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Advances in Eco-Fuels for a
Sustainable Environment
This page intentionally left blank
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy

Advances in Eco-Fuels
for a Sustainable
Environment

Edited by

Kalam Azad

An imprint of Elsevier
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors,
or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-08-102728-8 (print)
ISBN: 978-0-08-102777-6 (online)

For information on all Woodhead publications visit our

website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Katie Hammon

Acquisition Editor: Maria Convey
Editorial Project Manager: Andrae Akeh
Production Project Manager: Debasish Ghosh
Cover Designer: Greg Harris
Typeset by SPi Global, India
Contents

List of contributors xi
About the editor xv
Preface xvii

1 Introduction to sustainable and alternative ecofuels 1

Kalam Azad, M.G. Rasul, M.M.K. Khan, Subhash C. Sharma
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Is ecofuel a possible solution for future energy security
and environmental sustainability? 5
1.3 Prospective ecofuel feedstocks 6
1.4 Significance of using ecofuel 8
1.5 Sustainability of ecofuels 9
1.6 Conclusion 10
References 10
2 Ecofuel feedstocks and their prospects 15
Andrea G. Capodaglio, Silvia Bolognesi
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Different feedstocks for different biofuel-generations 17
2.3 Biofuel types 23
2.4 Production technologies 28
2.5 Biofuels ecological footprint 40
2.6 Economic considerations 44
2.7 Future prospects 46
2.8 Conclusions 47
References 48
3 Prospects of biodiesel feedstock as an effective ecofuel source
and their challenges 53
E.F. Aransiola, E.O. Ehinmitola, A.I. Adebimpe, T.D. Shittu,
B.O. Solomon
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Feedstock prospects and their challenges 54
3.3 Methods of oil extraction and their challenges 77
3.4 Challenges of biodiesel production and recommended solution 82
3.5 Conclusion 83
References 84
vi Contents

4 Prospective ecofuel feedstocks for sustainable production 89

K. Sandesh Suresh, P.V. Suresh, Tanaji G. Kudre
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Feedstocks for ecofuel production 90
4.3 Bioethanol feedstocks 110
4.4 Drawbacks and prospects of ecofuels 112
4.5 Conclusion 112
Acknowledgments 113
References 113
Further reading 117

5 Microwave-assisted fast pyrolysis of hazardous waste engine

oil into green fuels 119
A. Santhoshkumar, R. Anand
5.1 Pyrolysis process in waste management 119
5.2 Microwave heating mechanism 121
5.3 Influence of microwave heating on the pyrolysis 123
5.4 Factors affecting the pyrolysis process 124
5.5 Designation of microwave heating on the materials 127
5.6 Effect of microwave absorber on pyrolysis process 128
5.7 Pyrolysis of automotive waste 128
5.8 Experimental setup and procedure 130
5.9 TG/DSC analysis for waste engine oil and microwave
pyrolysis oil 131
5.10 Comparison of electrical and microwave pyrolysis temperature
profile and energy consumption 133
5.11 Comparison of electrical and microwave pyrolysis process yield
at different conditions 135
5.12 Hydrocarbon analysis of electrical and microwave pyrolysis 139
5.13 Analysis of FT-IR spectroscopy of different products 148
5.14 Comparison of calorific value for the different pyrolysis oil 150
5.15 Comparison of kinematic viscosity of the different pyrolysis oils 151
5.16 Conclusions 152
Acknowledgment 152
References 153

6 Anaerobic digestion of various feedstocks for second-generation

biofuel production 157
R. Muthudineshkumar, R. Anand
6.1 Introduction 157
6.2 Stages of anaerobic digestion 160
6.3 Pretreatment 161
6.4 Factors affecting anaerobic digestion 163
6.5 Need of biogas up gradation 167
6.6 Biogas purification using chemical scrubbing 168
Contents vii

6.7 Classification of anaerobic digestion system 168

6.8 Types of anaerobic digesters/reactors 169
6.9 Feedstock 171
6.10 Second-generation biofuel production from agricultural waste 172
6.11 Scientific and technological hurdles in solid-state anaerobic
digestion 176
6.12 Conclusion 179
References 180

