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Communication in History

Now in its 7th edition, Communication in History reveals how media has
been influential in both maintaining social order and as powerful agents of
change. Thirty-eight contributions from a wide range of voices offer
instructors the opportunity to customize their courses while challenging
students to build upon their own knowledge and skill sets. From stone age
symbols and early writing to the Internet and social media, readers are
introduced to an expansive, intellectually enlivening study of the relationship
between human history and communication media. This new edition
features an expanded discussion of communications in the digital age, as
well as the latest international scholarship on literacy, printing, and sound
technologies.

Paul Heyer is Professor Emeritus in the Communication Studies

Department at Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada.

Peter Urquhart is Associate Professor in the Communication Studies

Department at Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada.
Communication in History
Stone Age Symbols to Social Media

SEVENTH EDITION

Edited by
Paul Heyer and Peter Urquhart
First published 2019
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2019 Taylor & Francis

The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the
authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Heyer, Paul, 1946– editor. | Urquhart, Peter, 1967– editor.

Title: Communication in history : media, culture, society / [edited by] Paul Heyer,
Peter Urquhart.
Description: Seventh edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018011689
Subjects: LCSH: Communication—History. | Mass media—History.
Classification: LCC P90 .C62945 2018 | DDC 302.209—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018011689

ISBN: 978-1-138-72947-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-72948-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-18984-0 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion Pro
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

Foreword
Preface

PART ONE: THE MEDIA OF EARLY CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER 1 — The Earliest Precursor of Writing

Denise Schmandt-Besserat

CHAPTER 2 — Media in Ancient Empires

Harold Innis

CHAPTER 3 — Civilization Without Writing—The Incas and the Quipu

Marcia Ascher and Robert Ascher

CHAPTER 4 — The Origins of Writing

Andrew Robinson

PART TWO: THE TRADITION OF WESTERN LITERACY

CHAPTER 5 — The Greek Legacy

Eric Havelock

CHAPTER 6 — Writing and the Alphabet Effect

Robert K. Logan

CHAPTER 7 — Writing Restructures Consciousness

Walter Ong
CHAPTER 8 — Communication and Faith in the Middle Ages
James Burke and Robert Ornstein

