Materials Science and Engineering, 36 (1978) 47 - 63
© Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne -- Printed in the Netherlands
Temperature Dependence of Stacking Fault Energy in Close-Packed Metals and Alloys
L. RI~MY and A. PINEAU
Groupe de Mdtallurgie Mdcanique-Equipe de Recherche Associde au CNRS, Centre des Matdriaux-Ecole des
Mines de Paris, B.P. 87, 91003 Evry-Cedex (France)
B. THOMAS
IRSID B.P. 129, 78104 Saint-Gerrnain en Laye Cedex (France)
(Received February 24, 1978)
SUMMARY
The experimental data currently available
concerning the temperature dependence of
the stacking fault energy (SFE, 7) observed in
the study of the size variation of stacking
fault nodes and ribbons in thin foils on a
heating or a cooling stage in an electron
microscope are reviewed. It is shown that in
spite of the experimental difficulties useful
information can be obtained by this tech-
nique.
In pure cobalt and a number of transition
metal alloys (Co-Ni, Co-Fe, Fe-Cr-Ni and
Fe-Mn-Cr) a marked increase of the SFE
with increasing temperature has been un-
ambiguously demonstrated even though the
observed changes in node size are partly
irreversible. In the case of silver-base and
copper-base alloys the experimental data are
often contradictory and, except in the case of
Ag-Sn alloys which show a small reversible
increase in SFE with temperature, the quanti-
tative estimates of the temperature depen-
dence of SFE are less reliable. The influence
of temperature on SFE can be related to the
stability of the face-centred cubic phase with
respect to the hexagonal close-packed phase
at constant composition. Fairly good agree-
ment is observed between the measured value
of d7/dT and that estimated from thermo-
dynamic data, at least in the case of transition
metal alloys. The possibility of explaining the
observed temperature dependence of SFE in
terms of recent calculations based on electron
theory is discussed.
47
1. INTRODUCTION
Because of the importance of the stacking
fault energy (SFE), hereafter denoted by 7,
in relation to the mechanical behaviour of
face-centred cubic (f.c.c.) metals and alloys, a
considerable amount of research has been
devoted to the measurement of this parameter
and to the investigation of the effects of
alloying additions and temperature. These
aspects have been previously discussed by
Christian and Swann [1] and Gallagher [2].
New results published since these earlier
papers appeared have stimulated the prepara-
tion of the present article, the aim of which is
to review the currently available experimental
data concerning the temperature dependence
of SFE in various pure metals and alloys and
where possible to compare these data with
theoretical predictions based on thermo-
dynamic considerations and the electron
theory of metals.
A variety of techniques have been devised
to measure SFEs and the advantages and
drawbacks of each method have been exten-
sively reviewed [3 - 7]. The most convenient
method for the study of the temperature de-
pendence of SFE is that of the direct observa-
tion of the size variation of stacking fault con-
figurations (in particular triple nodes and
stacking fault ribbons) in thin foils on a
heating or a cooling stage in a transmission
electron microscope [3]. The work discussed
in this paper will be restricted for the most
part to experiments of this kind. However, it
is worth noting that this technique can be
48
applied only over a limited range of SFE
corresponding to values of 7/p b lying between
about 5 × 10 -3 and 5 × 10 -4, where p is the
shear modulus of the material and b is the
magnitude of the Burgers vector of the partial
dislocations bounding the stacking fault con-
figuration. Moreover, quantitative determina-
tions of the temperature dependence of SFE
from the measurement of size variations of
stacking fault configurations may be rather
difficult for a variety of reasons which are
discussed in some detail in Section 2.
In spite of these difficulties experimental
results are n o w available for a number of
close-packed noble metals and transition
metal alloys. These results are summarized in
Section 3, where it is shown that the temper-
ature dependence of SFE varies considerably
from one system to another. In Section 4 an
a t t e m p t is made to rationalize the observed
difference in terms of the temperature depen-
dence of the relative stability of the f.c.c, and
h.c.p, phases in each alloy using the model of
short range interaction which Ericson applied
earlier to the C o - N i system [ 8 ] . The limita-
tions of this approach are pointed out, and
finally the possibility of explaining the ob-
served temperature dependence of SFE in
terms of recent theoretical calculations based
on electronic structures is discussed.
2. DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN DETERMINING
THE VARIATION OF SFE WITH TEMPERATURE
FROM IN SITU ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
OBSERVATIONS
Although the determination of SFE from
measurements of the dimensions of stacking
fault nodes and ribbons is straightforward in
principle, a certain number of theoretical and
experimental difficulties are encountered in
practice and these are magnified when the
temperature is varied during the experiments.
2.1. Experimental difficulties
The theoretical calculations relating SFE to
the fault configuration dimensions take into
account only the forces derived from the
energy of the stacking fault and the energy of
the partial dislocations bounding the fault.
The validity of these calculations within this
approximation may be considered to be satis-
factory and for a full discussion of this point
the reader is referred to papers by Brown [9]
and R u f f [3]. In practice, however, the
dimensions of stacking fault nodes and
ribbons observed in a given foil at room tem-
perature generally exhibit considerable scatter
and standard deviations in the experimental
measurements of the order of 10 - 20% of the
mean value are quite common. Part of this
scatter is u n d o u b t e d l y due to difficulties in-
volved in locating and measuring precisely,
on normal bright field micrographs, the posi-
tion of the partial dislocations at'the edges of
the fault. This obviously continues to be one
of the sources of error in the determination of
the temperature dependence of SFE.
Although the recent development of the weak
beam imaging technique [10] has led to a
remarkable improvement in this respect, most
of the work reviewed in the present paper was
done without resort to this procedure.
Another source of scatter in isothermal mea-
surements of SFE can be attributed to forces
due to the proximity of neighbouring disloca-
tions and the foil surfaces. This effect can be
reduced to a minimum by a careful choice of
the nodes or ribbons used for the measure-
ments.
Finally it almost goes without saying that
when observations are carried out at various
temperatures, the temperature of the speci-
men must be controlled and measured with
reasonable precision. Local electron heating
of the foil is generally n o t a problem. The
other main problem is to ensure good thermal
contact between the thin foil and the speci-
men holder heating/cooling device. However,
errors in temperature measurement are
probably always smaller than the errors in the
estimation of SFE and they are of minor im-
portance in measuring the temperature varia-
tion of SFE.
2.2. Theoretical difficulties
In his review of the literature Gallagher [2]
pointed o u t that numerous factors besides a
true variation of SFE with temperature may
give rise to a temperature dependence of the
node size. The main factors are changes in
elastic constants, changes in lattice friction
forces, changes in the local or global chemical
composition of the alloy, solute or impurity
pinning of dislocations, Suzuki segregation to
the stacking fault and changes in short range

