Cell Division

Functions in
• Reproduction, Growth, and Repair
• Cell division involves the distribution of identical
genetic material, DNA, to two daughters cells.
 Chromosomes
• The word chromosome comes from the Greek (chroma,
colour) and (soma, body) due to their property of being very
strongly stained by particular dyes

• 100,000 to over 3,750,000,000-nucleotides-Humans

• nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a

condensed Structure called chromatin (DNA+Protein), help to
fit in nucleus
• autosomes and sex chromosomes

• 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair

of sex chromosomes) (1) Chromatid –
one of the two
• Chromosomal recombination plays a vital role in genetic identical parts
diversity. of the
chromosome
• Chromosomal instability and translocation,-die, evade (2)Centromere 
apoptosis leading to cancer. (3) Short arm.
(4) Long arm.
Species # Species #

Common fruit fly 8 Domestic sheep 54

Domestic cat 38 Horse 64

Laboratory mouse 40
Rabbit 44
Gorillas, Chimpanzees 48
Elephants 56
Donkey 62
Dog 78

Guinea Pig 64

Laboratory rat 42
Human 46
Cow 60
Human genome has 3 billion base pairs
genes in the human genome is estimated at
20,000-25,000.
Definitions
Gene - basic unit of heredity; codes for a specific trait
Locus - the specific location of a gene on a chromosome (locus -
plural loci)
Genome - the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or
organism
Somatic cell - all body cells except reproductive cells
Gamete - reproductive cells (i.e. sperm & eggs)
Chromosome - elongate cellular structure composed of DNA and
protein - they are the vehicles which carry DNA in cells
Diploid (2n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is
represented by two homologous chromosomes
Haploid (n) - cellular condition where each chromosome type is
represented by only one chromosome
Homologous chromosome - chromosome of the same size and
shape which carry the same type of genes
Chromatid - one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the
centromere
Centromere - region of chromosome where microtubules attach
during mitosis and meiosis
 Cell cycle
The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and
duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells.
The cell cycle is broadly divided into the interphase, the mitotic phase and cytokinesis.
Interphase
The stage in the development of a cell following mitosis or meiosis, during which the nucleus is not dividing.
In cells that will undergo further division, the DNA in the nucleus is duplicated in preparation for the next
division. The three stages included within the interphase are the G1, S and G2.
G1 Phase (Growth phase)
The first growth period of the cell cycle, during interphase, in which the cell grows and cytoplasmic
organelles are replicated. The cell synthesizes mRNA. Cell gather nutrients that are required for cell division
(proteins and enzymes).
S Phase (Synthesis phase)
Part of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated, occurring between G1 phase and G2 phase.
G2 Phase (Gap Phase)
The cell prepares for mitosis or meiosis. The mitotic spindle formed from the cytokinetic fibers start forming
and the cell ensures the number of chromosomes and the organelles present, which further leads the cell cycle
from the interphase to the mitotic phase.
 Mitotic phase (M-phase)
M phase is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major reorganization of virtually all cell
components. It is the period in the cell cycle during which cell division takes place. The M phase, can be either
mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of cell. The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division
(karyokinesis).
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is that part of the cell division process during which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides
into two daughter cells. Cytoplasmic division begins during or after the late stages of nuclear
division in mitosis and meiosis.
• cleavage First, a cleavage furrow appears
cleavage furrow = shallow groove near the location of the old
metaphase plate
• A contractile ring of actin microfilaments in association with
myosin, a protein
Actin and myosin are also involved in muscle contraction and other
movement functions
• The contraction of a the dividing cell's ring of microfilaments is like
the pulling of drawstrings
The cell is pinched in two
 Regulation of the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is controlled by a cyclically operating set of reaction
sequences that both trigger and coordinate key events in the cell cycle. The
cell-cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (chemical messages)
Checkpoint - a critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-
ahead signals can regulate the cell cycle
Animal cells have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycles and
checkpoints until overridden by go-ahead signals.
Three Major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the
cell cycle
The G1 checkpoint - the Restriction Point
The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide, and
that enough nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter
cells.
Go ahead / not (non-dividing state called G0)
Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase
The G2 checkpoint ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been
completed successfully. 
The metaphase checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached
to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases - The
Cell-Cycle Clock

Kinase - a protein which activates or deactivates another

protein by phosphorylating them.
Kinases give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2
checkpoints
The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves
be activated
The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein that
derives its name from its cyclically fluctuating
concentration in the cell
Because of this requirement, these kinases are called
cyclin-dependent kinases, or Cdk's
MPF - Maturation Promoting Factor (M-
phase promoting factor)

Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases of

the cell cycle
By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to
form MPF complexes (aggregations of Cdk and cyclin)
which initiate mitosis
Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a
process which leads to the destruction of cyclin
Cdk, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell
as an inactive form until it associates with new
cyclin molecules synthesized during interphase of
the next round of the cell cycle
 Inhibitors
Two families of genesCDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein and (Inhibitor of
Kinase 4/Alternative Reading Frame) prevent the progression of the cell cycle.
Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as
tumor suppressors.
1. They halt cell cycle in G1 phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin-CDK complexes,
2. CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and
3. Growth inhibitor.
p19ARF which prevents p53 degradation.
Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore
be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents
Cells Which No Longer Respond to Cell-Cycle Controls -
Cancer Cells
Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body's control
mechanism.
They divide excessively and invade other tissues
If left unchecked, they can kill the organism
Cancer cells do not exhibit contact inhibition
If cultured, they continue to grow on top of each other when
the total area of the petri dish has been covered
They may produce required external growth factor (or override
factors) themselves or possess abnormal signal transduction
sequences which falsely convey growth signals thereby by
passing normal growth checks
Cancer cells exhibit irregular growth sequences
If growth of cancer cells does cease, it does so at random points
of the cell cycle
Cancer cells can go on dividing indefinitely if they are given a
continual supply of nutrients
Normal mammalian cells growing in culture only divide
20-50 times before they stop dividing
 Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells having the same genetic material
In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division:
Mitosis: The process by which the nucleus divides, producing two new nuclei that
are genetically identical to the nucleus of the parent cell (diploid cells), occur in
somatic cells (skin, heart, stomach, cheek, hair etc. cells)
Meiosis: The process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount of genetic information (haploid cells),
only occurs in gametes or sex cells (eggs or sperms).
Stages of Mitosis
Stages of Meiosis
Description of Stages
of meiosis
Comparison of mitosis and meiosis