622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 5
wild animals. Theodore Roosevelt and the writer
and naturalist George Bird Grinnell, founder of the
Audubon Society (1905), could be considered the
earliest conservationists.
The Conservation and Preservation
Movements
In 1860, 80 percent of the US population still lived
in rural areas, but the march toward urban develop-
ment was proceeding. As Frederick Law Olmsted
designed New York City’s Central Park, efforts
were beginning in the states to preserve land in the
Adirondack and Catskill Mountains. Soon after
biologist Ernst Haeckel first used the word ecology,
John Wesley Powell, back from his exploration of
the Colorado River, expressed the importance of
recognizing the environmental fragility of the West.
The world’s first national park — Yellowstone — was
established in 1872. By this time, the concept of con-
servation implied management of natural resources
and public lands for human use, encompassing the
forests, grazing land, minerals, water, fish, birds, and
other animals. Sustainable and responsible use of
this land was essential to conservation.
The turn of the century saw the election of
Theodore Roosevelt as president. A lover of hunt-
ing and the hunting lifestyle, he worked for the
T he Predat i on Si t uat i on | 5
2/14/17 3:56 PM
 conservation of game species and the environment laid the groundwork for future ecological regula-
they needed. Hunters such as Roosevelt believed it tion. In 1949, Aldo Leopold wrote A Sand Country
was not sporting to kill predator species. Predators Almanac, which is widely regarded as one of most
should be killed only to maintain game animals and influential environmental books of the 20th century.
birds for hunting. Roosevelt and fellow conservation- By 1951, the Nature Conservancy was founded, an
ists such as Gifford Pinchot worked to create and organization that would come to own and manage the
protect national forests, wildlife refuges, and parks. largest collection of private nature reserves in world.
At the same time, the separate concept of pres-
ervation was taking root. John Muir founded the
Sierra Club in 1892 with the mission to preserve and
protect wilderness. Preservationists wanted humans
to value wild land and animals solely for their natu-
ral beauty and not their usefulness to humans. One
of the earliest conflicts between these two points of
view was the conservationists’ proposed dam in the
Hetch Hetchy Valley of Yosemite National Park.
Flooding the valley created a huge water supply for
San Francisco, while also destroying the beauty and
life found in the valley. From that point on, tension
and conflicting priorities increased between conser-
vationists and preservationists.

Game and Land Management

While conservation and preservation were gain-
ing ground, predator control efforts continued. The
National Animal Control Act for the destruction
or control of predators was passed in 1931 (although
Congress had already been providing funds for wolf
and coyote control during the preceding 15 years).
Famed conservationist Aldo Leopold developed game
management science in the model of forestry science.
By the 1940s, he became deeply concerned that the
burgeoning population of deer and elk, no longer con- όό “Wilderness is not only a haven for native plants and
trolled by predators, was threatening the environment. animals but it is also a refuge from society. It is a place to
In the 1930s, in the days of the Dust Bowl, go to hear the wind and little else, see the stars and the
evidence mounted that unregulated land use was galaxies, smell the pine trees, feel the cold water, touch the
sky and the ground at the same time, listen to coyotes, eat
destructive. The Taylor Grazing Act was passed
the fresh snow, walk across the desert sands, and realize
to “stop injury to the public lands by prevent-
why it’s good to go outside of the city and the suburbs.”
ing over-grazing and soil deterioration.” In 1946,
the Bureau of Land Management, now in the — JOHN MUIR, 1901

Department of the Interior, replaced the earlier

Grazing Service. Early water and air pollution acts

6 | P r e dato rs in the Mo der n Wo r l d

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 ϒϒ “We reached the old wolf in time to watch a fierce green fire dying
in her eyes. I realized then, and have known ever since, that there was
something new to me in those eyes — something known only to her and
to the mountain. I was young then, and full of trigger-itch; I thought
that because fewer wolves meant more deer, that no wolves would
mean hunters’ paradise. But after seeing the green fire die, I sensed that
neither the wolf nor the mountain agreed with such a view. . . .
“I now suspect that just as a deer herd lives in mortal fear of its
wolves, so does a mountain live in mortal fear of its deer. And perhaps
with better cause, for while a buck pulled down by wolves can be
replaced in two or three years, a range pulled down by too many deer
may fail of replacement in as many decades. So also with cows. The
cowman who cleans his range of wolves does not realize that he is taking
over the wolf’s job of trimming the herd to fit the range. He has not
learned to think like a mountain. Hence we have dustbowls, and rivers
washing the future into the sea.”
— ALDO LEOPOLD, 1949