order and global chemical composition due to
changes in the solubility of the alloying
element with temperature.
2.2.1. Elastic constants
Since the changes in the elastic constants
are instantaneous and readily measured inde-
pendently of in situ experiments, corrections
can in fact easily be made for this effect.
2.2.2. Lattice friction forces and solute or
imp urity pinning of dislocations
As realized early by Christian and Swann
[ 1], who introduced the concept of "solute
impedance force", lattice friction forces (due
for instance to the presence of two kinds of
atoms in a random solid solution) and solute
or impurity pinning of dislocations lead to
similar effects on stacking fault configura-
tions. Both effects impede dislocation move-
ment. In isothermal experiments, however,
the assessment of the effects of friction forces
is practically impossible except perhaps in
cases where serrations, kinks or cusps are
clearly visible on the dislocations bounding
the fault as has been observed in some highly
alloyed silver and copper base alloys of low
SFE [2].
Nevertheless nodes and ribbons introduced
b y room temperature deformation are
expected to have a size smaller than the equi-
librium size as discussed previously and borne
o u t b y some experiments carried o u t when
such friction forces are present [11 - 14].
In most cases an increase in temperature of
the specimen above room temperature can
lead to a decrease in the effective local fric-
tion forces owing to thermal activation of the
dislocation movement. However, an increase
in specimen temperature can in certain cases
lead to an increase in dislocation pinning
forces due to the formation of solute or im-
purity atom atmospheres which subsequently
reduce the dislocation mobility. It is there-
fore difficult to establish a priori general rules
for predicting friction forces, although these
forces are expected to increase with the size
factor of the solute atom, and their influence
on the fault configurations during thermal
cycling. In the cases where irreversible
changes in node size or hysteresis effects are
observed the separation of the effects of
changes in dislocation mobility from those
due to a true SFE temperature dependence is
49
difficult and each particular case must be
treated separately. However, if the stacking
fault configurations change size reversibly
during thermal cycling it can be concluded
that the friction forces are negligible.
2.2.3. Suzuki segregation
In order to predict the change in SFE due
to the segregation of solute atoms to the
faults, a precise definition of SFE in solid
solutions is necessary. This matter has been
discussed in detail in an excellent paper by
Hirth [15]. For the purposes of the present
paper, we can summarize as follows. A
stacking fault can be considered as either a
Gibbs dividing surface [15] or a region of
finite width [16]. When treated correctly,
these approaches are strictly equivalent as
pointed out by Hirth [15]. Quantitative
estimations of equilibrium segregation have
been obtained by Ericsson [16] with the aid
of the finite width model. His results, which
were based on a thermodynamic calculation,
have been confirmed by the pair-potential
calculations of Nourtier [17] which were
applied to the case of dilute solutions of
normal metals.
The principal conclusions which can be
drawn from these calculations are as follows:
(1) at thermodynamic equilibrium the SFE
of a segregated fault is higher than that of an
unsegregated alloy with the solute content of
the segregated fault [14, 15, 18] ;
(2) the SFE of a segregated fault is lower
than that of the alloy in the absence of
segregation [14, 18].
In the present c o n t e x t the important point
is that if Suzuki segregation occurs when the
specimen temperature is raised it will lead to
an increase in the node size of an initially un-
segregated node. It follows that a reversible
decrease in fault dimensions with increasing
temperature (allowing for the changes in
elastic constants) provides convincing
evidence of a true SFE increase with tempera-
ture even though the magnitude of dT/dT
may be incorrectly estimated because of the
presence of Suzuki segregation.
2.2.4. Changes in degree of order or in the
global composition of solid solutions
During thermal cycling, changes in the
degree of short range ordering or in the global
composition of the alloy (precipitation or
50

