Air-Standard Cycles 9.

Note that the compression ratio of the spark-ignition engines is restricted below a certain limit
(about 8 to 10) because of the phenomenon of knocking. It is the premature ignition of the fuel which
produces an audible noise. Knocking occurs at higher compression ratios because at higher
compression ratios the temperature of the air-fuel mixture rises above the auto-ignition temperature of
the fuel during the combustion process. Thermal efficiency of the spark-ignition engines can be
improved by utilizing higher compression ratios (upto 12) without knocking by using fuel (gasoline)
blends that have good antiknock characteristics.
Another parameter that influences the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is the specific heat ratio.
Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the specific heat ratio for a given compression
ratio. Figure 9.3 depicts that for a fixed compression ratio, Otto cycle using a monatomic gas as the
working fluid will have the highest thermal efficiency.
The actual efficiency of spark-ignition engine is much less than that of the Otto cycle.

Example 9.1 An engine equipped with a cylinder having a bore of 15 cm and a stroke of 45 cm
operates on an Otto cycle. If the clearance volume is 2000 cm3, compute the air
standard efficiency.
Solution Bore D = 15 cm, stroke L = 45 cm, Clearance volume, Vc = 2000 cm3
ð 2 ð
Displacement volume, Vs = D L = (15) ¥ 45 = 7952.156 cm3
2
4 4
V V + Vs 2000 + 7952.156
Compression ratio, r = max = c = = 4.976
Vmin Vc 2000
1 1
Air standard efficiency, hcycle = 1 - =1- = 0.4737 or 47.37%
r ã -1 4.9760.4
Example 9.2 For an engine operating on air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is 10% of
the swept volume. If the specific heat ratio of air is 1.4, compute the air standard
cycle efficiency.
Solution
Clearance volume Vc = 0.1 Vs , where Vs is swept volume.
Specific heat ratio g = 1.4
Compression ratio of the engine is
Vmax Vc + Vs V V
r= = = 1 + s = 1 + s = 11
Vmin Vc Vc 0.1Vs
The air standard cycle efficiency is then
1 1
h =1- g -1
= 1- = 0.6168 or 61.68%
r 110.4

Example 9.3 A spark-ignition engine working on air standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is
7, and compression begins at 35°C, 100 kPa. The maximum temperature of the cycle
is 1100°C. Find (a) temperature and pressure at the cardinal points of the cycle,
(b) the heat supplied per kg of air (c) the cycle efficiency, (d) the work done per kg
of air, and (e) the mean effective pressure (MEP).
9.6 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P-V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.4.

WE
Q1
P

4
2 Q2
WC 1
V

Figure 9.4

Compression ratio r=7

Minimum pressure of the cycle P 1 = 100 kPa
Minimum temperature of the cycle T 1 = 35 ∞C = 35 + 273 = 308 K
Maximum temperature of the cycle T 1 = 1100∞C = 1100 + 273 = 1373 K
(a) Since the process 1–2 is isentropic, we have
g -1
T2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
T1 Ë V2 ¯
g -1
ÊV ˆ
= 308 ¥ (7 )
0.4
or T2 = T1 Á 1 ˜ = 670.82 K
ËV ¯ 2

g
P2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
P1 Ë V2 ¯
g
ÊV ˆ
P2 = P1 Á 1 ˜ = 100 ¥ (7) = 1524.53 kPa
1.4
or
ËV ¯ 2

For the constant volume process 2–3, we find that

P2 P
= 3
T2 T3
T3 1373
or P3 = P2 = 1524.53 ¥ = 3120.33 kPa = 3.12 MPa
T2 670.82
For the isentropic process 3–4, we have
g -1
T3 ÊV ˆ
= Á 4˜ = r g -1 = 70.4 = 2.178
T4 Ë V3 ¯
T3 1373
or T4 = = = 630.39 K
2.178 2.178
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.7

g
P4 ÊV ˆ
= Á 3˜
P3 Ë V4 ¯
g
ÊV ˆ P3 P3 P3
or P4 = P3 Á 3 ˜ = = =
ËV ¯ 4 Ê V4 ˆ
g
Ê V1 ˆ
g
rg
ÁË V ˜¯ ËÁ V ¯˜
3 2