Environmental Awareness Grows environmental conservation efforts. In 1992, the

In the 1960s, growing concerns and serious prob-
lems came to the fore with a resulting flurry of
government action. Just as the photography of Ansel
Adams was capturing the ethereal beauty of nature,
two important writers captured the crisis the coun-
try faced. Both Rachel Carson, who wrote Silent
Spring in 1962, and Stewart Udall, with The Quiet
Crisis in 1963, brought widespread public awareness
to a broad and deepening environmental situation.
As secretary of the interior, Udall championed
a series of important pieces of conservation legisla-
tion: the Wilderness Act, the Endangered Species
Preservation Act (later expanded as the Endangered
Species Act), the National Trails Act, and the Wild
and Scenic Rivers Act. Other important environ-
mental efforts included the National Environmental
Quality Act, the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts,
and the Environmental Policy Act. The United
States became the first nation to pursue far-reaching
Convention of Biological Diversity convened in
Rio de Janeiro as part of the Rio Earth Summit and
gathered worldwide resolve to promote sustainable
development for the needs of people, animals, and
plants; in 2002, Environment and Climate Change
Canada enacted the Species at Risk Act of Canada
(SARA) to protect wildlife. In this book, when the
terms Endangered and Threatened are capitalized,
they refer to species listed under the Endangered
Species Act (www.fws.gov/endangered/species/
us-species).
Among the very first animals listed by the US
government as Endangered species were the gray
wolf, the Florida panther, and the grizzly bear. For
the first time, predators were offered official protec-
tion. With this move, the philosophies and methods
of preservation and conservation began to come
together in a new approach.

T he Predat i on Si t uat i on | 7

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 7 2/14/17 3:56 PM

 Vulture, Black
Raccoon

Weasel
Skunk
Raven

Snake
Rat

Other Observations
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Event Cause
Animal(s) killed and mauled but not eaten Dog
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Bites on legs of live birds Rat
Dead chicks or birds stuck in tunnels Rat
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Musky smell Skunk, weasel, mink
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Feathers on ground Fox, coyote, hawk, owl
Wounds or pulled feathers on back and Cannibalization
tail of live bird
Injuries on back, pulled feathers Rooster mounting hen
✔ ✔
Several dead birds piled against fence or Fright and panic due to chasing by dogs,
✔ ✔ in corners, carcasses flattened wolves, or other larger predators
✔ ✔ Serious damage to coop Bear
✔ ✔ ✔ Latches opened Raccoon, human
✔ ✔

✔
✔

✔ ✔

Who’s Out T h e re ? | 19

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 19 2/14/17 3:56 PM

 Livestock Damage ID Guide — Likely Suspects
After identifying potential culprits below, check individual profiles in Part II for detailed information, observations,
tracks, and scat. Small predators can kill, carry away, or consume only very small livestock — rabbits or small lambs,
for example. Predators can occasionally be active during nonnormal times or behave in atypical ways.

Mountain Lion

Vulture, Black
Feral Hog

Raccoon

Weasel
Marten
Magpie
Bobcat
Badger

Coyote

Fisher

Skunk
Raven
Eagle
Crow

Mink
Lynx

Wolf
Bear

Dog

Rat
Cat

Fox
Day ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Dusk
Time

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Night ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Dawn ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Missing Animal ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
One or two animals killed ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Several animals killed ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Animal killed not consumed ✔ ✔
Small animal, only head and
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
neck consumed
Rabbit or lamb consumed
✔
except head and fur
Dead Animal (Small or Large)

Small animal consumed ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Opened ventrally ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Vital organs consumed
first, not rumen and
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
intestines (may be
pulled out)
Udder (consumed?) ✔ ✔
Breast and neck eaten ✔ ✔
Small wounds in body ✔ ✔
Meaty areas consumed ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Newborn eyes, nose,
tongue, genitals, rectum, or ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
hooves pecked
Newborn, nose or other
✔ ✔
parts chewed
Nose, lower jaw, ears,
✔
palate, brains eaten