re-solution) may occur and contribute to the
apparent change in SFE. In principle their
effect can be allowed for with the aid of inde-
pendently determined data concerning the
change in SFE with ordering and composition
together with a knowledge of the kinetics of
the ordering process or the precipitation/
dissolution phenomena.
This discussion can then be summarized
as follows. In order to obtain reliable informa-
tion concerning the temperature dependence
of SFE from in situ electron microscope ob-
servations multicycle experiments are
desirable. Such experiments can be classified
into three categories according to the ob-
served variations in node size with tempera-
ture.
impedance forces are not negligible but
remain small compared with the true SFE
change with temperature. The sign of dT/dT
can be determined unambiguously but the
estimation of the magnitude of dT/dT is
generally less reliable than in the previous
case.
2.2.4.3. Partly or wholly irreversible
changes in node size. In this case lattice
friction forces, solute or impurity pinning
forces and/or composition changes mask the
effect of an eventual temperature dependence
of SFE. In some cases it is possible to deter-
mine the sign of d7/dT. The determination of
its magnitude is generally uncertain.

2.2.4.1. Completely reversible changes in

node size. In this case the effects of lattice
and solute impedance forces, Suzuki segrega-
tion and global composition changes can be
neglected. The sign of the temperature de-
pendence is unambiguous and the magnitude
of d7/dT can be estimated correctly from the
variations in the dimensions of stacking fault
configurations after correcting for the change
in elastic constants with temperature.
2.2.4.2. Reversible changes in node size
with hysteresis. In this case lattice and solute
3. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
The metals for which experimental data
concerning the temperature dependence of
SFE are currently available can be classified
into two groups: (a) noble metals and alloys;
(b) transition metals and alloys.
The experimental observations concerning
these two groups of alloys are described
below and the experimental values of the
rate of change of SFE with temperature are
summarized in Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1
Summary of observed SFE variation with temperature for noble metals and alloys