7 Advances in bio-oil extraction from nonedible oil seeds and

algal biomass 187
G. Baskar, G. Kalavathy, R. Aiswarya, I. Abarnaebenezer Selvakumari
7.1 Introduction 187
7.2 Overview on downstream processing techniques 189
7.3 Extraction of oil from nonedible seeds 190
7.4 Extraction techniques 191
7.5 Purification and processing of nonedible oil 193
7.6 Extraction of oil from algal source 195
7.7 Physical extraction 199
7.8 Chemical extraction 201
7.9 Enzymatic oil extraction 203
7.10 Conclusions 203
References 204
Further reading 209

8 Prospects and technological advancement of cellulosic bioethanol

ecofuel production 211
Pobitra Halder, Kalam Azad, Shaheen Shah, Eity Sarker
8.1 Introduction 211
8.2 History of bioethanol production 213
8.3 Bioethanol feedstock resources 215
8.4 Progress in bioethanol technologies 217
8.5 Current state of global bioethanol activities 219
8.6 Challenges and future research direction 231
8.7 Conclusion 232
References 233
Further reading 236

9 Ecofuel conversion technology of inedible lipid feedstocks

to renewable fuel 237
Siti Zullaikah, Adi Tjipto Utomo, Medina Yasmin, Lu Ki Ong,
Yi Hsu Ju
9.1 Introduction 237
9.2 Inedible biodiesel feedstocks 239
9.3 Biodiesel conversion technology 245
viii Contents

9.4 Application of biorefinery approach in biodiesel production 261

9.5 Conclusions 268
References 269
Further reading 276

10 Thermal depolymerization of biogas digestate as a viable

digestate processing and resource recovery strategy 277
Oseweuba Valentine Okoro, Zhifa Sun, John Birch
10.1 Introduction 277
10.2 Materials and methods 282
10.3 Comparative assessment of the economic performances of the
HTL based one-step processing of digestate and existing
digestate processing technologies 288
10.4 Results and discussions 295
10.5 Conclusions 303
Acknowledgment 304
References 304

11 Physicochemical fuel properties and tribological behavior

of aegle marmelos correa biodiesel 309
Vinoth Thangarasu, R. Anand
11.1 Introduction 309
11.2 Materials and methods 311
11.3 Results and discussion 318
11.4 Conclusions 333
11.5 Scope for future study 334
Acknowledgment 334
References 334

12 Ecofuel and its compatibility with different automotive metals

to assess diesel engine durability 337
Kalam Azad, M.G. Rasul, M.M.K. Khan, Subhash C. Sharma
12.1 Introduction 337
12.2 Methodology and associated theory 338
12.3 Results and discussions 340
12.4 Conclusion 349
References 349

13 Influence of fuel injection timing and nozzle opening pressure on a

CRDI-assisted diesel engine fueled with biodiesel-diesel-alcohol fuel 353
D. Babu, R. Anand
13.1 Introduction 353
13.2 Materials and methodology 357
13.3 Results and discussion 373
13.4 Conclusions 386
References 388
Contents ix

14 Assessment of performance, combustion, and emission behavior

of novel annona biodiesel-operated diesel engine 391
Senthil Ramalingam, Silambarasan Rajendran
14.1 Introduction 391
14.2 Materials and methods 394
14.3 Results and discussion 396
14.4 Conclusion 404
References 404

15 Eco friendly biofuels for CI engine applications 407

B. Ashok, K. Nanthagopal
15.1 Introduction 407
15.2 Ecofuels in CI engine 410
15.3 Biodiesel in CI engine 412
15.4 Biofuels in CI engine 420
15.5 Gaseous fuels in CI engine 429
15.6 Conclusion 434
References 436
Further reading 440

