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SECOND LANGUAGE
PROCESSING

Second Language Processing: An Introduction is the first textbook to offer a

thorough introduction to the field of second language processing (SLP).
The study of SLP seeks to illuminate the cognitive processes underlying the
processing of a non-native language. While current literature tends to focus
on one topic or area of research, this textbook aims to bring these different
research strands together in a single volume, elucidating their particularities
while also demonstrating the relationships between them. The book begins
by outlining what is entailed in the study of SLP, how it relates to other
fields of study, and some of the main issues shared across its subareas. It then
moves into an exploration of the three major areas of current research in the
field—phonological processing, lexical processing, and sentence processing.
Each chapter provides a broad overview of the topic and covers the major
research methods, models, and studies germane to that area of study. Ideal
for students and researchers working in this growing field, Second Language
Processing will serve as the go-to guide for a complete examination of the
major topics of study in SLP.

Nan Jiang is Associate Professor of Second Language Acquisition at the

University of Maryland, USA. He is the author of Conducting Reaction
Time Research in Second Language Studies (2012) and numerous articles in
leading journals of applied linguistics, second language acquisition, and
psycholinguistics.
Second Language Acquisition Research Series
Susan M. Gass and Alison Mackey, Series Editors

Recent Monographs on Theoretical Issues

Dörnyei/Ryan The Psychology of the Language Learner—Revisited (2015)
Kormos The Second Language Learning Processes of Students with Specific
Learning Difficulties (2017)
Gass/Spinner/Behney Salience in Second Language Acquisition (2018)
Jiang Second Language Processing: An Introduction (2018)

Recent Monographs on Research Methodology

Tomlinson SLA Research and Materials Development for Language
Learning (2016)
Gass/Mackey Stimulated Recall Methodology in Applied Linguistics and
L2 Research, Second Edition (2017)
Polio/Friedman Understanding, Evaluating, and Conducting Second Language
Writing Research (2017)
Kormos The Second Language Learning Processes of Students with Specific
Learning Difficulties (2017)

Of Related Interest
Gass/Behney/Plonsky Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course,
Fourth Edition (2013)
Mackey/Gass Second Language Research: Methodology and Design, Second
Edition (2016)

To view all of the books in this series, please visit:

www.routledge.com/Second-Language-Acquisition-Research-Series/
book-series/LEASLARS
SECOND LANGUAGE
PROCESSING
An Introduction

Nan Jiang
First published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Nan Jiang to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders. Please advise
the publisher of any errors or omissions, and these will be corrected in
subsequent editions.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Jiang, Nan, 1959– author.
Title: Second language processing : an introduction / Nan Jiang.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, [2018] | Series: Second language
acquisition research series | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017051919 | ISBN 9780415708036 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780415708043 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781134608324 (epub) |
ISBN 9781134608393 (mobipocket/kindle)
Subjects: LCSH: Language and languages—Study and teaching—
Psychological aspects. | Cognitive grammar—Psychological aspects. |
Second language acquisition. | Education, Bilingual.
Classification: LCC P53.7 .J43 2018 | DDC 401/.93—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017051919
ISBN: 978-0-415-70803-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-70804-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-88633-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Goudy
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS

Illustrations x
Preface xii
Abbreviations xv

1 Introducing Second Language Processing 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Characterizing SLP Research 3
1.2.1 A Cognitive Focus 3
1.2.2 A Broader Scope Than L1 Psycholinguistics 4
1.2.3 From Processing Data to Representation and
Acquisition Issues 5
1.2.4 An Experimental Approach That Emphasizes
Vigorous Variable Manipulation and Control 8
1.3 Recurrent Themes in SLP Research 12
1.3.1 The Acquirability of a Non-Native Language 13
1.3.2 L1–L2 Interaction 17
1.3.3 Documenting and Explaining Age Effects 19
1.4 Conclusion 24

2 Phonological Processing in L2: Concepts, Methods,

and Models 33
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Speech Production and Acoustic Cues 33
2.3 Cross-Linguistic Differences in Sound Systems 38
2.3.1 The Sound Inventory and Acoustic Details 38
2.3.2 Distinctive Features 39
2.3.2.1 Voicing 39
2.3.2.2 Aspiration 40
vi Contents

2.3.2.3 Length 40
2.3.2.4 Word Stress 41
2.3.2.5 Lexical Tone 41
2.3.3 Phonotactics 42
2.4 Research Methods 43
2.4.1 Assessing Perception 44
2.4.1.1 The Identification Task 45
2.4.1.2 The Discrimination Task 45
2.4.1.3 The Oddball Paradigm 47
2.4.1.4 Lexical Tasks 48
2.4.2 Assessing Production 48
2.4.2.1 Speech Sample Elicitation 48
2.4.2.2 Speech Sample Evaluation 49
2.5 Models of L2 Phonological Processing 52
2.5.1 The Speech Learning Model (SLM) 53
2.5.2 The Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM)
and PAM-L2 55
2.5.3 The Native Language Magnet Model (NLMM) 59
2.5.4 The Featural Models 62
2.6 Conclusion 64

