Physiology Assignment

Name :Habib Khan

First Semester

Submission Date: 8-March-2024

Protein Synthesis :

Protein Synthesis is the process where cells creat protein.

Explanation:

There are two steps in protein synthesis.

1) Transcription 2) Translation

Transcription:

The copying of genetic information of the DNA into a molecule of mRNA is called
Transcription.

The main steps of Transcription are as follows:

1) Transcription is initiated when a special enzyme RNA polymerase binds to particular
sequence of nucleotides on one of the RNA strand .The strand is known as template
strand or Anti sense strand while the other is called Coding .
2) The sequence of nucleotides where the enzyme bind at that end of the edge of the gene
3) Starting at the end of the gene proceed the RNA polymerase to assemble a single
strand of RNA with a nucelotide sequence complementary to that of the template
strand .
4) When the enzyme arrives to a special stop signal at the far edge of the gene it
disengages from the DNA and release the newly assemble RNA chain .

Translation:
The formation of polypeptide by ribosomes which use the information contained in and
mRNA molecule to direct the choice of amino acids .The process of mRNA directed
polypeptide chain by ribosomes is called Translation.
The main steps on Translation process are as follows:
1) Translation begin when rRNA molecule within the ribosomes binds to one end of
mRNA strands .
2) When it has bounds to the mRNA molecule a ribosomes proceed to move along the
mRNA molecules in increments of three nucleotides .
3) At each step adds an amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain .
4) It contains to do this until it encounters a Stop signal that indicates the ends of the
polypeptide.

Importance of protein in cellular functions

1)Hormones: Some proteins act as hormones, regulating physiological processes.

2) Immune Response: Proteins act as antibodies in the immune response.

3) Cell Signaling: Proteins are involved in cell signaling pathways.

4) Transport and Storage: Proteins transport molecules and store them within cells.

5)Structural Support: Proteins provide structural support to cells and tissues.

Diagram of protein Synthesis:
Cell Cycle

Definition:

Cell reproduce by division process and form daughter cells. Each daughter cell also
inherits about half of the parent's cell cytoplasm, including full complement of organells
Each round of growth and cell division is called a cell Cycle

The cell cycle comprises of two periods .

1)Interphase (non dividing phase)

2)Cell division ( formation of daughter cell)

Interphase:

The period of cell cycle between consecutive division is termed as Interphase .It may be
divided into the following sub-stages .

1) Sub-stage G1(Gap one )

2) Sub-stage S( Synthesis phase)
3) Sub-stage G2( Gap two)

Sub-stage G1

During the G1 phase, the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins needed for
DNA replication. It also prepares for DNA replication, a key process in cell division.

Sub-stage S

In the S phase, DNA replication occurs, resulting in the duplication of the entire genome.
Each chromosome is replicated to form two sister chromatids, held together at the
centromere.

Sub-stage G2

The G2 phase follows, during which the cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis.
Protein synthesis continues, and organelles replicate. Importantly, the cell checks the
replicated DNA for errors and repairs any damage, ensuring that the genetic material is
intact before entering the next stage of the cell cycle.

Mitosis;
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a parent cell dovides to form a two equal and and
identical daughters cells . These cells contain same amount of genetic material or same
number of chromosomes .

The process of mitosis is further divided into

1)Karyokines

2) Cytokinesis

A) Karyokinesis

1)Prophase: Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. The nuclear envelope

breaks down, and the mitotic spindle forms

2) Metaphase: Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell along the metaphase plate.

3) Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase: Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell, and the nuclear envelope re-
forms. The cell undergoes cytokinesis, dividing the cytoplasm and organelles into two
daughter cells.

B)Cytokynesis

The division of cytoplasm after the formation of two nuclei is known as Cytokynesis.

In an animal cell a constriction ,appears in the cytoplasm from cell membrane and it goes
on increasing toward the centre ,until it divode the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.

In plants the Cytokynesis takes place with the appearance of cell plate at the equatorial
plane which moves side ways to divide the mother cell into two daughters cell.

Meiosis:

Meiosis is a process that occurs in two stages: meiosis I and meiosis II. In meiosis I,
homologous chromosomes (chromosomes that contain the same genes, one inherited
from each parent) pair up and exchange genetic material in a process called crossing over.
This genetic exchange increases genetic diversity among offspring. After crossing over, the
homologous chromosomes separate, with one chromosome from each pair going to each
daughter cell.In meiosis II, the two daughter cells produced from meiosis I divide again, but
this time, the chromosomes do not replicate. This division is similar to mitosis, where the
sister chromatids of each chromosome are separated, resulting in a total of four daughter
cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original ce
Diagram of cell reproduction
Meiosis

Case studies

1) Sickle Cell Anemia

Patient profile :
: A 25-year-old African American male presents with recurrent episodes of severe
pain, fatigue, and shortness of breath.Diagnosis: Sickle cell anemia, a genetic
disorder where the red blood cells become crescent-shaped and sticky, leading to
blockages in blood flow.
Diagnosis:Sickle cell anemia, a genetic disorder where the red blood cells become
crescent-shaped and sticky, leaduing to blockages in blood flow.
MechanismDue to a mutation in the hemoglobin gene, the protein responsible for
carrying oxygen in red blood cells is abnormal, causing the cells to become rigid and
sickle-shaped under certain conditions.
Symptoms
Painful episodes (called crises) occur when sickle-shaped cells block blood flow,
leading to tissue damage
1)Cancer
Patient profile:
A 50-year-old female presents with a rapidly growing lump in her breast.
Diagnosis
Breast cancer, a disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of
abnormal cells in the breast tissue.
Mechanism
Cancer develops when normal cells undergo mutations that disrupt the normal
mechanisms of cell division and apoptosis (cell death), leading to uncontrolled
proliferation.
Symptoms
The lump in the breast is a common symptom, along with changes in breast size or
shape, skin dimpling, and nipple

Bacterial I fection:
Patient profile:
Patient Profile: A 30-year-old male presents with fever, chills, and a sore throat.
Diagnosis
Streptococcal pharyngitis, a bacterial infection caused by group A Streptococcus
bacteria.
Mechanism
The bacteria infect the throat and tonsils, leading to inflammation and the
production of toxins that cause symptoms.
Symptoms
Sore throat, fever, swollen lymph nodes, and white patches on the tonsils are
common symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis.