archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524

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Original Research Article

The analysis of the stages of scaffolding ‘‘life’’ with

regard to the decrease in the hazard at building
works

E. Błazik-Borowa a, J. Szer b,*

a
Lublin University of Technology, Department of Structural Mechanics, Nadbystrzycka 40 str., 20-618 Lublin, Poland
b
Lódź University of Technology, Department of Building Physics and Building Materials, Politechniki 6 str.,
90-924 Łódź, Poland

article info abstract

Article history: The paper presents the attempts at determining the reasons for the hazardous incidents
Received 20 May 2014 which threaten the safety of people working on scaffolds, as well as in their vicinity. The
Accepted 29 September 2014 article is divided into two parts, the former referring to the information on the accident rate
Available online 30 December 2014 involving scaffoldings as well as the research on the likelihood of the occurrence of perilous
situations, the inspection of their technical state and the breaches of the OSH Regulations
Keywords: included. The latter part is devoted to the thorough analysis on the particular stages of the
Scaffolding scaffold operation life, the special attention being paid to the practices, errors and failures
Hazard identification while designing scaffolding. Moreover, it concerns the selection of the scaffold elements, the
Accidents on building sites assembly and disassembly of scaffolding as well as their usage which can result in an
Building disasters accident or a building collapse. The range of activities that contribute to the decrease in or
even the avoidance of risky situations involving scaffolds is hereby presented in conclu-
sions.
# 2014 Politechnika Wrocławska. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All
rights reserved.

is used in other fields such as renovation works of processing

1. Introduction
The major application of scaffolding is to support building
works at heights as well as at places with poor access. The
sample scaffolds are displayed at Figs. 1 and 2. Other instances
of complicated scaffolding, erected around monuments were
described in the following papers [1,2]. In addition, scaffolding
lines, in shipyards, as supporting constructions of billboards, a
cover for mass events, a stage, constructions of temporary
halls and also as decorative elements, etc. Such a wide range of
applications causes the increase in the possibility of occur-
rence of hazardous situations related to all unforeseeable
events that threaten people in the area of scaffolding. In
various situations the user of scaffolding are people who have

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: e.blazik@pollub.pl (E. Błazik-Borowa), jacek.szer@p.lodz.pl (J. Szer).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2014.09.009
1644-9665/# 2014 Politechnika Wrocławska. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 1 – Façade scaffolding at building works in Lublin
(Poland).
no idea of the nature of their use. More importantly, scaffolds
as temporary constructions on a building site are regarded as
constructions of little significance; hence there is minor
importance attached to their proper erection and exploitation.
As a result, there may occur plenty of unpleasant incidents,
above referred to as hazardous situations, including injuries of
workers or other people staying in the vicinity of scaffolding,
and also construction disasters of scaffolding on building sites
or falling down of scaffolds outside building sites. All those
incidents contribute to losses, unfortunately connected with
casualties.
Since the lives and health of people is the greatest value, it
seems that to the issues of health and safety in construction
engineering should be paid more attention. Therefore, the aim
of this paper is the classification of the stages of the
scaffoldings ‘‘life’’ and to point out how the particular stages
influence the safety of their users, including the number of
accidents and the scaffolds failures. The article is the outcome
of the analyses, performed by the authors on the occasion of
designing of unusual scaffolds and the meetings with their
users on the construction sites, including assemblers. The
results of the own research were preceded in the paper by the
review of the world literature on the problems of accidents,
related to the use of scaffolding, scaffolding failures, and the
research on scaffoldings, whose aim was to test the capacity
and technical condition of scaffolding.
517
Fig. 2 – Unanchored scaffolding at Scheibler Chapel in Lodz
(Poland).
2. The present accident rate involving
scaffolding
The problems of accidents, related to the use of scaffolding on
building sites, actually occur worldwide (comp. [3–6]). Accord-
ing to the paper [3] in Great Britain between 1989 and 1993
there were 3738 falls from scaffolds, 1304 accidents caused by
the fall of tools from scaffolds and 345 accidents were related
to the falling down of scaffolds. In line with the article [3], on
the basis of analyses conducted on 62 scaffolds during the
years 1997–2000, it appears that the accidents were caused by
construction errors–48.4%, the lack of protective equipment–
14.5%, improper foundation–6.4%, human errors–6.4%, poor
technical condition of scaffolding–16.1%, construction over-
load–8.2%. The authors of the paper [4] present problems
concerning the risk of working on scaffolds in the USA. In 2000,
out of 5915 accidents on building sites in the USA, 734 were
related to falls from scaffolds, where 85 accidents were directly
associated with a scaffolding failure. A considerable number of
accidents resulting from works on scaffolds was the stimulus
for authors of paper [4] to carry out the analysis on the risk of
working on such installations. The research on scaffolds in
terms of its safety was performed in the nine eastern states of
the US. There were 113 of scaffolds analysed, out of which
31.9% were not acceptable and posed a threat to their users as
well as other people in the vicinity of scaffolds; the remaining
518 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 3 – The number of building disasters in the years 2008–2013 (based on Refs. [12–17]).
¾ of scaffolds were erected on the edge of the risk. The analysis
presented in the paper [4] shows that there is no correlation
between the level of work safety on scaffolding and a region in
which a scaffold was assembled.
In Poland, there are three sources of information on the life-
threatening situations – the reports of The National Labour
Inspectorate on the inspection of safety conditions on building
sites (comp. [7–11]), the reports of The General Office of
Building Control referring to the building disasters (comp. [12–
17]) and the statistical yearbooks of The Central Statistical
Office (comp. [18,19]) including information about accidents
such as falls from heights, they being almost in 100% falls from
scaffolds.
In the reports of The General Office of Building Control
there is some data on building disasters. The number of them
together with disasters connected with scaffolding are
displayed in Fig. 3. Depending on the year the occurrence of
accidents oscillates between 6% and 14%. Failures of scaffold-
ing are most commonly classified as 'others', which means
that their precise number is not possible to determine. It
should also be stated that the statistics do not include failures
outside building sites as well as failures which were not
reported as building disasters. Such situations frequently
occur when there are no casualties. Nevertheless, if there are
some, safety supervisors record the event only in their
statistics without classifying it as a building disaster.
Most of the information associated with works on
scaffolding can be found in the reports of The National Labour
Fig. 4 – The juxtaposition of violations of the HSE regulations at building sites related to the use of scaffolds in years 2007–
2011 (based on Refs. [7–11]).
Inspectorate [7–11]. In Fig. 4 there is a percentage juxtaposition
of violations of the HSE (the Health and Safety Executive)
regulations on building sites where scaffolds were used.
Unfortunately, in The National Labour Inspectorate reports
(comp. [12–17]) there is information about the violation of
regulations exclusively, not the real state of accidents.
However, it appears that such substantial percentage of
situations in which safety regulations were neglected
increases the hazard of accidents occurrence at the working
area.
3. The impact of scaffolding operation stages
on the possibility of accidents and building
disasters occurrence
From the above presented information it becomes apparent
that in Poland the statistics of accidents related to the use of
scaffolds is not kept. More importantly, the analysis concern-
ing the hazard of working on scaffolding shows that all stages
of scaffolding ‘‘life’’ (Fig. 5) can result in an accident or a
building disaster.
3.1. The preparation of scaffolding design documentation
The first and vital stage of erecting scaffolding is the
preparation of documentation that determines the safety of
work on a scaffold (Fig. 6). According to the Regulation of the
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 5 – The stages of scaffolding operation.
Minister of Infrastructure of 6 Feb. 2003 on health and safety
during construction work [20], the design documentation in
the case of typical shape scaffolds and the set of elements for a
given system such as the ones for which the research on
consistency between constructional and material require-
ments was conducted, and which were later frequently
assembled, is the producer's documentation (e.g. an operation
and maintenance manual).
In the case of untypical scaffolding as in Figs. 1 and 2, the
individual design should be created, hereinafter referred to as
a scaffolding design, (in fact, it is not apparent how a design
like this should be called), which ought to include the
description of scaffolding, the static-strength analysis, the
description of assembling and disassembling, the range of
Fig. 6 – The range of operations at the stage I.
519
procedures including the control of the scaffolding, the Plan
for Safety and Health, drawings of the scaffolding. Neverthe-
less, at this stage the problems with observing the regulations
do appear. Scaffolds are frequently complex constructions and
thus they require a time-consuming complex computer
analysis. The instances of complex exemplary schemes of
given constructions presented in Fig. 7 prove the level
of difficulty that a designer has to face. Consequently, the
price of the design constitutes the substantial part of all the
costs of scaffolding usage; hence contractors resign from
creating the design and risk assembling the scaffolding
without any design. It poses a real problem which is proved
by Fig. 4 where the reservations in terms of the documenta-
tion, of the acceptance of scaffolding; hence frequently the
lack of scaffolding design documentation on the basis of which
the scaffolding is erected, concerns over 40% of inspected
building sites.
However, the year 2009 turned out to be an exception as
after several spectacular failures of scaffolding (in 2003 during
the construction of the overpass over Highway No.1 in
Ogrodzona; falling down of the scaffolding with a tarpaulin
at Kaponiera in Poznan during the festive events in 2004; the
scaffolding disaster at the boarding of two overpasses at
Highway A18 in 2005; the scaffolding disaster in Stroza while
building the overpass at Highway S7 in 2006; the separation of
façade scaffolding from the wall in Konin in 2007; the building
disaster of façade scaffolding in Ozimek (Opole province) in
2008) and after additional inspections of The National Labour
Inspectorate in 2008 (comp. [7]) the awareness of hazards
connected with works on scaffolding increased.
In building engineering arises the problem of short-lived
threats which disappear with the end of specific works. In
addition, such threats are very often ignored, which can be
noticed in Fig. 4. After inspections in 2008, a gradual increase in
the violation of the HSE regulations is observed, including the
resignation from of scaffolding designs. Unfortunately, a
scaffold erected without any design, unless there are full
operational and environmental loads, creates an illusion of a
stable construction. In practice, there is a likelihood that such
loading of the construction may not happen throughout the
whole period of its operational use and this is why there is only
a potential threat of a disaster. However, the instances of
building disasters or accidents, which are not classified as
building disasters, with the participation of scaffolding, show
that such a potential risk frequently turns out to be a real
threat to workers, which can even result in their death.
The preparation of an individual design of scaffolding
cannot also give the full guarantee that the failure of
construction will not happen in the future. If a designer
makes false assumptions about the shape of a construction
and a structural analysis, it may also lead to an accident. It is a
common practice to create drawings of scaffolding avoiding
complicated calculations or limiting the static-strength calcu-
lations to estimate the loading of a construction. Such
procedures result in the creation of constructions which, in
fact, cannot transfer the loads defined by the standards EN
12810-1 [21], EN 12810-2 [22], EN 18211-1 [23] and EN 1991-1-4
[24].
In addition, there exists another aspect of designing the
construction. During the calculations it is possible to foresee
520 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524