3 Phonological Processing in L2: Issues and Findings 73

3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Language Interaction 74
3.2.1 L1 Influence: Dealing With New Phonetic Phenomena 74
3.2.1.1 Segmental Transfer 75
3.2.1.2 Featural Transfer 76
3.2.1.3 Suprasegmental Transfer 79
3.2.1.4 Phonotactic Transfer 81
3.2.1.5 L1 Influence and Use of Acoustic Cues 82
3.2.1.6 L1 Influence in Word Recognition 83
3.2.1.7 Positive Transfer 84
3.2.1.8 L2 Processing Universals? 84
3.2.2 L1 Influence: The Role of the Degree or Pattern
of L1–L2 Overlap 87
3.2.2.1 Testing the SLM: The More Similar,
the More Difficult? 88
3.2.2.2 Testing the PAM: Pair Types and Difficulty
Levels 90
 Contents vii

3.2.3 L2 Effect on L1 94
3.2.4 The Case of Simultaneous Bilinguals 99
3.3 Age and Acquirability 101
3.3.1 Documenting Age-Related Differences 101
3.3.2 Documenting Nativelikeness in L2 Phonology 104
3.3.2.1 Nativelike Phonology Among Early Learners 105
3.3.2.2 Nativelike Phonology Among Late Learners 105
3.3.2.3 Non-Native Phonology Among Late Learners
With Long LOR 106
3.3.2.4 Non-Native Phonology Among Early Learners 107
3.3.3 Explaining Age-Related Differences 110
3.3.3.1 Neurophysiological Perspectives 111
3.3.3.2 A Neurocognitive or Neuropsychological
Approach 113
3.3.3.3 L1 Entrenchment 114
3.4 Other Factors 116
3.4.1 LOR, L2 Experiences, and L2 Proficiency 117
3.4.2 L1 Use 122
3.4.3 Segment-Related Factors 123
3.4.4 Phonetic Training 125
3.5 Conclusion 126

4 Word Recognition in L2 143

4.1 Introduction 143
4.2 Understanding Lexical Representation and Processing 144
4.2.1 Characteristics of Lexical Representation 144
4.2.2 Methods for Studying Lexical Processing 146
4.2.3 Lexical Processing Effects 147
4.2.3.1 Frequency, Familiarity, and Age-of-Acquisition
Effects 147
4.2.3.2 Other Lexical Property Effects 149
4.2.3.3 Meaning-Related Effects 150
4.2.3.4 Nonword-Related Effects 150
4.2.3.5 Priming Effects 151
4.2.3.6 Context Effects 151
4.3 The L2 Lexicon 151
4.3.1 Importance of Form-Based Connections 152
4.3.2 The Episodic L2 Lexicon 157
viii Contents

4.4 Word Recognition in L2: The Role of L1 160

4.4.1 Transfer of Processing Strategies: Phonology vs.
Orthography 160
4.4.2 Transfer of Word Recognition and Reading Skills 164
4.4.3 Commonalities and Universalities in L1 and L2
Word Recognition 167
4.5 Word Recognition in L2: Other Issues 170
4.5.1 Automatic Activation of L1 Translations in L2
Word Recognition 170
4.5.2 A Larger Frequency Effect in L2 173
4.5.3 The Integration of Unfamiliar Words 178
4.6 Conclusion 183

5 Processing Complex Words, Multiword Units,

and Meanings in L2 196
5.1 Introduction 196
5.2 Processing Complex Words in L2 197
5.2.1 Representation and Processing of Complex Words:
Models and Approaches 197
5.2.2 Processing Complex Words in L2: The Decomposition
Debate 201
5.2.3 Processing Complex Words in L2: L1 Influence 206
5.3 Processing Multiword Expressions in L2 209
5.3.1 Defining and Differentiating Multiword Expressions 210
5.3.2 Holistic Representation and Processing of
Multiword Units 213
5.3.3 L1 Influence in Collocation Representation
and Processing 218
5.3.4 Figurative and Literal Meanings in Idiom
Processing Among NNS 222
5.4 Semantic Processing in L2 228
5.4.1 L2 Semantic Processing and Development 229
5.4.2 Cerebral Involvement in Semantic Processing
in L1 and L2 232
5.5 Conclusion 234

6 Sentence Processing in L2: Parsing 244

6.1 Introduction 244
6.1.1 Sentence Ambiguity and the Garden-Path Effect 244
6.1.2 Models of Syntactic Parsing 247
 Contents ix

6.2 The Role of L1 in L2 Parsing 249

6.2.1 Verb Subcategorization 249
6.2.2 Relative Clause Attachment 254
6.3 Syntactic and Lexicosemantic Information in L2 Parsing 260
6.3.1 The Use of Lexicosemantic Information in L2 Parsing 261
6.3.2 The Use of Syntactic Information in L2 Parsing 265
6.4 Working Memory and L2 Sentence Processing 272
6.5 Conclusion 278

7 Sentence Processing in L2: Sensitivity to Morphosyntactic

Violations 286
7.1 Introduction 286
7.2 Methodological Considerations for Assessing Acquisition 287
7.3 Research Findings 291
7.3.1 Behavioral Studies 291
7.3.2 Electrophysiological Studies 297
7.4 Understanding the Conflicting Findings 303
7.4.1 Discrepancies Across Paradigms 303
7.4.1.1 Behavioral and ERP Studies 303
7.4.1.2 The SPRT vs. Eye Tracking 304
7.4.2 The Proficiency Factor 306
7.4.3 Explaining the Distance Effect 308
7.5 Explaining the Morphological Congruency Effect 308
7.5.1 Explaining the Effect: A Theoretical Proposal 309
7.5.2 Testing the Proposal 314
7.6 Conclusion 316