Metal or alloy dT/dT (Tempera- References --dp_/dT Comments

(mJ m -2 K -1) ture range (107 N m -2) ~1010 N m -2)
(K))
Ag --0.013 (293 - 493) [2] 1.3 a 2.98 a Practically no size
variation
Ag-Zn --0.013 ( 2 9 3 - 593) [2] 1.3 2.98 Significant and
reversible (?)
Ag-7.5 at.% In 0.015 (450 - 700) [20 ] 1.3 2.08
Irreversible
Ag-11.5 at.% In 0.02 (450 - 700) [20 ]
Ag-9 at.% Sn +0.008 (543 - 773) [13] 1.0 2.39 Reversible between
543 and 773 K
Ag-11.9at.%Sn -0.006 (543 - 773) [13] 1.0 2.3 Irreversible below
(h.c.p.) 543 K
( 4 7 3 - 673) [12] 1.8 a 4.77 a Bulk annealed
Cu-1 5 at.% Al 0.02 (293 - 593)
C u - 1 6 at.% Al [2] 1.8 4.77 Irreversible
C u - 3 0 at.% Zn 0.015 (293 - 593) [2] 1.8 4.77 Irreversible
Cu-6.8 at.% Ge Small (293 - 593) [2] 1.8 4.77 Irreversible
Cu-8.6 at.% Si Small (293 - 593) [2] 1.8 4.77 Irreversible

aValues when unavailable from the original work were taken from ref. 49.
 51

TABLE 2
Summary of observed SFE variation with temperature for transition metals and alloys

Metal or alloy d?/dT _ (Tempera- References --dpJdT ~1010 Comments

( m J m - z K -1) turerange ( 1 0 7 N m -2) ~ N m -2)
(K))

Co (h.c.p.) --0.03 (293 - 643) [16] 3.1 7.4 Probably reversible

C o - 1 5 at.% Ni
(h.c.p.)
Co- 33 at.% Ni 0.03 (293 - 823) [16] 3.4 8.4 Probably reversible
Co-32 at.% Ni 0.04 (100 - 400) [24] 2.5 7.5 Probably reversible
Co-35 at.% Ni 0.05 (100 - 400) [18] 2.5 7.25 Reversible
C o - 6 at.% Fe 0.04 (100 - 600) [24] 2.3 6.75 Unknown reversibility
C o - 8 at.% Fe 6.9
C o - 3 0 wt.% Ni - 0.03 (500 - 800) [18] Complex a 7.25 Irreversible above
15 wt.% Cr 500 K; no variation
below
F e - 1 5 . 9 wt.% C r- 0.08 (100 - 400) [26] 5.1 7.4 Reversible
12.5 wt.% Ni
Fe-17.8wt.%Cr- 0.06 (100 - 300) [26]
14.1 wt.% Ni
Fe-18.3 wt.%Cr- 0.05 (293 - 600) [11] 3.6 6.7 Mainly reversible
10.7 wt.% Ni
F e - 18 . 7 wt.% C r - 0.10 (293 - 600) [11]
15.9 wt.% Ni
F e - 1 8 wt.% C r- 0.10 (293 - 600) [28] 5.2 7.4 Irreversible with un-
7 wt.% N i - pinning effects on
0.18 wt.% C cooling
F e - 1 8 wt.% C r- 0.04 (150 - 400) [29] 5.2 7.4 " Partly reversible
14 wt.% Ni -
4 wt.% Si
F e - 2 0 wt.% M n - 0.06 (100 - 400) [ 14 ] Complex a 7.6 Mainly irreversible
4 wt.% C r- with unpinning
0.5 wt.% C effects on cooling

aThe complex variation of the shear modulus arose from a magnetic transition of austenite (see the text).