20 | P r e dato rs in the Mo der n Wo r l d

622699.AnimalPredators.FinalPages.indd 20 2/14/17 3:56 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Liinan huoneessa oli liian kuuma. Kalle siirtyi saliin ja alkoi kävellä
edes takaisin. Levottomista liikkeistä saattoi arvata hänen
mielessään liikkuvan jotakin outoa. Näin hän ajatteli:

"Näin pitkälle sitä siis nyt on jouduttu. Voi minua poloista vieläkin.
Jos ilkeäisin itseltäni, niin raastaisin Liinan tukasta, tänne… ja
selvittäisin nyrkkipuheella, mikä hän on ja miksi hän on tehnyt
minutkin. Mutta tokkopa hän ymmärtää sittekään. Tuskin vain!… No,
onhan tuota syytä itsessänikin, miksi rupesin juomaan, niin miksi?
Heikko olen ollut, mutta sen tiedän, jos minulla olisi ollut kunnon
vaimo, en nyt tällainen olisi. Sen verran minussa toki on vielä häpyä,
että en viitsikään olla joka viilekkeen pilkattavana. Vai meillä muka ei
ole leipää sen tähden, että meillä ei ole emäntää, joka paistaisi! Ja
minäkö pidän eukkoani vain nukkena lasikaapissa? Totta totisesti
niin onkin; mutta kuka tuota viitsii kuulla syrjäisiltä, en minä
ainakaan. Loppu tästä elämästä pitää tulla tavalla tai toisella… Ja
loppuhan tästä tuleekin ihan itsestään. Pankkiin olisi huomenna
lähetettävä rahan, kauppiaalla on tuomio ja hän vaatii rahaa, leipään
tarvittaisiin rahaa ja isälle pitäisi toimittaa rahaa siitä tuonnoisesta
summasta, jonka vain vähäksi ajaksi lainasin. Rahaa, rahaa, rahaa,
eikä minulla penniäkään… Pahin pula on syömisestä. Rupeavat
palvelijatkin näljissään haukkumaan… Liinasta en välittäisi, nähköön
vähän nälkää, eikö sitte oppisi jotain tekemään. Ja lapsista kyllä isä
pitää huolen, sen tiedän ihan varmaan. Itse minä kyllä elän missä
hyvänsä… Voi sentäänkin, kun en alussa ollut jyrkempi Liinalle ja
pakottanut häntä ihmiseksi. Mutta kuka tuota jaksaa nähdä akkain
itkua ja vaikerrusta, ja säälihän tuota oli ajaakin herrasihmistä heti
läävään, kun muutenkin tuntui elämä olevan hänestä niin vaikea. Ja
se appiukko, rikkaaksi häntä kaikki luulivat, se se juuri minutkin petti,
kun tyttö vielä lisäksi oli niin vietävän suloinen… se ukko jätti meidät
ihan paljain käsin. Kutti, parahiksi, Kalle! kuka käski olemaan sokea
ja kosimaan herrasneittä? Ei kukaan muu kuin oma herruuteni. Nyt
olen hyväkin herra!… Peijakas kun rupee nälkä hiukomaan omaakin
vatsaani; se vain ei katso herruutta eikä narreutta! Mutta loppu tästä
pitää tulla!"

Kauan hän sillä tavalla mietiskellen käveli välistä hitaammin,

välistä taas kiireemmin, mikäli ajatukset milloinkin sujuivat. Unta ei
kuulunut. Aamu jo ehti valjeta hänen yhä astuskellessaan.

Viimein hän teki päätöksensä, pukeutui päällysvaatteihinsa, meni

tampuurin kautta ulos, valjasti hevosen, saman, jolla oli tullut kotiin ja
läksi ajamaan.

Liina yhä nukkui ja vasta hetkisen kuluttua heräsivät palvelijatkin,

tottuneet kun ajan pitkään olivat hekin enemmän makaamaan kuin
työtä tekemään! Renki kiepsahti vähän sukkelammin tavallista ylös
ja alkoi torua piikoja: "nyt teidät hukka perii, kun näin makaatte
selvään päivään asti, vaikka isäntä on kotona!" Mutta karjapiika,
käytyään elukoita katsomassa ja huomattuaan, että isännän hevosta
ei ollut tallissa eikä rekeäkään kotosalla, alkoi tupaan palattuaan
pilkata renkiä, että hän näljissään näki vain unia päivälläkin. Ja
siihen uskoon piiat jäivät, vaikka renki kuinka olisi vakuuttanut
käyneensä yöllä riisumassa isännän hevosen.