Epilogue 323
Index 326
ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
1.1 The Relationship Between SLP, Psycholinguistics, and SLA 8
2.1 Graphic Illustration of Acoustic Cues 35
2.2 F1 and F2 Frequencies of Five English Vowels 36
2.3 Overview of Research Methods for Studying Speech Perception
and Production by NNS 44
2.4 An Illustration of Flege’s Speech Learning Model 55
2.5 Classification of Non-Native Sounds in Relation to the Native
Phonetic Space in the PAM 57
2.6 Contributors, Processes, and Outcomes of Perceptual Learning
as Envisioned in the NLM Model 61
4.1 Illustration of Item Display in an Unmasked and a Masked
Priming Study 147
5.1 Two Opposing Views Regarding the Representation and
Processing of Complex Words 198
5.2 Different Processes Involved in Performing a GJT on a
Formula and a Nonformulaic Expression 215
6.1 An Illustration of Two Interpretations of a Relative Clause 254
7.1 Illustration of Three ERP Components Related to
Morphosyntactic Processing 290
7.2 The Acquisition and Use of Congruent and Incongruent
Inflectional Morphemes in L2, as Compared to L1 Morphemes 313
7.3 A Test Item in the Sentence-Picture Matching Task 314

Tables
2.1 Example of Phonetic Contrasts and Their Primary
Acoustic Cues 37
2.2 Predictions Made by the PAM Regarding the Level of
Difficulty in Discriminating Non-Native Contrasts 58
 Illustrations xi

6.1 Types of Ambiguous Sentences Often Involved in Sentence

Processing Research 245
6.2 Contrasting the Garden-Path Models and the Constraint-Based
Models 248
6.3 A Summary of Ten Studies of L2 Sentence Processing That
Included Working Memory Capacity as a Variable 276
7.1 Summary of Behavioral Studies of Morphosyntactic Sensitivity
Among NNS 293
7.2 Summary of Electrophysiological Studies of Morphosyntactic
Sensitivity Among NNS 298
PREFACE

Writing a book on second language processing (SLP) can be a challenging

undertaking for anyone. It is more so for a non-native English speaker from a
typologically different language background who did not have much exposure
to English until age 21 (classroom) or 33 (naturalistic). The challenge lies in
the sheer volume of research output in this area, the wide range of phenom-
ena and topics examined, and the methodological diversity and technicality
associated with it.
At the same time, there is a clear need for such a book. For a practical reason,
many graduate programs in Second Language Acquisition, Second Language
Studies, or Applied Linguistics offer a course on second language processing.
A relatively comprehensive review of research in this area in a single volume,
which has not been available, would be handy for such a course. More impor-
tantly, I see a great deal of overlap across subareas of SLP in both research
questions and empirical findings, but there has been very limited interaction
and communication across these areas. Four subareas of SLP can be identified:
phonological processing, lexical processing, sentence processing, and bilin-
gual processing, of which only the first three are included in this book due to
space constraints. These subareas deal with the same participant population,
i.e., second language (L2) or bilingual speakers; they attempt to examine the
same phenomenon, i.e., language use by this population, and they approach
this phenomenon from the same cognitive and psycholinguistic perspective,
often with very similar methods and paradigms, and, more importantly, they
share the same goal of understanding the mental processes involved in L2 or
bilingual processing. Because of these similarities, research in these different
areas overlap and has a great potential to inform each other. For example, the
interaction of the two languages is a topic explored in all subareas of SLP. A
person who reported findings of an L2 impact on L1 phonetic representation
is likely to be interested in knowing similar L2 influence on L1 semantic repre-
sentation. However, SLP researchers have traditionally focused themselves on
one subarea. A person who does phonological processing research usually pays
little attention to what is going on in lexical or sentence processing research,
 Preface xiii

and vice versa. It is my hope that having an accessible overview of research

in all these areas in a single volume will help bring these different lines of
research into contact and encourage students and researchers to consider SLP
issues from a broader perspective, which, I hope, will ultimately contribute to
the establishment of SLP as a unified and coherent field of scientific inquiry.
This book is intended for graduate students and scholars who are inter-
ested in second language processing research for whatever reasons. It should
be of particular interest to those in the fields of psycholinguistics, second lan-
guage acquisition, applied linguistics. Research findings discussed in the book
can also be informative to language teachers and administrators who hope to
explore ideas for effective language teaching, and to those working in other
applied field such as human–machine communication and clinical audiology
who have to deal with non-native speakers.
The book consists of seven chapters. The first one provides a brief introduc-
tion to SLP research. It is followed by six chapters, two for each of the three
subareas of SLP: phonological processing, lexical processing, and sentence
processing. In writing these six chapters, I intended to provide sufficient back-
ground information about a topic before diving into the discussion of research
questions and empirical findings. Due to space constraints, many topics had to
be excluded or cut down from an earlier, more extensive version of the manu-
script, such as the relationship between speech perception and production,
the role of visual information on speech perception, the role of phonology
in visual word recognition (independent of L1 transfer), the development of
automaticity in lexical processing, early sentence processing research in L2,
L2 speakers’ sensitivity to semantic violations, L2 processing research done
within the framework of language and thought (or linguistic relativity), and
bilingual language processing. These topics are all an integral and important
part of SLP research and have generated a great deal of research in recent
years, so a lack of a detailed treatment of these topics in the book should not
be taken as indicating otherwise. The review of research in each chapter is
quite selective, as well. No attempt is made to provide an exhaustive review
of all the published studies on a topic. Instead, I explain the issues and sum-
marize findings by sampling a subset of these studies, with an effort not to miss
seminal studies that have played a particularly important role in shaping the
development of a topic.
In discussing SLP topics, I use some terms interchangeably. The use of one
instead of the other usually reflects how these terms are used in the studies
under discussion. For example, I make no distinction between second language
and foreign language, unless a distinction is explicitly explained. The expres-
sion second language is used to refer to any non-native language, and thus it can
be an individual’s third or fourth language. L2 speakers, L2 users, L2 learners,
and non-native speakers (NNS) usually refer to the same population. The same
is true with native speakers (NS) and L1 speakers. Unless pointed out otherwise,
xiv Preface