3.1. Noble metals and alloys
Silver is the only pure f.c.c, metal which
can be studied b y the node m e t h o d at room
temperature. Of the noble metal alloys both
silver-base and copper-base alloys have been
widely investigated.
3.1.1. Silver
A slight increase in node size has been ob-
served in this metal b y means of hot-stage
studies [2] in the temperature range 300 -
493 K. These changes were perfectly revers-
ible on recooling to room temperature, and
when the effect of the decrease in shear
modulus is taken into account a value of
dT/dT = --0.013 mJ m -2 K -1 is obtained.
In view of the small size of the nodes at and
above r o o m temperature, further experiments
at subzero temperatures would be useful to
confirm the sign and magnitude of dT/dT in
silver.
Since the preparation of this paper Saka
et al. [19] have published work concerning
the temperature dependence of the SFE of
silver.
3.1.2. Silver-base alloys
Experimental results are available for three
silver-base systems: Ag-Zn, A g - I n and
Ag-Sn.
The A g - Z n alloys were studied by
Gallagher [2] who observed the same nodes
at 300, 493 and 593 K. The results are similar
to those obtained on pure silver, i.e. a small
reversible increase in node size with tem-
perature.
Hot-stage experiments were performed on
Ag-7.5 at.% In and A g - l l . 5 at.% In alloys by
Gallagher and Washburn [ 2 0 ] . A strong b u t
irreversible shrinkage of stacking fault nodes
was observed at room temperature after
annealing at various temperatures above
52
A 9 - 9 Sn
4
E E•
•"~ 3
E ~F,A
tlJ iaA
U. 2
(I)
t AO
i I i I I J
"100 500 700
Temperoture, K 300
Fig. 1. Variation of SFE with temperature for Ag-
9 at.% Sn alloy (after Ruff and Ives [13]). Room
temperature measurements were made in four differ-
ent conditions: A.D., as-deformed foil; Q, foil heated
to 770 K and cooled to room temperature at about
480 K m i n - 1 ; F.A., foil annealed at 720 K and
cooled to room temperature at about 7 K r a i n - l ;
B.A., foil prepared from bulk specimen annealed at
720 K for I h.
300 K. The apparent increase of the SFE is of
the order of 0.015 mJ m - 2 K -z for Ag-7.5
at.% In and 0.02 mJ m -2 K -z for A g - l l . 5
at.% In. Because of the irreversibility of the
changes in node size it is difficult, however,
to assess the true variation of SFE with tem-
perature.
A thorough study of a A g - 9 at.% Sn alloy
(f.c.c.) and a A g - l l . 9 at.% Sn alloy (h.c.p.)
was more recently carried o u t by R u f f and
Ives [ 1 3 ] . Their results obtained on the f.c.c.
alloy are illustrated in Fig. 1. These authors
observed that the node size decreased with
increasing temperature and that this decrease
was reversible in the temperature range 543 -
773 K. The size variation of the nodes corre-
sponds to a true SFE increase dT/dT = 8 ×
10 -3 mJ m -2 K -z. However, below 543 K
the change in node size was no longer revers-
ible. R o o m temperature node measurements
in this alloy after various annealing treatments
suggest that the irreversibility is due to solute
pinning which prevents the dislocations from
returning to their equilibrium positions.
Similar behaviour was observed in the h.c.p.
alloy, b u t in this case the SFE decreases at a
rate dT/dT = --6 × 10 -3 mJ m -2 K -z in the
temperature range 543 - 773 K.
3.1.3. Copper-base alloy
Since Gallagher's earlier review [2] prac-
tically no new reliable data concerning the
A~ *3
7
10
b-j O~ j~
E ~SSS 2
Ss • Cu- 16At
LL SSS S • Cu-3OZn
5--
tess**
SS • Cu-8.6Si
o Cu-6.SGe
-i1._ 2 13
i ! [ j
400 500 600
Temperoture, K
Fig. 2. Variation of apparent SFE with temperature
for copper-base alloys (after Gallagher [2] )*.
temperature dependence of the SFE of
copper-base alloys have appeared in the
literature. Figure 2 shows the variation of the
apparent SFE observed over a single thermal
cycle (300 - 600 K) for four copper-base
alloys given b y Gallagher: C u - 1 6 at.% A1,
C u - 3 0 at.% Zn, Cu-6.8 at.% Ge and Cu-8.6
at.% Si. In the Cu-A1 and C u - Z n alloys it was
observed that the node size decreases
markedly with temperature but the size
changes are largely irreversible on cooling.
The nodes observed in the C u - G e and Cu-Si
alloys also decrease irreversibly b u t in these
alloys the size changes are quite small. It was
argued that the decrease in node size in the
first two alloys was n o t due to an increase in
SFE b u t merely an indication that the nodes
observed at room temperature were above
equilibrium size as a result of solute pinning
of the partial dislocations. We have already
discussed the invalidity of this explanation in
Section 2. The size factors of the germanium
and silicon atoms are rather similar to those
of aluminium and zinc [ 2 1 ] , and one would
expect the solute atom-dislocation interac-
tion to be strong in all alloys. Even when
allowance is made for the differences in atom
concentration it is difficult to see w h y the
nodes should be initially pinned above their
equilibrium size in the aluminium and zinc
alloys and n o t in the other t w o alloys.
An alternative viewpoint is that the SFEs
of the C u - 1 6 at.% A1 and C u - 3 0 at.% Zn
alloys in fact increase quite strongly with
*All the numbers in this figure and others refer to
the chronological order of in situ measurements.