16 Reviewing commercial prospects of bioethanol as a renewable

source of future energy—an Australian perspective 441
Delwar Akbar, Roshan Subedi, John Rolfe, Nanjappa Ashwath,
Azad Rahman
16.1 Introduction 441
16.2 Types of biofuel and bioethanol 442
16.3 Worldwide bioethanol production 443
16.4 Factors that attract commercial production of bioethanol 444
16.5 Factors that limit commercial bioethanol production 446
16.6 Bioethanol production in Australia 448
16.7 Potential feedstocks for bioethanol production in Australia 450
16.8 Costs and benefits of biofuel production in Australia 452
16.9 Conclusion 454
Acknowledgment 454
References 455
Further reading 458

17 Ecofuel future prospect and community impact 459

Arifa Tahir, Muhammad Arshad, Faiza Anum, Mazhar Abbas,
Sadia Javed, Mirza Imran Shahzad, Abdur Rahman Ansari, Ijaz Bano,
Farman Ali Shah
17.1 Introduction of ecofuel 459
17.2 Global interest in ecofuels 460
17.3 Ecofuel sources 462
17.4 Why ecofuels and ecofuel policies? 465
x Contents

17.5 Assessing the impacts of ecofuels 467

17.6 Expected environmental impacts of ecofuel 468
17.7 Land availability 472
17.8 Social sustainability 473
17.9 Political impacts of ecofuels 474
17.10 Conclusion and prospects for future 475
References 475

Index 481
Contributors

I. Abarnaebenezer Selvakumari Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College

of Engineering, Chennai, India

Mazhar Abbas Jhang-Campus, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,

Lahore, Pakistan

A.I. Adebimpe Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Nigeria

R. Aiswarya Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering,

Chennai, India

Delwar Akbar School of Business and Law, CQUniversity, Rockhampton, QLD,

Australia

R. Anand Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,

Tiruchirappalli, India

Abdur Rahman Ansari Jhang-Campus, University of Veterinary and Animal

Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

Faiza Anum Environmental Sciences Department, Lahore College for Women

University, Lahore, Pakistan

E.F. Aransiola Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Muhammad Arshad Jhang-Campus, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,

Lahore, Pakistan

B. Ashok School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, India

Nanjappa Ashwath School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity,

Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

Kalam Azad School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University,

Melbourne, VIC, Australia
xii Contributors

D. Babu Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,

Tiruchirappalli, India

Ijaz Bano Jhang-Campus, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore,

Pakistan

G. Baskar Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering,

Chennai, India

John Birch Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New

Zealand

Silvia Bolognesi Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of

Pavia, Pavia, Italy

Andrea G. Capodaglio Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture,

University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

E.O. Ehinmitola Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo

University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Pobitra Halder Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering,

RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Industrial and
Production Engineering, Jessore University of Science and Technology, Jessore,
Bangladesh

Yi Hsu Ju Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of

Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan

Sadia Javed Department of Biochemistry, Government College University,

Faisalabad, Pakistan

G. Kalavathy Department of Biotechnology, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering,

Chennai, India

M.M.K. Khan School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland

University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Tanaji G. Kudre Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Meat and Marine
Sciences Department, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru,
India

R. Muthudineshkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of

Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
Contributors xiii

K. Nanthagopal School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, India

Oseweuba Valentine Okoro Department of Physics, University of Otago, Dunedin,

New Zealand

Lu Ki Ong Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University of

Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan

Azad Rahman School of Business and Law, CQUniversity, Rockhampton,

QLD, Australia

Silambarasan Rajendran Department of Mechanical Engineering, University

College of Engineering Villupuram, Anna University Chennai, Villupuram, India

Senthil Ramalingam Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College of

Engineering Villupuram, Anna University Chennai, Villupuram, India

M.G. Rasul School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University,

Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

John Rolfe School of Nursing, CQUniversity, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

K. Sandesh Suresh Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Meat and

Marine Sciences Department, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Mysuru, India

A. Santhoshkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of

Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

Eity Sarker School of Software and Electrical Engineering, Swinburne University of

Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Farman Ali Shah Department of Chemical Engineering, Mehran University of

Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan

Shaheen Shah Department of Petroleum and Mining Engineering, Jessore University

of Science and Technology, Jessore, Bangladesh

Mirza Imran Shahzad University College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Subhash C. Sharma School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland

University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
xiv Contributors

T.D. Shittu Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Nigeria

B.O. Solomon Department of Chemical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Roshan Subedi School of Nursing, CQUniversity, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

Zhifa Sun Department of Physics, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

P.V. Suresh Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Meat and Marine
Sciences Department, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysuru,
India

Arifa Tahir Environmental Sciences Department, Lahore College for Women

University, Lahore, Pakistan

Vinoth Thangarasu Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of

Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

Adi Tjipto Utomo Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh

Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia

Medina Yasmin Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh

Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia

Siti Zullaikah Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh

Nopember (ITS), Surabaya, Indonesia
About the editor

Dr. Kalam Azad received his PhD in mechanical engineering from Central Queens-
land University, Australia. He has a strong record of research and achievement in the
areas of renewable energy technologies, energy conversion, and thermodynamics as
well as their relevant industrial applications. His research focused on clean energy
production and mitigation of environmental pollution. He investigated diesel engine
combustion and emissions using the newly developed advanced biofuels and prepared
the smartest fuel blends that are capable of maximizing emission reduction. His
research focuses on three major areas: renewable energy (solar, wind, biomass,
biofuels, agricultural waste, etc.), advanced combustion modeling (CDF analysis),
and process design for energy processing industries.
He has had an excellent publication track record throughout his career. He has been
published 80 scientific articles, including 3 edited refereed books, 8 book chapters,
47 journal articles and 24 conference papers so far. His first edited book on “Clean
Energy for Sustainable Development” was published by Academic Press, Elsevier,
in 2016. His second edited book on “Advances in Eco-fuel for a Sustainable
Environment” is now being published as a part of Woodhead Publishing Series in
Energy, Elsevier, in 2018. He also editing his third book on “Advanced Biofuels:
Applications, Technologies, and Environmental Sustainability,” which will be publi-
shed as a part of Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy, Elsevier. He has made sig-
nificant contributions in engineering education, research, and scholarship.
He has published some articles in respected journals that have high-impact factors.
The recognition of his research has been strongly demonstrated by international
research community through a large number of citation index 1069 and h-index 20,
i10-index 32 (according to Google scholar). He is also working as a reviewer of
different renowned international journals and books. Currently, he is a member of
different professional bodies such as Engineers Australia, Australasian Association
for Engineering Education, Sustainable Engineering Society, International Associa-
tion of Engineers, Bangladesh Society of Mechanical Engineers, and International
Association of Risk and Compliance Professionals. He has been significantly contrib-
uting to the strategic research on clean and sustainable energy technologies at Central
Queensland University, Australia.
This page intentionally left blank
6 Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment

Fig. 1.5 Ecofuel lifecycle

for feedstocks regrown as
environmental carbon Feedstocks
recyclers.

Carbon Transport
recycling

Ecofuel
lifecycle
GHG Processing
emission

Uses Transport

1.3 Prospective ecofuel feedstocks

Biofuel feedstocks are broadly categorized as edible or first generation (1G) [30, 31],
nonedible or second generation (2G) [30, 32], and microorganism or third generation
(3G) [33]. Some examples are given here for each category. This study is mainly
focused on the prospect of aviation biofuel and biodiesel feedstocks from available
sources, considering a broad range of technical issues.
Edible sources or 1G biofuels are produced from edible biomass such as food crops
and vegetable oils, as reported by Lee and Lavoie [33]. Food crops include wheat, bar-
ley, rice, whey, sugar beets, etc., which are marginally used in biofuel production [34].
Vegetable oil feedstocks for biodiesel production include soybean oil [35], sunflower
oil [36], olive oil [37], palm oil [38], coconut oil [37], macadamia [39], and rapeseed oil
[40]. In addition, corn waste and sugarcane are widely used feedstocks for bioethanol
production [41]. A few more feedstocks are listed in Table 1.1. Currently, more than
50% of ecofuel produced from edible sources is facing some socioeconomic challenges
such as food versus fuel debt and use of fertile land to grow the feedstock.
Nonedible sources or 2G biofuels can be produced from a wide array of feedstocks
such as nonfood crops, animal fats, and lignocellulosic solid waste [33, 45, 46]. The
nonedible oil seed includes jatropha curcas [17], pongamia glabra [38], castor oil [47],
beauty-leaf oil [48], crambe, borage, waste cooking oil [49], and animal fats such as
beef tallow [50], as shown in Fig. 1.6. A few more nonedible feedstocks are listed in
Table 1.2. The nonedible feedstocks can overcome the main economic, social, and
environmental challenges of 1G biofuel feedstocks without creating any pressure
on land use and hindering the food supply because they are nonedible and can grow
on marginal land.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Dixie: A monthly
magazine, Vol. I, No. 2, February 1899
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Dixie: A monthly magazine, Vol. I, No. 2, February 1899