PART THREE: THE PRINT REVOLUTION

CHAPTER 9 — Paper and Block Printing—From China to Europe

Thomas F. Carter

CHAPTER 10 — The Invention of Printing

Lewis Mumford

CHAPTER 11 — Early Modern Literacies

Harvey J. Graff

CHAPTER 12 — Sensationalism and News

Mitchell Stephens

PART FOUR: ELECTRICITY CREATES THE WIRED WORLD

CHAPTER 13 — Time, Space, and the Telegraph

James W. Carey

CHAPTER 14 — The New Journalism

Michael Schudson

CHAPTER 15 — The Telephone Takes Command

Claude S. Fischer

CHAPTER 16 — Dream Worlds of Consumption

Rosalynd Williams

CHAPTER 17 — Wireless World

Stephen Kern

PART FIVE: IMAGE AND SOUND

CHAPTER 18 — Early Photojournalism
Ulrich Keller

CHAPTER 19 — Inscribing Sound

Lisa Gitelman

CHAPTER 20 — The Making of the Phonograph

Jonathan Sterne

CHAPTER 21 — Early Motion Pictures

Daniel Czitrom

CHAPTER 22 — Movies Talk

Scott Eyman

PART SIX: RADIO DAYS

CHAPTER 23 — The Public Voice of Radio

John Durham Peters

CHAPTER 24 — Early Radio

Susan J. Douglas

CHAPTER 25 — The Golden Age of Programming

Christopher Sterling and John M. Kittross

CHAPTER 26 — Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds Broadcast

Paul Heyer

CHAPTER 27 — Radio Voices

Michele Hilmes

CHAPTER 28 — Radio in the Television Age

Peter Fornatale and Joshua E. Mills

PART SEVEN: TV TIMES

CHAPTER 29 — Television Begins
William Boddy

CHAPTER 30 — The New Languages

Edmund Carpenter

CHAPTER 31 — Making Room for TV

Lynn Spigel

CHAPTER 32 — From Turmoil to Tranquility

Gary Edgarton

CHAPTER 33 — Boob Tubes, Fans, and Addicts

Richard Butsch

PART EIGHT: NEW MEDIA AND OLD IN THE DIGITAL AGE

CHAPTER 34 — How Media Became New

Lev Manovich

CHAPTER 35 — Popularizing the Internet

Janet Abbate

CHAPTER 36 — The World Wide Web

Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin

CHAPTER 37 — A Cultural History of Web 2.0

Alice E. Marwick

CHAPTER 38 — Social Media Retweets History

Tom Standage

Discussion Questions
Suggested Readings
Credits
Index
Foreword

The historiography of communication is undergoing its second important

shift. Students of contemporary media and culture are increasingly interested
in the long-term environment of human experience that frames modern
communication, and that interest is reshaping the study of history in the
field. This anthology, with its particular structure, is a crucial and long
overdue contribution to that reformulation.
For much of its initial life, communication history was the story of the
press, typically rendered as the biographies of great publishers or
newspapers or of other specific media institutions and major figures, as in
the chronicles of particular networks, media moguls, or film genres. The best
such work, although generally in the minority, tended to situate its
narratives in a broader social context, examining, for instance, the
relationship between the press and changing forms of democracy, between
film and socio-cultural experience, or between the electronic media and
political economic patterns. The first significant shift in communication
historiography was to make such broader considerations of politics, law,
economics, and culture much more regular, intimate elements, to weave
their threads more tightly into the tapestries of particular journalism and
media histories.
If that first major shift was to broaden the horizontal frame of reference,
to situate media history in a wider range of social institutions, the second
major shift is to extend the frame vertically, to consider the broader story of
media institutions against a much deeper chronological backdrop of the
whole of human history, to examine the role of communication in the
development of the human species and its forms of civilization.
 It is in light of that latter shift that this book should be considered. The
editors take their clue from the pioneering work of such scholars as Walter
Ong, Elizabeth Eisenstein, and Harold Innis. Those communication historians
share a keen interest in the deep civilization context of all principal forms of
communication technologies, thereby encouraging a much richer
understanding of the present, rapidly changing experience.
There are several key principles of this school of communication
historiography that are well reflected in this book. First, this approach
perceives all contemporary media and communication technologies as
extensions of basic, innate human communication capacities. It refuses to
abstract contemporary forms of media hardware and uses television
cameras, personal computers, and satellites, seeing them instead as part of a
long, complex process by which human beings are continuing to work out
their particularly strong skills and instincts for creating systems of meaning
and symbolic interaction. In this light, modern media technologies are only
the latest, albeit highly significant, forms of ancient human communication
technologies that include speech, gesture, drama, and social ritual of all
kinds.
Second, as those different “technologies” have variously held sway during
different periods of human experience, they have had differential impact on
the defining characteristics of the capacities of the species. It appears that the
very cognitive structure of the individual human being and the formal
patterns of human social relations are intimately linked to the forms or
systems of communication that are predominant in given eras. An oral
culture, without writing, print, or electronic media, seems to be “biased”
toward a particular pattern of sensory and expository capacity that
encourages ways of seeing, hearing, and, indeed, knowing that are
remarkably different when other forms of communication are more
prominent. Over time those tendencies seem in turn to favor and encourage
major changes in social organization, influencing, if not defining, choices
among options in political, legal, religious, and economic structures. The
whole of human experience, therefore, seems to depend greatly upon the
form or forms of communication that are most in ascendancy during any
era.