semantic representation and conceptual representation are not differentiated.

Additionally, in phonological processing research, researchers do not always
stick strictly with the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, the use of
phonetic or phonemic transcripts differ across studies. I use phonetic or pho-
nemic symbols used in the original studies under discussion, which may result
in some inconsistencies throughout the book. Readers are encouraged to refer
to the original studies for clarification.
I am grateful to many who provided assistance in the process of this proj-
ect. The editors at Routledge, Elysse Preposi, Leah Babb-Rosenfeld, Rebecca
Novack, Kathrene Binag, and the series editors Susan Gass and Alison Mackey
have been very helpful throughout the whole process. I would not have been
able to complete this project without their hard work. I appreciate receiving a
Research and Scholarship Award from the Graduate School of the University
of Maryland which allowed me to concentrate on the writing of this book for
a semester. Occasionally, I sent an inquiry or a section of a draft to researchers
whose research was discussed and asked for feedback. I am most grateful to the
following researchers who responded: Harald Clahsen, Robert DeKeyser, Tami
Gollan, Alan Jeffs, Brian McWhinney, Xiaomei Qiao, Brent Wolter. I am also
grateful to the students who participated in my Ph.D. seminar on SLP over the
years for their thoughtful discussions. I also want to express my deepest appre-
ciation to the five anonymous reviewers who reviewed drafts of the manuscript
and provided very helpful comments and suggestions. I am particularly grate-
ful to my wife Guiling Gloria Hu and my now six-year-old daughter Stephanie
for allowing me to sit in front of my computer for as long as I did for the past
four years when this project remained my primary focus. Without their support
and understanding, I would never have been able to complete this project, no
matter how imperfect it is.
ABBREVIATIONS

AJ acceptability judgment
ANOVA analysis of variance
AOA age of acquisition or age of arrival
AR accuracy rate
CBM constraint-based model
CP complementizer phrase
CPH critical period hypothesis
CSL Chinese as a second language
DO direct object
DP determiner phrases
EEG electroencephalogram
ELAN early left anterior negativity
ER error rate(s)
ERP event-related potentials
ERT episodic recognition task
ESL English as a second language
FCM feature competition model
fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
GJT grammaticality judgment task
GP garden path
GPE garden-path effect
GPM garden-path model
ISI inter-stimulus intervals
L1 first language
L2 second language
LAN left anterior negativity
LDT lexical decision task
LOR length of residence
MMN mismatch negativity
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
NL native language
xvi Abbreviations

NLMM native language magnet model

NNL non-native language
NNS non-native speaker(s)
NP noun phrase
NS native speaker(s)
PAM perceptual assimilation model
PET positron emission tomography
PLE prime lexicality effect
PO prepositional object
PP prepositional phrase
RC relative clause
RHM revised hierarchical model
RRC reduced relative clause
RST reading span test
RT reaction time(s)
SC sentential complement
SJT semantic judgment task
SLA second language acquisition
SLM speech learning model
SLP second language processing
SOA stimulus onset asynchrony
SOV subject object verb
SPRT self-paced reading task
SVO subject verb object
UG Universal Grammar
VOT voice onset time
VP verb phrase
WA word association
WAT word association task
WM working memory
WST word span test
12 Introducing Second Language Processing

for more about the advantages of this experimental approach and tasks that
are frequently used in SLP research.
The experimental approach taken in SLP research may be criticized by
some on the basis that the use of tasks such as lexical decision and word-
by-word reading and materials such as isolated words and sentences do not
represent real-life authentic language use. However, this criticism is off the
mark if we consider the primary goal of SLP research, which is to understand
the mental processes involved in language learning and use rather than how
language use occurs in real-life situations. The experimental approach is
adopted on the assumption that the basic mental processes involved in lan-
guage use are the same regardless of the circumstances of language use. Visual
word recognition involves the analysis of physical features of visual input,
the recognition of letters, and the activation of a mental representation,
regardless of whether the word appears in isolation or in a context, regard-
less of whether the word appears on a book page, on a computer monitor,
or on a cell phone screen, and regardless of the socioeconomic background
of the reader. Building a syntactical structure is a basic and essential part of
sentence comprehension regardless of the listener–speaker relationship or
the attitude of the speaker or listener. In short, a lab-based experimental
approach in SLP research is based on the assumption that the basic mental
processes involved in language use can be best studied in a controlled experi-
mental setting.
To sum up, SLP studies language use by L2 speakers. In so doing, it aims
to uncover the mental processes and mechanisms involved in L2 use and L2
acquisition. SLP is closely related to psycholinguistics in terms of the theoreti-
cal issues, conceptual frameworks, language phenomena, and methodologi-
cal approaches. It distinguishes itself from other psycholinguistic research in
focusing on L2 speakers and L2 use and in frequently relating processing data
to acquisition issues. For the latter reason, it should be considered as an inte-
gral part of SLA. SLP research is usually lab-based and employs a variety of
experimental tasks. Through vigorous variable manipulation and control, SLP
studies produce results that permit more direct and unequivocal inferences
about how L2 knowledge is acquired, represented, and accessed.