Fig. 7 – The exemplary static schemes of scaffolding: (a) for renovation works at the relay bridge, (b) scaffolding at Scheibler
Chapel in Lodz (Poland) (see Fig. 4), (c) supporting structure of the formwork of the church ceiling in Rzeszow (Poland), (d)
scaffolding with the visualisation of the foundation and gas tank in Emmen (The Netherlands).

the places in which the construction is overloaded, which in
consequence may lead to local plasticity or another invisible
damage and the weakening of an element. Such potential
damaged elements can be withdrawn from use. Whereas, if
unusual scaffolding is not controlled in terms of its strength,
there exists every probability of damage such as a slight
change of shape and material properties that reduces the load
capacity of an element. Due to the fact that the damage while
visually assessed may give an impression of not being that
severe, the damaged element may be used in another
assembled scaffolding, which consequently increases the
possibility of occurrence of failure; hence it increases the
hazard related to the work on a scaffold.
3.2. The selection of the set of elements to assembly
scaffolding
Another stage of creating scaffolding concerns the selection of
the set of elements (Fig. 8). The safety of workers on scaffolding
is conditioned by a good technical state of particular elements.
The multiple use of elements, the improper storing, overloads
of constructions or even throwing elements from heights
result in the damage of elements. Further assembling of such
elements increases the hazard of the failure of a construction.
According to Ref. [3], scaffolding in Great Britain is in a poor
technical condition. It appears that there is a similar problem
in Poland. As it emerges from The National Labour Inspector-
ate reports [9,10], small companies apply cheaper technolo-
gies, and are unwillingly to introduce innovative and safe
solutions e.g. purchasing or supplying modern scaffolding.
Even though they decide to buy new scaffolding, it is heavily
exploited for a long time and in consequence, with the rise in
the scaffolding operation life, they become more hazardous.
In Poland there is a problem of mingling elements of
different systems, the unified joints being the best example in
this case. Affluent companies purchase joints of materials
with certificates, whereas, smaller ones purchase cheaper
joints. If there work several subcontractors on the same
building site, it turns out that the joints are mingled after the
completion of the construction. Assembly workers from
renting companies are conscious of the importance of the
material the joins are made of, which results from their
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 8 – The range of works at stage II.
experience. Licensed workers, who assembly scaffolding
occasionally only, do not attach much importance these
problems. Fig. 9a presents the instance of untypical scaffolding
suspended under the roof construction and Fig. 9b shows
Fig. 9 – The instance of suspended scaffolding under the roof construction.
521
joints which have to be in the proper technical state since their
load capacity is used in about 90%.
In order to eliminate the damaged elements of scaffolding
and thus to decrease the risk of working on scaffolding, the
companies that rent scaffolds conduct inspections of elements
while accepting and issuing them to and from the warehouse.
The assessment of the technical state of elements is based on
the visual assessment of shape and cracks of elements, as well
as in the case of joints it also involves the inspection of their
place of origin. Since the assessment is performed on a large
part of elements, it is rather a subjective opinion of a person
who assesses the technical state and there are no appropriate
criteria and principles for elements that should be eliminated.
As a consequence, damaged elements are frequently used on
building sites, which lowers the capacity of scaffolding.
3.3. The erection of scaffolding
The two stages described above, namely designing the
scaffolding and selecting the elements in a proper technical
state, are extremely significant for the reliability of scaffolding
as well as for the safety of use, but they do not generate failures
on their own. Nevertheless, the assembling stage of scaffold-
ing (Fig. 10) is a phase when the scaffolding is incomplete,
without safety devices; hence assembling subsequent ele-
ments require much effort and inventiveness from assembly
workers. According to Ref. [25], 30% of accidents on scaffolding
occur at this stage.
The way assembly workers erect the scaffolding has an
impact not only on their safety but also the safety of other
workers. Scaffolding should be assembled in accordance with
an individual project or a producer's documentation, all the
HSE regulations and frequently ‘‘common sense’’ included.
Four out of six positions displayed in Fig. 4 are related to proper
assembling, and e.g. in 2011, on over 40% of inspected building
sites there appeared violations connected with filling a
scaffold with platforms, improper fixing of communication
verticals or their absence, the improper fixing of guard rails or
even their absence, as well as the protection of work place
surrounding the scaffolding.
522 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 10 – Stage III – assembling the scaffolding.
The quality of assembling is of considerable significance for
the safety of a further use of a construction. Assembly workers
exert an impact on two crucial aspects while assembling the
scaffolding, such as the accuracy in making joints (proper
tightening of connectors, applying cotters etc.) as well as the
accuracy in the geometry of scaffolding, which means as small
the deviations from the designed axis of a construction as
possible. According to the standard EN 18211-1 [23], the
introduction of permissible deviations, defined in the standard
EN 12810-1 [21] as 0.01 of height, does not influence the
capacity of construction, yet further increase in the value of
imperfection can lead to the loss of stability.
3.4. The operation stage of scaffolding
The following stage of scaffold ‘‘life’’ is related to its operating
(Fig. 11). In line with Ref. [25], 50% of accidents on scaffolding
occur at this stage. The safety of people on scaffolding is
Fig. 11 – Operating the scaffolding – stage IV.