Author: Various

Release date: August 30, 2023 [eBook #71526]

Language: English

Original publication: Baltimore: The Dixie Publishing Co, 1899

Credits: hekula03 and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from
images made available by the HathiTrust Digital
Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIXIE: A

MONTHLY MAGAZINE, VOL. I, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1899 ***
FEBRUARY 1899 10 CENTS

DIXIE. A MONTHLY MAGAZINE.

THE DIXIE BALTIMORE PUBLISHING CO.

Vol. I No. 2.
 Terms: $1.00 a Year in Advance. 10 Cents a Number.

DIXIE
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE. FEBRUARY, 1899.

Henry Clayton Hopkins, Editor, 326 St. Paul St., Baltimore.

G. Alden Peirson, }
Clinton Peters, } Art Editors.
Chas. J. Pike, }
George B. Wade, Business Manager.

CONTENTS.
I. Frontispiece, Drawn by Lucius Hitchcock.
Illustration for “How Randall Got Into The Salon”.

II. If Like a Rose (Poem)—Edward A. U. Valentine 3

III. Anna Evauovna—Margaret Sutton Briscoe 4
Full Page Picture by Katharine Gassaway.

IV. Death and Love (Poem)—William Theodore Peters 17

Illustration by Clarence Herbert Rowe.

V. Channoah—Edward Lucas White 18

Head and Tail-Piece by G. A. Peirson.

VI. Here and There in Maryland—Edward G. McDowell 33

(Eight Illustrations.)
VII. How Randall Got Into The Salon—Clinton Peters 49
Illustrated by Frontispiece.

VIII. A Valentine (Poem)—Maurice Weyland 56

IX. Elena’s Daughters—D. Ramon Ortega y Frias 57
(To be Continued.)
Head-Piece by Chas. J. Pike.

X. Quatrain (Poem)—H. C. H. 78
XI. Extracts from the Log of the Rita 79
Illustrated by Numerous Sketches.

XII. The Four Fears of Our General (The Second Fear)—

Adele Bacon, 95
Full Page Picture by Clinton Peters.

XIII. The Happiness of Being Nearsighted—Walter Edgar

M’Cann, 113
XIV. “An Eighteenth Century Beauty” 117
Reproduction of the Miniature by Hugh Nicholson.

XV. Comment, 119

XVI. Books and Authors—Edward A. U. Valentine 125

Copyright, 1899, by Dixie Publishing Company.

 Drawn by Lucius Hitchcock.

“He slowly pushed the massive door ajar, and the next instant
perceived he was standing in the actual, awful presence of the
famous master”—(See page 49)
 DIXIE.

Vol. I. February, 1899. No. 2.

 IF LIKE A ROSE.
If life were like a rose designed,
That proves its purpose to be fair
And with the grace its bud divined
Distils June’s sweetness on the air;
Then would the stubborn sheaths that hold
The flower of the heart’s ideal
Beneath the stress of time unfold
And what we dream become the real—
If life had but the rose’s art
And beauty burgeoned from the heart!