1.3 Recurrent Themes in SLP Research

SLP research examines both topics unique to a specific area and topics that are
relevant to multiple areas. The latter topics often represent more basic issues
facing SLP researchers and areas where researchers from different areas may
benefit the most from knowing what is going on in other areas. Three such
topics, or recurrent themes, are discussed in this section for illustrative pur-
poses: the acquirability issue, L1–L2 interaction, and the nature of age effects.
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me from the gloom and for an instant I saw the flash of steel in the
bloody hand of the accursed Gholad whom I had left for dead. Then I
knew cold agony between my ribs....

Gholad lay slumped against the wall, his face greenish above the
blood-soaked tunic. When he spoke air whistled through his slashed
throat.
"Have done, traitor who once was honored of the king," he
whispered. "Have you no pity for him who once ruled in justice and
splendor at High Okk-Hamiloth?"
"Had you not robbed me of my destiny, murderous dog," I croaked,
"that splendor would have been mine."
"You came upon him helpless," gasped Gholad. "Make some amends
now for your shame. Let the Rthr have his mind, which is more
precious than his life."
"I but rest to gather strength. Soon will I rise and turn him from the
couch. Then will I die content."
"Once you were his friend," Gholad whispered. "By his side you
fought, when both of you were young. Remember that ... and have
pity. To leave him here, in this ship of death, mindless and alone...."
"I have loosed the Hunters!" I shrieked in triumph. "With them will the
Rthr share this tomb until the end of time!"
Then I searched within me and found a last terrible strength and I
rose up ... and even as my hand reached out to pluck away the mind
trace of the king I felt the bloody fingers of Gholad on my ankle, and
then my strength was gone. And I was falling headlong into that dark
well of death from which there is no returning....

I woke up and lay for a long time in the dark without moving, trying to
remember the fragments of a strange dream of violence and death. I
could still taste the lingering dregs of some bitter emotion. For a
moment I couldn't remember what it was I had to do; then with a start
I recalled where I was. I had lain down on the couch and pulled the
head-piece into place—
It hadn't worked.
I thought hard, tried to tap a new reservoir of memories, drew a blank.
Maybe my Earth-mind was too alien for the Vallonian memory-trace to
affect. It was another good idea that hadn't worked out. But at least I
had had a good rest. Now it was time to get moving. First: to see if
Ommodurad was still asleep. I started to sit up—
Nothing happened.
I had a moment of vertigo, as my inner ear tried to accommodate to
having stayed in the same place after automatically adjusting to my
intention of rising. I lay perfectly still and tried to think it through.
I had tried to move ... and hadn't so much as twitched a muscle. I was
paralyzed ... or tied up ... or maybe, if I was lucky, imagining things. I
could try it again and next time—
I was afraid to try. Suppose I tried and nothing happened—again?
This was ridiculous. All I had to do was sit up. I—
Nothing. I lay in the dark and tried to will an arm to move, my head to
turn. It was as though I had no arm, no head—just a mind, alone in
the dark. I strained to sense the ropes that held me down; still
nothing. No ropes, no arms, no body. There was no pressure against
me from the couch, no vagrant itch or cramp, no physical sensation. I
was a disembodied brain, lying nestled in a great bed of pitch-black
cotton wool.
Then, abruptly, I was aware of myself—not the gross mechanism of
clumsy bone and muscle, but the neuro-electric field generated within
the massive structure of a brain alive with flashing currents and a
lightning interplay of molecular forces. A sense of orientation grew. I
occupied a block of cells ... here in the left hemisphere. The mass of
neural tissue loomed over me, gigantic. And "I" ... "I" was reduced to
the elemental ego, who possessed as a material appurtenance "my"
arms and legs, "my" body, "my" brain.... Relieved of outside stimuli I
was able now to conceptualize myself as I actually was: an
insubstantial state existing in an immaterial continuum, created by the
action of neural currents within the cerebrum, as a magnetic field is
created in space by the flow of electricity.
And I knew what had happened. I had opened my mind to invasion by
alien memories. The other mind had seized upon the sensory
centers, driven me to this dark corner. I was a fugitive within my own
skull.
For a timeless time I lay stunned, immured now as the massive
stones of Bar-Ponderone had never confined me. My basic self-
awareness still survived, but was shunted aside, cut off from any
contact with the body itself.
With shadowy fingers of imagination I clawed at the walls surrounding
me, fought for a glimpse of light, for a way out.
And found none.
Then, at last, I began again to think.
I must analyze my awareness of my surroundings, seek out channels
through which impulses from sensory nerves flowed, and tap them.
I tried cautiously; an extension of my self-concept reached out with
ultimate delicacy. There were the ranked infinities of cells, there the
rushing torrents of gross fluid, there the taut cables of the
interconnecting web, and there—
Barrier! Blank and impregnable the wall reared up. My questing
tendril of self-stuff raced over the surface like an ant over a melon,
and found no tiniest fissure.
I withdrew. To dissipate my forces was senseless. I must select a
point of attack, hurl against it all the power of my surviving identity.
The last of the phantom emotions that had clung—for how long?—to
the incorporeal mind field had faded now, leaving me with no more
than an intellectual determination to reassert myself. Dimly I
recognized this sign of my waning sense of identity but there was no
surge of instinctive fear. Instead I coolly assessed my resources—
and almost at once stumbled into an unused channel, here within my
own self-field. For a moment I recoiled from the outer configuration of
the stored patterns ... and then I remembered.
I had been in the water, struggling, while the Red soldier waited, rifle
aimed. And then: a flood of data, flowing with cold, impersonal
precision. And I had deftly marshalled the forces of my body to
survive.
And once more: as I hung by numbed fingers under the cornice of the
Yordano Tower, the cold voice had spoken.
And I had forgotten. The miracle had been pushed back, rejected by
the conscious mind. But now I knew: this was the knowledge that I
had received from the background briefing device that I had used in
my island strong-room before I fled. This was the survival data known
to all Old Vallonians of the days of the Two Worlds. It had lain here,
unused; the secrets of superhuman strength and endurance ... buried
by the imbecile censor-self's aversion to the alien.