guaranteed by obeying the HSE regulations described in the
regulation [20] and more importantly:
- it is not allowed to load the platforms of scaffolding with
materials above their fixed capacity,
- gathering of workers on platforms should be forbidden,
- it is not allowed to climb up trestles, stringers, transom poles
and rails of a scaffold,
- it is not allowed to leave tools at the edges of platforms,
- it is not allowed to make sudden moves, bend over rails,
gather materials and tools at one side of scaffolding, leaning
on the wall of a building etc. by the people on the platform,
- works at heights should be carried out with the application
of individual and collective safety devices,
- employed workers are obliged to possess valid medical
examination in terms of performed works,
- it is necessary to conduct the inspection of scaffolding daily
by a worker of the company that operates the scaffolding,
- the inspection of scaffolding should be performed after the
occurrence of adverse weather conditions such as a storm,
high winds of over 10 m/s, as well as in the case of the fall of
heavy objects or devices on a scaffold. In the latter case,
there should be paid special attention should be paid to the
technical condition of platform handles.
These are the most significant principles while operating
scaffolds, but there is yet another crucial aspect, which is the
disassembling of individual elements of scaffolding. It may
happen that a particular element makes the works difficult
and thus it is removed. As a consequence, the HSE regulations
are violated and if, e.g. a guard rail or an anchor or bracing are
removed, there appears a decrease in the capacity of a
construction.
3.5. The disassembling of scaffolding
The use of scaffolding ends with its disassembling. The
disassembling stage (Fig. 12) similarly to the assembling one is
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 15 (2015) 516–524
Fig. 12 – Disassembling the scaffolding – stage V.
a hazardous phase for assembly workers since the elements
providing security and stability of a construction are removed.
Only the proper order of disassembling of scaffolding
guarantees security to assembly workers.
During the disassembling of scaffolding, some abnormali-
ties can happen which have an impact on a further application
of particular elements of scaffolding. In the course of
disassembling some damage of elements may occur as a
result of a hammer impact, falling of elements from
considerable heights or the improper storage of elements.
The significance of such incidents is described in Section 3.2.
4. Conclusions
The building industry belongs to the economy area where
numerous workplace accidents occur. In most cases and in a
considerable part of building disasters one of the material
factors is a scaffold which is a commonly used facility while
working at heights and in the areas with poor access; hence
the situations of greater risk. The analysis of the subsequent
phases of the scaffolding operation life together with the
determination of trouble spots which can generate hazardous
situations whose final effects are accidents and building
disasters involving scaffolding is of great importance. The
issues presented in the article demonstrate how many factors
exert an impact on the final effect, which is the safe assembly
of scaffolding and its later usage. The juxtaposition of
conclusions for the particular stages of the scaffolding
operation life is presented below.
Stage I. The preparation of design documentation of scaf-
folding–the regulations concerning the design are
described in standards. Nonetheless, such regula-
tions are not properly determined in the case of wind
load, they do not consider more complicated
constructions e.g. locating a scaffold on the gantry,
and the companies producing scaffolds do not
provide the information on the scaffold elements
523
(cross-section geometrical characteristics, material
properties, flexible joints described by the relation-
ship between a moment and an angle rotation)
which is essential while designing scaffold. Howev-
er, it must be stated that the design documentation
is not prepared for financial reasons.
Stage II. The selection of the set of elements to assemble a
scaffold–the regulations concerning tansport and a
selection of elements are well known, yet there are
no methods of accurate assessment of the scaffold
technical state, and more importantly, there are no
regulations to determine a scaffolding element
capacity with regard to multiple uses and various
arrangements of loads in the case of subsequent
applications.
Stage III. The erection of scaffolding–the breaching of the HSE
regulations affects mostly the accident rate, as well
as the lack of the static strength analysis in the
scaffold design in the subsequent parts of the
assembly.
Stage IV. The operation stage of scaffolding–in the case of the
properly assembled scaffolding, the undesirable
incidents are caused by people who use scaffolds
improperly, by the acts of vandalism and the
violation of the HSE regulations, scaffold overload-
ing, as well as the construction exposure to the
dynamic interaction caused by machines working
near the scaffold.
Stage V. The disassembling of scaffolding–the regulations
concerning proper disassembly of scaffolds and the
HSE regulations are well known to assembly work-
ers; nevertheless, they are frequently breached.
The reasons for accidents can be divided into three
categories – violation of regulations due to the ignorance or
poor psycho-physical condition of workers, economical
factors, as well as the lack of knowledge on several important
issues (e.g. loads, assessment of the technical state, construc-
tion capacity during the multiple use etc.). In every area further
research is highly recommended to decrease the number of
undesirable situations involving scaffolds, at the same time
lowering the number of accidents in civil engineering and also
building disasters.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the statutory budget
funds of Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture in Lublin
University of Technology and Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Architecture and Environmental Engineering in Łódź Univer-
sity of Technology.
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