Then like the rose that o’er the grass

Spills leaf by leaf its lovely freight
And tho’ its purple fortunes pass
Is calm in an accomplished fate,
Might we with less reluctant will
Yield up the harvest of our hours,
Seeing the inner grace fulfil
Its promise in old age’s powers—
If life had but the rose’s art
And beauty burgeoned from the heart!

—Edward A. Uffington Valentine.

 ANNA EVAUOVNA
A STUDY OF RUSSIAN LIFE
By Margaret Sutton Briscoe
And M.A.R.

They stood in the village street talking together, two little Russian
peasant girls, dressed in rough carpet skirts, thick leather boots, with
hair plaited in two long plaits and heads covered with bright kerchiefs
as became unmarried girls.
Grusha was larger and taller than Masha, and her coloring
stronger, in fact, she was stronger in all respects, and good-
naturedly conscious of her superiority. She stood looking down on
Masha with a mischievous smile on her red lips and in her black
eyes.
“Is it that you mean to marry Ivan when he comes from the war,
Grusha?” Masha was asking.
Grusha laughed.
 “Perhaps,” she replied lightly.
“Then you are a bad girl, Grusha. Why do you keep Alioscha
dancing after you?”
Grusha laughed again.
“What if he likes it? Alioscha would be more unhappy if I did not let
him do his dancing. And besides, I like him.”
“Do you mean to marry him then, Grusha?”
“Perhaps.”
Grusha caught Masha’s hand as she turned from her with a
gesture of anger.
“Come back, Masha, listen to me. Ask Anna Evauovna what I
mean to do. She knows all things, the old witch!”
Masha crossed herself, glancing over her shoulder.
“And she will know you have said that,” she answered.
Grusha’s face wore a reflected uneasiness for a moment.
“Bah!” she replied, shaking herself. “What harm can she do me!”
Masha nodded her head gravely.
“That was what Marusa said, and how did the Njania punish her?
Has she a child to call hers? And look at poor Julina. She defied the
Njania also, and has had children showered on her faster than she
can breathe. Her isba is like a beehive. Anna Evauovna can give you
a draught that will cure any sickness if she will, and oh! what
fortunes she can tell, Grusha! And what do we here in the village that
she does not know of at once?”
“Who teaches her and who tells her? Answer me that, Masha. Oh,
you may well cross yourself! Ask her if you want to know anything
and if you are not afraid of her teacher. Have done then. What are
you after?”
While the girls talked, two of the young men of the village had
crept behind Grusha unseen. Each held one of her plaits in his hand
as a rein, and they began shouting as to a restive horse, when she
struggled to escape. Grusha’s heavy plaits were favorite playthings,
never safe from attack; for she was a belle in the village. In the
confusion of the romp, Masha turned away and walked off.
“I will go to Anna Evauovna,” she said to herself.
It is easy to state the positions of Grusha and Masha. They were
only two little Russian peasant girls, who worked in the garden of the
Prince in Summer, and about his great house in winter.
But for Anna Evauovna, the Prince himself could hardly have
defined her position. She had been Njania (nurse) to his children,
and was now housekeeper. Anna Evauovna was the only peasant on
the estate who wore a cap, who spoke a pure Russian, and wore
dresses and shoes. She was older by years than her actual days
numbered, capable, resolute, silent and invaluable to her employers.
The peasants spoke to her with deference, calling her Anna
Evauovna. Behind her back they called her the old witch, and the
Princess had been appealed to for protection from her more than
once.
Anna Evauovna was in the housekeeping room assorting the
house linen from the wash, when Masha came to her and humbly
proffered her request to know the future.
The old woman looked up at the girl keenly.
“He who wants to know too much grows old too soon, Masha,” she
said.
“Tell me only a little then, Anna Evauovna, but tell me that.”
“Have it your own way then, Masha. Open the drawer of the table
and look in the left hand corner, and you will find a pack of cards
under a wooden box that has a strange smell about it. Bring them to
me, but no, I forgot—the box has something lying open in it which
you might touch and find harmful.”
As Anna Evauovna opened the drawer herself, Masha made the
sign of the cross furtively.
The old woman turning sharply, caught the gesture, and the girl’s
head drooped in confusion.
 Anna Evauovna’s eyes twinkled. She shuffled the cards and