3.12
or P4 = = 0.205 MPa
71.4
(b) Heat supplied per kg of air is
Q1 = C v (T3 - T2 ) = 0.718(1373 - 670.82) = 504.17 kJ/kg
(c) The cycle efficiency is
1 1
hOtto = 1 - = 1- = 0.5408 or 54.08%
r g -1
(7)0.4
(d) Work done per kg of air is
Wnet = Q1 hOtto = 504.17 ¥ 0.5408 = 272.66 kJ/kg
(e) The MEP is found from Eq. (9.1) as
Wnet
MEP =
V1 - V2
We have
RT1 0.287 ¥ 308
V1 = = = 0.884 m 3 /kg
P1 100
V1 0.884
V2 = = = 0.126 m 3 /kg
7 7
Thus
Wnet 272.66
MEP = = = 359.71 kPa
V1 - V2 0.884 - 0.126

Example 9.4 An engine working on Otto cycle is supplied with air at 1 bar, 27°C. The
compression ratio is 8. Heat supplied is 1500 kJ/kg. Calculate the maximum pressure
and temperature of the cycle, the cycle efficiency, and the mean effective pressure.
For air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK.

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P-V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.5.
9.8 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

WE
P Q1

4
2 Q2
WC 1
V

Figure 9.5

Compression ratio r=8

Minimum pressure of the cycle P1 = 1 bar
Minimum temperature of the cycle T1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Heat supplied to the cycle Q1 = 1500 kJ/kg
For the isentropic process 1–2, we have
g -1
T2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
T1 Ë V2 ¯
g -1
ÊV ˆ
or T2 = T1 Á 1 ˜ = 300 ¥ 80.4 = 689.22 K
Ë V2 ¯
g
P2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
P1 Ë V2 ¯
g
ÊV ˆ
or P2 = P1 Á 1 ˜ = 1 ¥ 81.4 = 18.38 bar
Ë V2 ¯
Heat supplied per kg of air is given by
Q1 = Cv (T3 - T2 )
or 1500 = 0.718(T3 - 689.22)
or T2 = 2778.36K
For the constant volume process 2–3, we find that
P2 P
= 3
T2 T3
T3 2778.36
or P3 = P2 = 18.38 ¥ = 74.09 bar
T2 689.22
The cycle efficiency is
1 1
hOtto = 1 - g -1
= 1- 1.4 -1
= 0.5647 or 56.47%
r 8
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.9

Work done per kg of air is

Wnet = Q1 ¥ hOtto = 1500 ¥ 0.5647 = 847.05 kJ/kg
The MEP is found from equation (9.1) as
Wnet
MEP =
V1 - V2
We have
RT1 0.287 ¥ 300
V1 = = = 0.86 m 3 /kg
P1 100

V1 0.86
V2 = = = 0.11 m 3 /kg
8 8
Thus
Wnet 847.05
MEP = = = 1129.4 kN/m 2 = 11.294 bar
V1 - V2 0.86 - 0.11

Example 9.5 An engine working on the Otto cycle has an air standard cycle efficiency of 56% and
rejects 544 kJ/kg of heat. The pressure and temperature of air at the beginning of
compression are 0.1 MPa, and 30 °C respectively. Compute the compression ratio of
the engine, the work done per kg of air, the pressure and temperature at the end of
compression, and the maximum pressure in the cycle.

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P-V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.6.

WE
P Q1

4
2 Q2
WC 1
V

Figure 9.6

Compression ratio r =8
Minimum pressure of the cycle P1 = 0.1 MPa
Minimum temperature of the cycle T1 = 30 °C = 30 + 273= 303 K
Heat supplied to the cycle Q1 = 544 kJ/kg
Air standard cycle efficiency hOtto = 0.56
9.10 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

The cycle efficiency is

1
hOtto = 1 - g -1
= 0.56
r
or r = 7.79
The thermal efficiency can also be expressed as
Q2
hOtto = 1 - = 0.56
Q1
Q2
or = 1 - 0.56 = 0.44
Q1