But the ego alone remained now, stripped of the burden of neurosis,
freed from subconscious pressures. The levels of the mind were laid
bare, and I saw close at hand the regions where dreams were born,
the barren sources of instinctive fear-patterns, the linkages to the
blinding emotions; and all lay now under my overt control.
Without further hesitation I tapped the stored Vallonian knowledge,
encompassed it, made it mine. There again I approached the barrier,
spread out across it, probed in vain—
"... vile primitive...."
The thought thundered out with crushing force. I recoiled, then
renewed my attack, alert now. I knew what to do.
I sought and found a line of synaptic weakness, burrowed at it—
"... intolerable ... vestigial ... erasure...."
I struck instantly, slipped past the impervious shield, laid firm hold on
the optic receptor bank. The alien mind threw itself against me, but
too late. I held secure and the assault faded, withdrew. Cautiously I
extended my interpretive receptivity. There was a pattern of pulses,
oscillations in the lambda/mu range. I tuned, focussed—
Abruptly I was seeing. For a moment my fragile equilibrium tottered,
as I strove to integrate the flow of external stimuli into my bodiless
self-concept. Then a balance was struck: I held my ground and stared
through the one eye I had recaptured from the usurper.
And I reeled again!
Bright daylight blazed in the chamber of Ommodurad. The scene
shifted as the body moved about, crossing the room, turning.... I had
assumed that the body still lay in the dark but instead, it walked,
without my knowledge, propelled by a stranger.
The field of vision flashed across the couch. Ommodurad was gone.
I sensed that the entire left lobe, disoriented by the loss of the eye,
had slipped now to secondary awareness, its defenses weakened. I
retreated momentarily from my optic outpost, laid a temporary
traumatic block across the access nerves to keep the intruder from
reasserting possession, and concentrated my force in an attack on
the auricular channels. It was an easy rout. I seized on the nerve
trunk, then instantly reoccupied the eye, co-ordinated its impressions
with those coming in along the aural nerves ... and heard my voice
mouth a curse.

The body was standing beside a bare wall with a hand laid upon it. In
the wall a recess partly obscured by a sliding panel stood empty.
The body turned, strode to a doorway, emerged into a gloomy violet-
shadowed corridor. The glance flicked from the face of one guard to
another. They stared in open-mouthed surprise, brought weapons up.
"You dare to bar the path to the Lord Ammaerln?" My voice slashed
at the men. "Stand aside, as you value your lives."
And the body pushed past them, strode off along the corridor. It
passed through a great archway, descended a flight of marble stairs,
came along a hall I had seen on my tour of the Palace of Sapphires
and into the Onyx Chamber with the great golden sunburst that
covered the high black wall.
In the Great Owner's chair at the ringboard Ommodurad sat scowling
at the lame courtier whose red hair was hidden now under a black
cowl. Between them Foster stood, the heavy manacles dragging at
his wrists.
Ommodurad turned; his face paled, then flushed dark rose, teeth
bared.
The gaze of my eye fixed on Foster. Foster stared back, a look of
incredulity growing on his face.
"My Lord Rthr," my voice said. The eye swept down and fixed on the
manacles. The body drew back a step, as if in horror.
"You overreach yourself, Ommodurad!" my voice cried harshly.
Ommodurad stepped toward me, his immense arm raised.
"Lay not a hand on me, dog of a usurper!" my voice roared out. "By
the Gods, would you take me for common clay!"
And, unbelievably, Ommodurad paused, stared in my face.
"I know you as the upstart Drgon, petty Owner," he rumbled. "But I
trow I see another there behind your pale eyes."
"Foul was the crime that brought me to this pass," my voice said. "But
... know that your master, Ammaerln, stands before you, in the body
of a primitive!"
"Ammaerln...!" Ommodurad jerked as though he had been struck.
My body turned, dismissing him. The eye rested on Foster.
"My liege," my voice said unctuously. "I swear the dog dies for this
treason—"
"It is a mindless one, intruder," Ommodurad broke in. "Seek no favor
with the Rthr, for he that was Rthr is no more. You deal with me now."
My body whirled on Ommodurad. "Give a thought to your tone, lest
your ambitions prove your death!"