began to deal them out on the table, glancing now and then at
Masha, who sat opposite, the light of the lamp falling on her round
good-natured face, fair hair, and solemn blue eyes.
“Ah! there you are,” said Anna Evauovna, as the queen of hearts
fell. “And there is a dark man near you—the king of clubs. Now mark,
you are nearer to him in thought than he to you. Ah! ah! ah! I thought
so. Here she comes, there lies the cause. The queen of clubs, a dark
woman, lies between you and him. She separates you.”
Masha bent forward breathless.
“And will she succeed, Njania?”
“We shall see. Who comes here? The king of diamonds—and near
the queen of clubs. Here is one who is away, very far away, but
coming nearer. He is thinking of the queen of clubs. ‘Is she waiting
for me, is she waiting for me,’ he is thinking. Look for yourself,
Masha. The queen of spades, emblem of all that is bad, lies across
him, and thus it is easy to see that he is worrying about the dark
woman, your rival. Once more I will lay the cards. Now see; the king
of diamonds is thinking of a journey and of home. The dark woman is
restless, she thinks of the king of diamonds, and then of the king of
clubs. But how is this? The king of diamonds is close to your dark
rival, and the nine and ten of diamonds on either side. A marriage!”
Masha clasped her hands.
“And does that leave the king of clubs to me, Anna Evauovna?”
Anna Evauovna swept the cards into a heap.
“God knows,” she answered. “Would you seek to know as much
as He, Masha?”
“May the saints forbid!”
Anna Evauovna returned to her interrupted occupation, and
Masha still sat gazing at her, awestruck.
“Njania,” she said timidly, “is it right that a girl should keep a man
dangling after her, as a lash to a whip, if she means nothing by it?”
 “You mean Grusha and Alioscha,” said Anna Evauovna shortly. “Is
it not her own affair?”
Masha blushed and hung her head.
“It was Grusha I thought of,” she stammered. “You know the very
hairs on our heads, Anna Evauovna.”
The Njania nodded, not ill pleased.
“I know what I know. Grusha thinks Ivan will marry her when he
comes back from the war.”
“Then why does she keep Alioscha waiting and sticking to her like
a wet leaf?” cried Masha passionately. “It is wicked, Njania, if she
loves Ivan.”
“Who said she loved Ivan!” answered Anna Evauovna drily. “Do all
girls love some one?”
“Did not you say that she loved him?” stammered Masha.
“I did not, my child. Njania is not to be fooled by a Grusha. Ah, but
she is a girl of wits, is Grusha, and so smooth to see. In still waters,
devils thrive, remember that, Masha.”
Masha’s lip quivered.
“But if she does not love Ivan, Njania, she may marry Alioscha.”
“Perhaps, who knows! It takes a wise man to tell the future, and a
wiser yet to tell a girl’s mind.”
“And she will surely marry Alioscha if Ivan has forgotten her by the
time he comes back,” added Masha more piteously.
Anna Evauovna laughed a dry chuckle and rubbed her hand on
the girl’s head.
“Your wits sharpen, little Masha. You may grow as wise as Grusha
some day.”
“Ivan does not write to her—I know that.”
“Now, now, as for writing, Masha, could Grusha read if he did?
Ivan may have been fool enough to remember her but even a
peasant does not like his love letters read from the house-tops.”
“But Grusha could take his letters to the doctor or the deacon.
They would read them to her alone.”
“Would they? A man is a man, doctor or deacon. He may keep
another man’s secret, but a woman’s—no. Come, child, Grusha will
marry whom God wills, and meantime, let her have rope. All is for
the best. Did Grusha know Ivan faithful to her, she would not have
this curiosity which makes her wish to wait and see how he will act
when he finds her waiting. Meantime, Alioscha is the best singer and
dancer in the village. And what could the village have to talk of but
for her behavior? For your part, eat, drink, sleep on the top of the
stove at night, and work by day. Let each hold up his share of the
burden, and all will go well.”
Masha listened, sighed, and assented.
The next day, as Anna Evauovna was walking in the field near the
village street, she heard sounds of music, the clapping of hands and
beating of feet in measured time, and loud shouts. She might have
walked to the isba whence the sounds came, and inquired the
cause, but that was not Anna Evauovna’s way. She slipped behind a
hedge, and walking along in its shadow, reached the spot where the
merry-making was taking place.
 MASHA CLASPED HER HANDS