Q2 544
or Q1 = = = 1236.36 kJ/kg
0.44 0.44
Work done per kg of air is Wnet = Q1 ¥ hOtto = 1236.36 ¥ 0.56 = 692.36 kJ/kg
For the isentropic process 1–2, we have
g -1
T2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
T1 Ë V2 ¯
g -1
ÊV ˆ
or T 2¢ = T1 Á 1 ˜ = 303 ¥ 7.79 0.4 = 688.74 K
Ë V2 ¯
g
P2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
P1 Ë V2 ¯

g
ÊV ˆ
or P2 = P1 Á 1 ˜ = 0.1 ¥ 7.791.4 = 1.77 MPa
Ë V2 ¯

Again, Q1 = Cv (T3 - T2 ) = 0.718 (T3 - 688.74) = 1236.36 kJ/kg

or T3 = 2410.69 K
For the constant volume process 2–3, we can write
P2 P
= 3
T2 T3
T3 2410.69
or P3 = P2 ¥ = 1.77 ¥ = 6.195 MPa
T2 688.74
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.11

Example 9.6 (a) Show that the net shaft work output from the air-standard Otto cycle per unit
È T ˘
mass of air is given by Wnet = Cv ÍT3 - T1r g -1 - g 3-1 + T1 ˙ , where T3 and T1
Î r ˚
are the maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle and r is the
compression ratio.
(b) In practical engines T1 is fixed at ambient temperature and T3 is fixed by the
maximum temperature that can avoid the knocking phenomenon. Show that
for fixed values of T1 and T3, the compression ratio for maximum work output
1
Ê T ˆ 2(1-g )
per unit mass of air flowing round the cycle is given by r = Á 1 ˜
ËT ¯ 3

Solution (a) The net shaft work output from the air-standard Otto cycle per unit mass of
air is given by (see Fig. 9.2)
Wnet = Cv (T3 - T2 ) - Cv (T3 - T2 ) (9.4)
For the isentropic process 1 Æ 2, we have
g -1
ÊV ˆ
T2 = T1 Á 1 ˜ = T1r g -1 (9.5)
Ë V2 ¯
Similarly, for the isentropic process , we get
g -1
ÊV ˆ
T3 = T4 Á 4 ˜ = T4 r g -1 (9.6)
ËV ¯3
From Eqs. (9.4), (9.5) and (9.6), we have
È T ˘
Wnet = Cv ÍT3 - T1r g -1 - g 3-1 + T1 ˙
Î r ˚
dWnet
(b) For fixed values of T1 and T3, Wnett, will be maximum when =0
dr
d È T ˘
Cv T3 - T1r g -1 - g 3-1 + T1 ˙ = 0
dr ÍÎ
or
r ˚
or - T1 (g - 1)r g -1-1 + (g - 1)T3r - (g -1)-1 = 0

or T3 r -g = T1r g - 2
T1
or r 2(1-g ) =
T3
1
Ê T ˆ 2(1-g )
or r =Á 1˜
ËT ¯ 3
9.12 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

9.5 DIESEL CYCLE

The Diesel cycle was developed by Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913) in 1893. This cycle is extensively used
by large and small stationary engines. Most of the present day transport trucks, buses, and cars are
operate on diesel because of the low cost of the diesel oil.
Air is compressed in the process 1–2 reversibly and adiabatically. Heat is then added to air reversibly
at constant pressure in the process 2–3. Work is done by air in expanding reversibly and adiabatically in
the process 3–4. Heat is then rejected by air reversibly at constant volume in the process 4–1, and the
system comes back to its initial state. Heat transfer processes have been substituted for the combustion
and blow-down processes of the engine. The intake and exhaust processes of the engine cancel each
other. Different processes of the Otto cycle on P–V and T–S diagrams are shown in Fig. 9.7.
Q1
2 3 3
c
p=
P T WE
WE
Q1
2 c
WC
WC v= 4
4
Q2
1 1 Q2

V S
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9.7 Diesel cycle on (a) P– V diagram and (b) T– S diagram
Let m be the fixed mass of air undergoing the cycle of operation.
The constant-pressure heat addition Q1 = mC p (T3 - T2 )
The constant-volume heat rejection Q2 = mCv (T4 - T1 )
The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle is expressed as
Wnet Q1 - Q2 Q
hDiesel = = =1- 2
Q1 Q1 Q1
mCv (T4 - T1 )
= 1-
mC p (T3 - T2 )

T4 - T1
= 1-
g (T3 - T2 )