Third, if these relationships between communication systems and broad
patterns of human thought and experience are so strong, then the story of
communication is much more central to human history than the formal
academic discipline of history itself has recognized. Since the late nineteenth
century, history in the academy has been conventionally apportioned among
the other major fields of social and humanistic learning that were also
invented at about the same time. That is, we have had several histories, as in
political history, social history, economic history, and even cultural history.
Each of these has contended for primacy of place as the essential history, the
substructural history upon which all the others are built. But now with the
advent of a deep-civilization perspective in communication history comes
another contender. In its emerging form, contemporary communication
history raises the prospect that communication patterns, systems, and
technologies are not just important, but central and indispensable to human
history, and that the other formal branches of history may have to be
rewritten in its light.
Reduced to such principles, the current form of communication history has
deep and far-reaching implications, not only for history itself, but also for
communication research and media studies. At the very least it helps
reiterate the importance of communication studies in the academy,
underscoring the centrality of its questions to the overall understanding of
human behavior and social experience. The readings in this book can
therefore be seen as part of that broader project that is demonstrating the
contribution of communication research to the increasingly important
contemporary debates about culture and technology in society.
Those claims having been made, however, it should quickly become clear
that the historical perspective advanced by this book raises a number of
important new questions and cautions. For instance, if one is to take
communication forms and media experience as central to the development
of human experience, just how fundamental are they? To what extent does
this argument flirt with a form of technological determinism that our more
recent studies in both communication research and the philosophy of
technology strongly caution us against?
Or, as another example, if we are to adopt a deeper chronological sense of
communication history and push the matter back into the origins of human
civilization, how much further back must we go? We have customarily
thought of the “evolution” of communication as a progression through a
trilogy, from oral through print to electronic cultures. Yet much
contemporary anthropological research suggests the possibility of a strong,
pre-oral kinesic capacity. It may well be that systems of gesture, posture,
movements, and signs antedate formal patterns of speech and language.
Could it be that our classical Greek heritage and the long-standing influence
of rhetoric in Western academic consciousness have over-privileged the oral
tradition in the evolution of mind and culture? If so, the dimensions of a pre-
oral culture will have to be mapped and added to the usual trilogy, making it
at least a quartet.
However, the methodological problems therein are formidable. It has
been difficult enough to describe the characteristics of oral cultures because
history is typically interpretation organized around documentary records.
Periods of human experience before written documents or other tangible
artifacts slide off into a vague, highly speculative prehistory. How do we
develop a sophisticated capacity for inferring and knowing with any
certainty the nature of the communication experience in such oral and pre-
oral mists?
Meanwhile, what about the transitional periods? The trilogy or quartet
models imagine a clear-cut distinction between one communication culture
or tradition and another. Yet the more we study the problem of change, the
more we are struck by John Donne’s problem of finding the line between
day and night. Just how long was Western scribal culture? Just how oral was
it, or, to consider it the other way around, how much of what we consider
print culture did it anticipate, if not determine? Such questions are not trivial
in our own age when we are still in the quite early days of what we think is
an electronic culture.
 How, too, to compensate for the Western-centric character of our
interpretation of communication experience? We know just enough about
Eastern languages and media experiences to begin to feel uneasy about a
chronology that is dominated by European and North American recitations.
At the same time, we have barely scratched the surface of the many other
great, Southern Hemisphere civilizations whose histories of speech and
writing alone would probably add much rich, and perhaps even
confounding, material to this task.
What, too, of the problem of progress? A print culture is typically seen as
preferable to an oral or scribal tradition. But is it? Against what criteria?
What is lost in the shift? Then, what are we to make of the contemporary
changes? We swing wildly between messianic and demonic views about the
nature and impact of modern communications technology. How are we to
think carefully about what is better or worse in a given array of
communication capacities? Indeed, how are we to account for the influence
of the particular constellation of communication forms at the moment in
even asking the question?
It is not as if the readings selected by Crowley (in previous editions) and
Heyer answer such questions, nor should they be expected to do so. But the
perspective on communication history offered here is rich and compelling. It
will make it considerably easier to teach ever more sophisticated histories of
the media and communications technologies, giving them a much more
sober and learned framework. It should also help energize a whole new
generation of related scholarship within communication studies and even
history itself.
Willard D. Rowland, Jr.
Willard D. Rowland, Jr., now retired, was dean and professor emeritus of the School of