“AND DOES THAT LEAVE THE KING OF CLUBS TO ME?”

Drawn by Katharine Gassaway.

 On a bit of ground in front of three of the principal isbas, the
peasants were assembled. A wooden bench had been brought out,
and a plain deal table, beneath which could be seen a wooden pail
of vodka (brandy). On the table stood a steaming samovar, a white
stone teapot, some huge pieces of rye bread, thick tumblers for tea,
and a paper bag of lump sugar. Spoons were not needed, as the
sugar was held in the fingers and nibbled between the sips of hot tea
served in the glasses.
Ivan had returned, and this was his welcome.
The samovar had been borrowed for the great occasion; for not
every peasant can afford that luxury, and Ivan’s parents were not
rich.
There were three musicians present, one playing on a concertina,
one on a trumpet-like instrument, which gave out bag-pipe sounds,
and the other on a melon-shaped guitar, strung with a few strings, on
which he twanged merrily.
The peasants kept time with feet and voice in barbaric medley.
Ivan, the hero of the day, sat at the centre of the table in an
unsoldierly, weary attitude, unkempt and unwashed. He had been
tramping for days. The trousers of his weather-stained uniform were
tucked in his travel-worn boots, and he wore a summer cap on his
dark hair.
He was replying at his leisure to the numberless questions asked
as his fagged brain comprehended them, but when the table was
cleared, and the musician with the concertina leaped upon it, his
loose linen trousers tucked in his boots, his kaftan into his belt, his
hoarse voice cheering the company to the dance, Ivan sprang to his
feet, and seizing Grusha as his partner, danced more furiously than
any.
Anna Evauovna, peering through the leaves, could see it all.
Alioscha, as eager in his welcome to the wanderer as Grusha
herself, was now dancing merrily also, and Masha was his happy
partner. Her kerchief had fallen back, leaving her good-natured,
round face unframed, and exposing the line of white forehead which
had been protected from the sun. She was a pretty picture.
The dance grew wilder, the voices louder, the stamping and
clapping more vehement. The musician on the table shouted more
lustily as he danced himself, now on one foot, now on the other, all
over the table-top.
Anna Evauovna looked at Grusha’s excited face flushed with her
exertion, and then at her rival suitors, both of the same height, both
well built, and both with the same heavy square face and mass of
thick hair. That Ivan was fair, and Alioscha dark, seemed the only
difference.
The old woman turned away with a wicked chuckle.
“There is not a pin to choose between them,” she said to herself,
“Grusha must draw lots.”
When, a little later, Masha came into the housekeeper’s room,
breathless and over-running with her news, Anna Evauovna could be
told nothing. She knew when Ivan had arrived, from where, by what
roads, and, in fact, everything. The only thing she did not know, or as
Masha believed, would not tell, was how Grusha would choose.
On her way home, Masha came across Grusha sweeping the
leaves from a path in the garden. She was alone, and Masha could
not help questioning her.
“Grusha, Ivan has come back, what are you going to do now?”
Grusha leaned on her broom and looked at Masha’s earnest face.
She laughed aloud, but good-naturedly still.
“I am going to sweep this path when you stand off it,” she said,
and Masha could get no further satisfaction.
But the next day, Anna Evauovna was able, or willing, to relieve
Masha’s anxiety.
“She takes Ivan, and they are to be married in a week. Both get
what they want and have waited long for. Now we shall see what we
shall see,” said Anna Evauovna grimly.