Ommodurad put a hand to his dagger. "Ammaerln of Bros-Ilyond you

may be, or a changeling from dark regions I know not of. But know
that this day I hold all power in Vallon."
"And what of this one who was once Qulqlan? What consort do you
hold with him you say is mindless?" I saw my hand sweep out in a
contemptuous gesture at Foster.
"An end to patience!" the Great Owner roared. He started toward my
body.
"Does the fool, Ommodurad, forget the power of the great
Ammaerln?" my voice said softly. And the towering figure hesitated
once more, searching my face. "The Rthr's hour is past ... and so is
yours, bungler and fool. Your self-delusion is ended." My voice rose in
a bellow: "Know that I ... Ammaerln, the great ... have returned to rule
at High Okk-Hamiloth...."
He threw back his head, and laughed a choked throaty laugh that
was half sob.
"Know, demon, or madman, or ancient prince of evil: for thirty
centuries have I brooded alone, sealed from an empire by a single
key!"
I felt the shock rack through and through the invader mind. This was
the opportunity I had hoped for. Quick as thought I moved, slashed at
the wavering shield, and was past it—
Upon the mind-picture of Foster's face was now superimposed
another: that of Qulqlan, Rthr of all Vallon, ruler of the Two Worlds!
And other pictures, snatched from the intruder mind, were present
now in the Earth-consciousness of me, Legion:
the vaults, deep in the rock under the fabled city of Okk-Hamiloth,
where the mind-trace of every citizen was stored, sealed by the Rthr
and keyed to his mind alone;
Ammaerln, urging the king to embark on a far-voyage, stressing the
burden of government, tempting him to bring with him the royal mind-
trace;
Qulqlan's acquiescence and Ammaerln's secret joy at the
advancement of his scheme;
the coming of the Change for the Rthr, aboard ship, far out in space,
and the vizier's bold stroke;
and then the fools who found him at the lifeboat ... and the loss of all,
all....
There my own lived memories took up the tale: the awakening of
Foster, unsuspecting, and his recording of the mind of the dying
Ammaerln; the flight from the Hunters; the memory-trace of the king,
that lay for three millennia among neolithic bones until I, a primitive,
plucked it from its place; and the pocket of a coarse fibre garment
where the cylinder lay now, on a hip of the body I inhabited and as
inaccessible to me as if it had been a million miles away.
But there was a second memory-trace—Ammaerln. I had crossed a
galaxy to come to Foster, and with me, locked in an unmarked pewter
cylinder, I had brought Foster's ancient nemesis.
I had given it life, and a body.
Foster, once Rthr, had survived against all logic and had come back
from the dead: the last hope of a golden age....
To meet his fate at my hands.

"Three thousand years," I heard my voice saying. "Three thousand

years have the men of Vallon lived mindless, with the power that was
Vallon locked away in a vault without a key. And now, you think to
force this mind—that is no mind—to unseal the vault?"
"I know it for a hopeless task," Ommodurad said. "At first I thought—
since he speaks the tongue of old Vallon—that he dissembled. But he
knows nothing. This is but the dry husk of the Rthr ... and I sicken of
the sight. I would fain kill him now and let the long farce end."
"Not so!" my voice cut in. "Once I decreed exile to the mindless one.
So be it!"
The face of Ommodurad twisted in its rage. "Your witless chatterings!
I tire of them."
"Wait!" my voice snarled. "Would you put aside the key?"
There was a silence as Ommodurad stared at my face. I saw my
hand rise into view. Gripped in it was Foster's memory-trace.
"The Two Worlds lie in my hand," my voice spoke. "Observe well the
black and golden bands of the royal memory-trace. Who holds this
key is all-powerful. As for the mindless body yonder, let it be
destroyed."
Ommodurad locked eyes with mine. Then, "Let the deed be done," he
said.
The red-head drew a long stiletto from under his cloak, smiling. I
could wait no longer....
Along the link I had kept through the intruder's barrier I poured the
last of the stored energy of my mind. I felt the enemy recoil, then
strike back with crushing force. But I was past the shield.
As the invader reached out to encircle me I shattered my unified
forward impulse into myriad nervous streamlets that flowed on, under,
over, and around the opposing force; I spread myself through and
through the inner mass, drawing new power from the trunk sources.
Now! I struck for the right optic center, clamped down with a death
grip.
The enemy mind went mad as the darkness closed in. I heard my
voice scream and I saw in vivid pantomime the vision that threatened
the invader: the red-head darting, the stiletto flashing—
And then the invading mind broke, swirled into chaos, and was
gone....

I reeled, shocked and alone inside my skull. The brain loomed, dark
and untenanted now. I began to move, crept along the major nerve
paths, reoccupied the cortex—
"I reeled, shocked and alone inside my skull. The brain loomed,
dark and untenanted now."