Journalism and Mass Communication, The University of Colorado, Boulder.

Preface

Why does a new communication medium—the alphabet, printing,

broadcasting, the internet—come into being? What impact does it have on
the media that precede it? How does a new medium exert influence on the
everyday life of society? And how, in turn, can society and culture influence
media practices?
These are some of the questions Communication in History has been
trying to address for over twenty-five years. During that time numerous
students and colleagues have told the book’s editors, David Crowley and
Paul Heyer, how the subject area has become increasingly vital to their
interests and professional engagement. Thanks to their encouragement and
the support of Routledge, Heyer and Peter Urquhart have put together this
new seventh edition. It features some excellent recent scholarship that
historically contextualizes new media forms, such as Twitter, as well as
contains new entries on media history exploring links between earlier media
and contemporary communications. This rich canvas has been created by
utilizing selections from writers considered to be at the leading edge of their
respective fields. The goal of this new edition, however, has changed little
from previous versions: to invite students to consider the development of
human behavior and social experience as a response to the uses and
consequences of communication media in the wider context of human
history. The text lays out a journey that will help reveal how media have
been influential both in maintaining social order and as powerful agents of
change.
The issues raised by the role of media in history are broadly based—too
broad, we think, to be easily encompassed in a single-author textbook. From
Symbols and Signs
Symbols are things whose special meaning allows us to conceive, express,
and communicate ideas. In our society, for example, black is the symbol of
death, the star-spangled banner stands for the United States of America, and
the cross for Christianity.
Signs are a subcategory of symbols. Like symbols, signs are things that
convey meaning, but they differ in carrying narrow, precise, and
unambiguous information. Compare, for example, the color black, the
symbol standing for death, with the sign “I.” Black is a symbol loaded with a
deep but diffuse significance, whereas “I” is a sign that stands unequivocally
for the number “one.” Symbols and signs are used differently: symbols help
us to conceive and reflect on ideas, whereas signs are communication
devices bound to action.2
Because the use of symbols is a characteristic of human behavior, it is by
definition as old as humankind itself.3 From the beginnings of humanity,
symbols have encapsulated the knowledge, experience, and beliefs of all
people. Humans, from the beginning, have also communicated by signs.
Symbols and signs, therefore, are a major key to the understanding of
cultures.
Symbols, however, are ephemeral and, as a rule, do not survive the
societies that create them. For one thing, the meaning they carry is arbitrary.
For instance, the color black, which evokes death in our culture, may just as
well stand for life in another. It is a fundamental characteristic of symbols
that their meaning cannot be perceived either by the senses or by logic but
can only be learned from those who use them.4 As a consequence, when a
culture vanishes, the symbols left behind become enigmatic, for there is no
longer anyone initiated into their significance. Thus, not only are symbolic
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 THE PRESENT BOARD.
The members of the present board have served Co-operation well
in many capacities, and several of them have had long years of
service on the board of the Baking Society. Mr Buchanan, the present
chairman, for instance, was elected to the board of the Society in the
year in which Mr Bain became secretary. Mr M‘Lean has represented
Glasgow Eastern Society for many years, and Mr Young St Rollox for
a long period. Mr Monteith had done good work in St George Society
before he came to M‘Neil Street, while this is equally true of Mr
M‘Lay’s connection with Cowlairs. Mr Hamilton was for a number of
years the representative of Pollokshaws Society, and his untimely
death while this book was being written served to act as a reminder
that “life is but a fleeting vapour.” Another member of the group who
has done good service to Co-operation in his own society as well as in
the Baking Society’s board is Mr Cadiz, for a number of years the
energetic secretary of the Glasgow and Suburbs Conference
Association. Mr Johnstone has done good service in Shettleston
Society, and Mr Simpson in London Road Society; while Mr Walker,
the “baby” of the board—he only joined it two months before the end
of the fiftieth year—has been well known for a number of years as a
representative of Clydebank Society.
Nor can we close this record of “men who wrought” without
reference to some of the men who, while not quite so prominent in
its affairs as others, yet had something to do with shaping the
destinies of the Society. Prominent amongst such was Mr Alexander,
who represented Paisley Provident Society on the board from the
election of Mr Brown as president until their society withdrew from
the Federation. For the greater part of the time he acted as treasurer
of the Federation. Mr Ballantyne, of Thornliebank, also was one of
the earliest members of the board, and continued to be associated
with its work, as stable inspector, for many years. The late Mr James
M‘Murran, of Glasgow Eastern, was the Federation’s last treasurer,
the office being abolished during his tenure. Nor must the names of
the late Homer Robertson and Michael Shiels be omitted. For a
number of years Mr Robertson represented St George Society on the
board, while Mr Shiels was for long the representative of Cowlairs
Society, and both gentlemen died in harness within a few months of
each other. For a long time two gentlemen very well known in
another section of the Co-operative movement, Messrs Robert
Macintosh and Allan Gray, acted together as auditors of the Society.
Mr Wells, the respected secretary of Cambuslang Society, was an
auditor of later date, retiring when the amended Industrial and
Provident Societies Act of 1913 made it compulsory that auditors of
Co-operative societies must be public auditors. He was succeeded by
Mr John M. Biggar. The auditor who has served the members of the
Society for the longest period, however, is Mr William H. Jack, who
has audited the Society’s books for over twenty-one years, having
been elected in September 1897 on the retiral of Mr Allan Gray.
The work of many others, who in one way and another helped
while they could, has gone to build up the Society. They are gone,
leaving often not even a name behind them, but the result of their
labours is preserved as by a monument in the strong, virile Society of
which we speak so familiarly as “The U.C.B.S.”
 STATISTICS.