Ê T4 ˆ
Á - 1˜
1 T1 Ë T1 ¯
or hDiesel = 1 - (9.7)
g T2 Ê T3 ˆ
ÁË T - 1˜¯
2
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.13

The expression for the thermal efficiency is often written in terms of the compression ratio
r (= V1/V2) and the cut-off ratio rc (= V3/V2) which is defined as the ratio of volume at cut-off to the
clearance volume.
For the isentropic compression process 1–2, we have
g -1
T2 Ê V1 ˆ
= = r g -1
T1 ÁË V2 ˜¯
For the constant-pressure process 2–3, one can write
T3 V3
= = rc
T2 V2
For the isentropic expansion process 3–4, we have
g -1 g -1 g -1 g -1
T4 Ê V3 ˆ ÊV ˆ ÊV V ˆ Êr ˆ
= =Á 3˜ =Á 3 2˜ =Á c˜
T3 ÁË V4 ˜¯ Ë V1 ¯ Ë V2 V1 ¯ Ër¯

T2 T3 T
Substituting , and 4 in Eq. (9.7), we obtain
T1 T2 T3

Ê T4 ˆ Ê T4 T3 T2 ˆ
Á - 1˜ Á - 1˜
1 T1 Ë T1 ¯ 1 T1 Ë T3 T2 T1 ¯
hDiesel = 1 - = 1-
g T2 Ê T3 ˆ g T2 Ê T3 ˆ
ÁË T - 1˜¯ ÁË T - 1˜¯
2 2

g -1
Ê rc ˆ
rc r g -1 - 1
1 1 ÁË r ˜¯
= 1-
g r g -1 (rc - 1)
1 1 rcg -1 - 1
or hDiesel = 1 - (9.8)
r g -1 g rc - 1

1 rcg - 1
As cut-off ratio rc > 1, is greater than unity. Therefore, for a given compression ratio r,
g rc - 1
the efficiency of the Diesel cycle is less than that of an Otto cycle. For example, if r = 10 and rc = 2,
the Otto cycle efficiency is 60.2% and the Diesel cycle efficiency is 53.4%. In practice, however, a
compression ratio of 20 or so can be achieved in a diesel engine (compression ratio of the gasoline
engines is restricted below about 8 to 10); using r = 20 and rc = 2, we would find h = 64.7%. Thus,
because of the higher compression ratio, a diesel engine typically operates at a higher efficiency than
a gasoline engine.
As the cut-off ratio rc increases, the Diesel cycle efficiency decreases.
9.14 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

Example 9.7 In a diesel engine the compression ratio is 14:1 and fuel is cut off at 7% of the stroke.
Find the air-standard efficiency of the engine. Take g for air = 1.4.

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P–V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.8.
Q1
2 3

P
WE

WC
4
Q2
1
V
Figure 9.8

V1
Compression ratio r = = 14
V2
Fuel is cut off at 7% of the stroke. It means
V3 - V2 = 0.07(V1 - V2 )

V3 - V2 (V - V2 )
or = 0.07 1
V2 V2

V3 ÊV ˆ
or - 1 = 0.07 Á 1 - 1˜
V2 Ë V2 ¯

V3
or = 1 + 0.07 (14 - 1) = 1.91
V2
Thus the cut-off ratio is rc = 1.91
Efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by

1 1 rcg - 1
hDiesel = 1 -
r g -1 g rc - 1

= 1- 1 1 1.911.4 - 1
= 0.5973 = 59.73%
141.4 -1 1.4 1.91 - 1

Example 9.8 In an air standard Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 15. Compression begins at
0.1 MPa, 40 °C. The heat added is 1.675 MJ/kg . Find (a) the maximum pressure and
temperature of the cycle, (b) the cut-off ratio, (c) the cycle efficiency, (d) the work
done per kg of air, and (e) the temperature at the end of the isentropic expansion.
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.15

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P–V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.9.
Q1
2 3