Kalle ajoi suoraa päätä Notkolaan. Vaikealta hänestä tuntui mennä

isäänsä yhä kiusaamaan ja vielä vaikeampi hänen oli kuulla isän
suusta jyrkkä vastaus, että oli turha ruveta kahta taloa hävittämään
yhden tähden. Kalle mielessään kuitenkin tunnusti isän olevan
oikeassa, hänhän oli itsekin koko aamun ajatellut samaa, ja nyt hän
ilmasi äsken tekemänsä päätöksen.
 Kauan siinä keskusteltiin ja punnittiin asiaa kaikilta puolin.
Notkolan isäntä, huomattuaan poikansa nyt viimeinkin palaavan
väärältä tieltä, kehoitti Kallea vielä koettamaan pitää taloansa
pystyssä, vaan Kalle ei uskaltanut, hänellä kun ei enää ollut
luottamusta itseensäkään.

Aamiaisen syötyä läksi Kalle ajamaan omia teitänsä, ei kuitenkaan

kapakkaan, kuten ennen. Isänsä huusi hänelle vielä jäljestä: "ole
huoletta, kyllä minä korjaan lapset!" ja kyyneliä kiilsi nyt jo
vanhanpuoleisen miehen silmissä.

Mäkelässä palvelijat kyllästyivät odottamaan olematonta aamiaista

eivätkä ilenneet enää mennä lainailemaankaan, vaan karkasivat.
Niinpä Notkolan isäntä päivemmällä tapasi Liinan yksinään lasten
kanssa ja vei heidät kotiinsa. Mäkelän kartanot lukottiin ja elukat
korjattiin myöskin nälkää näkemästä Notkolaan toistaiseksi. Aikaa
myöten otti pankki saatavastaan talon haltuunsa ja irtaimiston veivät
muut saamamiehet.

*****

Tähän nyt kertomus oikeastaan saisi päättyä, sillä johan

arvaamme, että päähenkilöt, joiden elämän vaiheita olemme
seuranneet, olivat auttamattomasti elämänsä mukaista kylvöä
niittämässä ja että heidän lapsensa joutuivat hyviin käsiin. Kuitenkin
huvittanee vielä katsahtaa muutamia vuosia, ehkäpä
kymmenkunnankin eteen päin.

Silloin istui Liina huononpäiväisessä torpassa. Hän näet ei ollut

viihtynyt Notkolassa, jossa toisten uutteruus oli ikäänkuin ainaisena
pahana omanatuntona häntä rasittamassa, vaikka häntä ei
kovuudella kohdeltukaan, ja hän sen tähden oli lähtenyt omaan
vapauteensa. Huonoa hänen toimeentulonsa sitte oli ja ehkäpä hän
saamattomuudessaan olisi kuollut nälkäänkin, ell'eivät torpan
asukkaat, johon hän asettui elämään, olisi toimittaneet hänelle
syötävää ensin Notkolasta ja sitte kunnan vaivaisvaroista, kuin
Notkolan vanhukset kuolivat ja tila joutui Liinalle vieraampien
haltuun. Työhön oppimisesta ei nytkään tullut mitään. Torpanväen
kätkyitä hän vain kiikutteli ja muisteli ennen nuorempana lukemiansa
romaaneja.

Kallesta kuultiin sen verran, että hän toisissa pitäjissä piti

päällysmiehen ammattia tukin ajoissa ja uitoissa ja ansaitsi rahaa
runsaasti. Mutta Liinalle hän ei lähettänyt penniäkään, sillä viina oli jo
tullut hänelle niin rakkaaksi, että sen alttarille hän uhrasi joka
roponsa. Humalapäissään hän kuitenkin joskus kiroeli omaa
tyhmyyttänsä; koko tuo naimisissa olon aika häilyi hänen mielessään
vain pahana unena. Toimen miestä hänestä ei enää koskaan tullut,
siksi oli hänen oma tahtonsa jo vallan uupunut, ja oikea avun lähde,
niin se häneltä oli unhottunut jo ammoin ennen, kuin hän
herrasmaisuuden ja himon orjaksi joutuikaan.
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