In general readers do not care much for statistics, but no record of the Society would be complete
which did not give in some statistical form the growth which the Society has made during fifty years. The
table given is not long, however, nor is it difficult to follow. It gives the position of the Society at the end
of the first year, and at the end of each tenth year thereafter. In addition there are given the first
balance-sheet issued by the Society and that issued for the 200th quarter. Readers can thus see for
themselves the marvellous growth which we have tried, however inadequately, to picture.
 Statistical Statement showing the development of the Federation during the Jubilee Period.
Ten-year No. of Paid for Pai
Periods. Federated Shares Shares and Reserve Educational Char
Societies. Held. Deposits. Sales. Profits. Fund. Depreciation. Purposes. Purp
£ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £
1869
(Commencement
of Society) 8
1869 (January
1870) 8 193 12 0 5,081 13 6 23 3 1 30 15 8
1878 (January
1879) 23 4,217 6,251 6 7 27,433 6 10 1,850 5 5 696 11 5 440 1 3 8 2 0 5
1888 (January
1889) 39 10,037 33,209 9 10 55,699 15 9 3,313 0 5 1,352 10 0 913 9 9 6 0 0 21
1898 (January
1899) 94 80,231 143,681 12 3 327,328 3 4 26,845 0 2 7,400 0 0 8,890 6 1 474 3 8 309
1908 (January
1909) 169 155,915 356,254 19 3 567,604 19 5 43,561 9 0 37,400 0 0 13,967 4 9 876 13 10 907
1918 (January
1919) 211 241,643 556,841 16 6 1,251,224 5 9 62,615 15 5 89,500 0 0 29,845 12 6 1,424 13 1 643
Dr. CAPITAL ACCOUNT
Liabilities.
To Members’ Claims, as per Share Ledger £193 12 0
„ „ Building Fund 145 0 0
„ Owing Messrs Penman £104 0 0
„ „ Gibson & Walker 150 15 0
„ „ Scottish Wholesale Society 86 19 7
„ „ R. Geddes & Sons 18 7 6
„ „ M. Muir & Sons 34 15 0
„ „ R. Taylor 6 14 0
„ „ P. Bertram 1 5 9
402 16 10
„ Profit 64 4 10

£805 13 8

Dr. CAPITAL ACCOUNT

Liabilities.
241,643 Shares at 20 each £241,643 0 0
Less Unpaid 703 10 0
£240,939 10 0
Societies’ Deposits at 12 Months’ Notice of
Withdrawal 93,571 6 1
Societies’ Deposits at Call 104,462 6 6
Surplus Credited to Societies’ Deposits Account 31,837 4 0
£470,810 6 7
Deposits (Private) at 12 Months’ Notice of Withdrawal £55,838 7 8
Deposits (Private) at Call 30,193 2 3
86,031 9 11
Societies Overpaid 5,980 1 1
Bonus for Half-year 4,770 0 4
Rents 12 15 0
St Mungo Hall Rents Paid in Advance 5 0 0
Balance of Taxes, Insurance, and Telephones 4,974 13 5
Goods Account 13,075 14 0
Expenses Account 1,863 9 2

Total Liabilities £587,523 9 6

Reserves—
Reserve Fund £89,500 0 0
Insurance Fund—
Fire and Marine £24,900 0 0
Employers’ Liability 5,680 0 0
Third Party 2,180 0 0
32,760 0 0
Educational and Benevolent Fund 2,337 8 4
Balance to next Half-year 1,845 15 4
126,443 3 8

£713,966 13 2

1869 (January 1870). Cr.

Assets.
By Cash in Bank and on hand £118 2 10
„ Flour, etc., in Stock £87 10 7
„ Rent Due 1 10 0
„ Owing by Societies 244 5 1
„ Fixed Stock 243 15 8
„ New Buildings, Paid to Account 110 9 6
687 10 10

£805 13 8

1918 (January 1919). Cr.

Assets.
Investments, as per Investment Account—
Shares £33,812 18 7
Deposits 348,257 18 6
£382,070 17 1
Goods in Stock—
M‘Neil Street £28,384 13 9
Clydebank Branch 7,255 16 8
Rothesay Branch 278 15 4
Belfast Branch 5,922 15 8
Camp 18 0 0
Purvey Department 413 11 1
St Mungo Halls 17 7 4
42,290 19 10
Stock of Provender in Stables—
Glasgow £445 0 7
Clydebank 101 17 5
546 18 0
Goods Account Prepaid 47,236 8 5
Goods Account £27,841 1 1
Sundries Account 242 7 9
Bread Delivery, Hire, and Shoeing Account 16 17 0
Manure and Hayseed 33 4 10
28,133 10 8
Rents—
Tenements—Govan Street £87 7 6
M‘Neil Street East 96 10 0
Belfast 29 5 0
St Mungo Halls 46 1 3
259 3 9
Land and Buildings 201,500 0 0
Cash in Banks £11,764 14 11
Cash on hand 164 0 6
11,928 15 5

£713,966 13 2
OUR FALLEN HEROES

Pro patria mortui

 GLASGOW

Seaman JOHN FRASER.

 Drummer ROBERT M‘DONALD, H.L.I.
Pte. GEORGE BANKS, Scottish Rifles
Tinsmith
Mason
Died, 5th September 1915
Killed, July 1915
Sergt. JAMES COLLINS, Seaforths Pte. HARRY MEDDICKS, H.L.I.

Biscuit Baker Biscuit Baker

Killed, 15th September 1915 Killed, 15th September 1915

Seaman JAMES NICOL, R.N.D.

Warehouseman

Died, 30th November 1915

 Pte. DOUGAL FERGUSON, H.L.I.
Pte. CHARLES SMITH ANDERSON, Gordons
Mason
Pastry Baker
Killed, 27th January 1916
Killed, 17th March 1916
Pte. WILLIAM C. FULTON, Camerons
Pte. JAMES JACK JARVIE, Gordons
Pastry Baker
Pastry Baker
Died of Wounds, 21st August 1916
Died of Wounds, 2nd July 1916
 Pte. JOHN DELAHUNTY, Irish Guards

Baker’s Assistant

Killed, 15th September 1916

Pte. WILLIAM H. CULLEN, H.L.I.

Pastry Baker

Killed, 31st October 1916

Pte. ALEXANDER M‘LEOD. H.L.I.

Pastry Baker

Killed, 18th November 1916

 Pte. JOHN NEWLANDS, Gordons
Sergt. ALEXANDER STEEL, H.L.I.
Pastry Baker
Storeman
Killed, 29th March 1917
Killed, 17th November 1916
 Pte. JOHN CAMPBELL SINCLAIR, Seaforths
Pte. WILLIAM NIMMO, Gordons
Pastry Baker
Pastry Baker
Killed, 23rd April 1917
Killed, 4th March 1917
Pte. JOHN BALLANTYNE, Royal Scots
Pte. JOHN KENNEDY, Royal Scots Fusiliers
Clerk
Clerk
Killed, 23rd April 1917
Killed, 23rd April 1917
 Pte. JAMES KENNEDY, H.L.I.
Pte. CHARLES HAMILTON, Scottish Rifles
Biscuit Baker
Warehouseman
Killed, 27th June 1917
Killed, 3rd May 1917
 Gunner ROBERT SUMMERS, R.F.A.

Vanman

Killed, 21st July 1917

Pte. PETER THOMSON, Gordons

Pastry Baker

Killed, 31st July 1917

 Pte. JOSEPH M‘ALEER, H.L.I.
Pte. GEORGE DODDS, Camerons
Painter
Vanman
Killed, 10th July 1917
Killed, 1st August 1917

Pte. THOMAS URQUHART, Camerons

Hoistman

Died of Wounds, 22nd September 1917