P WE

WC
4
Q2
1
V
Figure 9.9

Compression ratio r = 15
Minimum pressure of the cycle P 1 = 0.1 MPa
Minimum temperature of the cycle T 1 = 40∞C = 40 + 273 = 313 K
Heat supplied to the cycle Q1 = 1.675 MJ/kg = 1.675 ¥ 103 kJ/kg
(a) For the isentropic process 1 – 2, we have
g
P2 Ê ˆ
= V1
P1 ÁË V ˜¯
2
g
ÊV ˆ
or P2 = P1 Á 1 ˜ = 0.1 ¥ 151.4 = 4.43 MPa
Ë V2 ¯
This is the maximum pressure of the cycle.
g -1
T2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
T1 Ë V2 ¯
g -1
ÊV ˆ
or T2 = T1 Á 1 ˜ = 313 ¥ 150.4 = 924.66 K
Ë V2 ¯
Heat supplied per kg of air is given by
Q1 = Cp(T3 – T2)
or 1.675 = 103 = 1.005 (T3 – 924.66)
or T3 = 2591.33 K
This is the maximum temperature of the cycle.
(b) For the constant pressure process 2-3, we can write
V2 V
= 3
T2 T3
V3 T 2591.33
or = 3 = = 2.8
V2 T2 924.66
9.16 Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

The cut-off ratio is

(c) The cycle efficiency is rc = 2.8

1 1 rcg - 1
hDiesel = 1 -
r g -1 g rc - 1
1 1 2.81.4 - 1
= 1- = 0.5665 or 56.65%
151.4 -1 1.4 2.8 - 1
(d) Work done per kg of air is found to be

Wnet = Q1 ¥ hDiesel = 1.675 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.5665 = 948.89 kJ/kg

(e) For the isentropic process 3–4, we have
g -1 g -1
T3 ÊV ˆ ÊV V ˆ
= Á 4˜ =Á 1 2˜
T4 Ë V3 ¯ Ë V2 V3 ¯

g -1 0.4
T3 Êrˆ Ê 15 ˆ
or = Á ˜ =Á
T4 Ë rc ¯ Ë 2.8 ˜¯

2591.33
or T4 = 0.4
= 1324.19 K
Ê 15 ˆ
ÁË 2.8 ˜¯

Example 9.9 In an air standard Diesel cycle, the pressure and temperature at the intake are
100 kPa bar and 27 °C respectively. The maximum pressure in the cycle is 4 MPa
and heat supplied during the cycle is 1000 kJ/kg. Determine (a) the compression
ratio, (b) the temperature at the end of the compression, (c) the temperature at the
end of the combustion, (d) the cut-off ratio, and (e) the air-standard efficiency.
Assume g = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-k for air.

Solution The four processes that form the Otto cycle on P–V diagram is shown in Fig. 9.10.
Q1
2 3

P WE

WC
4
Q2
1
V
Figure 9.10
 Air-Standard Cycles 9.17

Minimum pressure of the cycle P 1 = 100 kPa

Minimum temperature of the cycle T 1 = 27 °C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Maximum pressure of the cycle P 3 = P2 = 4 MPa = 4000 kPa
Heat supplied to the cycle Q1 = 1000 kJ/kg
(a) For the isentropic process 1–2, we have
g
P2 Ê V1 ˆ
= Á ˜
P1 Ë V2 ¯
1 1
V1 Ê P ˆ g Ê 4000 ˆ 1.4
or = Á 2˜ =Á = 13.94
V2 Ë P1 ¯ Ë 100 ˜¯
Thus, the compression ratio is r = 13.94
(b) For the isentropic process 1–2, we get
g -1
T2 ÊV ˆ
= Á 1˜
T1 Ë V2 ¯

g -1
ÊV ˆ
or T2 = T1 Á 1 ˜ = 300 ¥ 13.94 0.4 = 860.65 K
Ë V2 ¯
This is the temperature at the end of the compression.
(c) Heat supplied per kg of air is given by
Q1 = Cp(T3 – T2)
or 1000 = 1.005(T3 – 860.65)
or T3 = 1855.67 K
This is the temperature at the end of the combustion.
(b) For the constant pressure process 2–3, we can write
V2 V
= 3
T2 T3

V3 T 1855.67
or = 3 = = 2.16
V2 T2 860.65
The cut-off ratio is rc = 2.16
(c) The cycle efficiency is

1 1 rcg - 1
hDiesel = 1 -
r g -1 g rc - 1
1 1 2.161.4 - 1
= 1- = 0.5838 or 58.38%
13.941.4 -1 1.4 2.16 - 1