Agony! I twisted, felt again with a massive return of sensation my

arms, my legs, opened both eyes to see blurred figures moving. And
in my chest a hideous pain....
I was sprawled on the floor, I lay gasping. Sudden understanding
came: the red-head had struck ... and the other mind, in full rapport
with the pain centers, had broken under the shock, left the stricken
brain to me alone.
As through a red veil I saw the giant figure of Ommodurad loom,
stoop over me, rise with the royal cylinder in his hand. And beyond,
Foster strained backward, the chain between his wrists garroting the
red-head. Ommodurad turned, took a step, flicked the man from
Foster's grasp and hurled him aside. He drew his dagger. Quick as a
hunting cat Foster leaped, struck with the manacles ... and the knife
clattered across the floor. Ommodurad backed away with a curse,
while the red-head seized the stiletto he had let fall and moved in.
Foster turned to meet him, staggering, and raised heavy arms.
I fought to move, got my hand as far as my side, fumbled with the
leather strap. The alien mind had stolen from my brain the
knowledge of the cylinder but I had kept from it the fact of the pistol. I
had my hand on its butt now. Painfully I drew it, dragged my arm up,
struggled to raise the weapon, centered it on the back of the mop of
red hair, free now of the cowl ... and fired.
Ommodurad had found his dagger. He turned back from the corner
where Foster had sent it spinning. Foster retreated until his back was
at the wall: My vision grew dimmer. The great gold circles of the Two
Worlds seemed to revolve, while waves of darkness rolled over me.
But there was a thought: something I had found among the patterns
in the intruder's mind. At the center of the sunburst rose a boss, in
black and gold, erupting a foot from the wall, like a sword hilt....
The thought came from far away. The sword of the Rthr, used once,
in the dawn of a world, by a warrior king but laid away now, locked in
its sheath of stone, keyed to the mind-pattern of the Rthr, that none
other might ever draw it to some ignoble end.
A sword, keyed to the basic mind-pattern of the king....

I drew a last breath, blinked back the darkness. Ommodurad

stepped past me, knife in hand, toward the unarmed man.
"Foster," I croaked. "The sword...."
Foster's head came up. I had spoken in English; the syllables rang
strangely in that outworld setting. Ommodurad ignored the unknown
words.
"Draw ... the sword ... from the stone!... You're ... Qulqlan ... Rthr ...
of Vallon."
I saw him reach out, grasp the ornate hilt. Ommodurad, with a cry,
leaped toward him—
The sword slid out smoothly, four feet of glittering steel. Ommodurad
stopped, stared at the manacled hands gripping the hilt of the fabled
blade. Slowly he sank to his knees, bent his neck.
"I yield, Qulqlan," he said. "I crave the mercy of the Rthr."
Behind me I heard thundering feet. Dimly I was aware of Torbu
raising my head, of Foster leaning over me. They were saying
something but I couldn't hear. My feet were cold, and the coldness
crept higher. The winds that swept through eternity blew away the
last shred of ego and I was one with darkness....

Epilogue
I awoke to a light like that of a morning when the world was young.
Gossamer curtains fluttered at tall windows, through which I saw a
squadron of trim white clouds riding in a high blue sky.
I turned my head, and Foster stood beside me, dressed in a short
white tunic.
"That's a crazy set of threads, Foster," I said, "but on your build it
looks good. But you've aged; you look twenty-five if you look a day."
Foster smiled. "Welcome to Vallon, my friend," he said in English.
"Vallon," I said. "Then it wasn't all a dream?"
"Regard it as a dream, Legion. Your life begins today." Someone
came forward from behind Foster.
"Gope," I said. Then I hesitated. "You are Gope, aren't you?" I said in
Vallonian.
He laughed. "I was known by that name once," he said, "but my true
name is Gwanne."
My eyes fell on my legs. I saw that I was wearing a tunic like Foster's
except that mine was pale blue.
"Who put the dress on me?" I asked. "And where's my pants?"
"This garment suits you better," said Gope. "Come. Look in the
glass."
I got to my feet, stepped to a long mirror, glanced at the reflection.
"It's not the real me, boys," I started. Then I stared, open-mouthed. A
Hercules, black-haired and clean-limbed, stared back. I shut my
mouth ... and his mouth shut. I moved an arm and he did likewise. I
whirled on Foster.
"What ... how ... who...?"
"The mortal body that was Legion died of its wounds," he said, "but
the mind that was the man was recorded. We have waited many
years to give that mind life again."
I turned back to the mirror, gaped. The young giant gaped back. "I
remember," I said. "I remember ... a knife in my guts ... and a red-
headed man ... and the Great Owner, and...."
"For his crimes," told Gope, "he went to a place of exile until the
Change should come on him. Long have we waited."

I looked again and now I saw two faces in the mirror and both of
them were young. One was low down, just above my ankles, and it
belonged to a cat I had known as Itzenca. The other, higher up, was
that of a man I had known as Ommodurad. But this was a clear-eyed
Ommodurad, just under twenty-one.
"Onto the blank slate we traced your mind," said Gope.
"He owed you a life, Legion," Foster said. "His own was forfeit."
"I guess I ought to kick and scream and demand my original ugly
puss back," I said slowly, studying my reflection, "but the fact is, I like
looking like Mr. Universe."
"Your earthly body was infected with the germs of old age," said
Foster. "Now you can look forward to a great span of life."
"But come," said Gope. "All Vallon waits to honor you." He led the
way to the tall window.
"Your place is by my side at the great ringboard," said Foster. "And
afterwards: all of the Two Worlds lie before you."
I looked past the open window and saw a carpet of velvet green that
curved over foothills to the rim of a forest. Down the long sward I
saw a procession of bright knights and ladies come riding on
animals, some black, some golden palomino, that looked for all the
world like unicorns.
My eyes travelled upward to where the light of a great white sun
flashed on blue towers. And somewhere in the distance trumpets
sounded.
"It looks like a pretty fair offer," I said.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TRACE OF
MEMORY ***

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