temperature and that the dislocations are
prevented from returning to their equilibrium
positions on recooling to room temperature as
a result of the development of short range
order at high tenzperature which is known to
occur in both these alloys [22]. This argu-
ment was developed specifically for the Cu-
15 at.% A1 alloy by Tisone et al. [12] in the
light of results obtained in a series of measure-
ments at room temperature after bulk anneal-
ing. In a first series of experiments Tisone
et al. showed that room temperature SFE
decreases with the degree of short range
order. They then carried out two further
series of bulk annealing experiments to study
the effect of temperature on the SFE. Speci-
mens were annealed for 10 min at 873 K
(treatment A), deformed at room temperature
and then aged at a temperature Te of 473,
573, 673, 773 or 873 K for 35 400, 1650,
200, 75 or 10 min respectively in order to
produce approximately the same degree of
short range order at each temperature. In
view of the solute impedance forces resulting
from short range order the nodes subse-
quently observed at room temperature are
expected to conserve the size developed at the
annealing temperature Te. The results shown
in Fig. 3 (experimental points A, D, Te) indi-
cate an increase in SFE up to 700 K followed
by an apparent decrease above this tempera-
ture. A second set of experiments was then
carried out on specimens which were first
deformed at room temperature and then
annealed at 873 K before aging at the short
range order temperature Te. The values of
SFE obtained from these specimens (experi-
mental points D, A, Te in Fig. 3) are in good
agreement with those of the first set of
Cu- 15AI
12
7 h.c.p, specimens were heated in the micro-
F
E 10
IJJ
U.
u~ 8
• D , A , Te
6
,
500
J
700
i J
900
Temperoture, K
Fig. 3. Variation of SFE with temperature for Cu-
15 at.% A] ahoy (after Tisone et al. [12]). The
symbols are explained in the text.
53
measurements and support the hypothesis of
a reversible change of SFE with temperature
at a constant degree of short range order. The
corresponding value of dT/dT is 2 × 10 -2 mJ
m-2 K-1 which is in good agreement with the
value estimated from Gallagher's in situ
measurements on a similar alloy. The appar-
ent decrease in SFE after annealing at tem-
peratures above 700 K is probably due to the
fact that the short range order developed in
the annealing treatments was in fact insuffi-
cient to pin the dislocations at the high tem-
perature positions when the specimens were
cooled to room temperature [12].
Summarizing, then, it seems likely that
both Cu-16 at.% A1 and Cu-30 at.% Zn alloys
exhibit a fairly strong increase in SFE with
temperature whereas in the Cu-6.8 at.% Ge
and the Cu-8.6 at.% Si alloys d ~ / d T is small
or negligible.
Since the preparation of this paper Saka
et al. [23] have published work concerning
the temperature dependence of the SFE of
Cu-A1 alloys.
3.2. Transition metals and alloys
The only pure transition metal which can
be studied by the node method is cobalt. The
temperature dependence of SFE in this metal
can be investigated in both the h.c.p, and
f.c.c, phases since the phase transition tem-
perature is readily obtainable in the electron
microscope. In the case of transition metal
alloys a number of cobalt-base and iron-base
systems have been recently examined.
3.2.1. Cobalt
This metal which has a h.c.p, structure at
room temperature was first studied by
Ericsson [8]. In both annealed and lightly
deformed specimens the node size was found
to increase with increasing temperature. To
study the nodes in the f.c.c, phase, deformed
scope to temperatures above the phase transi-
tion temperature. Because of the rudimentary
nature of the specimen stage used in these
experiments it was not possible to observe the
same node at different temperatures and only
the mean node size could thus be determined.
The temperature dependence obtained by
Ericsson is shown in Fig. 4. When the temper-
ature is increased, the SFE of the h.c.p, phase
decreases whereas the SFE of the f.c.c, phase
54

.T
30 ~ . "r
HCP FCC
3O
E I "~.,~J 7
E
20
w
h
U~ 10
~ ~ o - 33N~.
Co

300 500 700 900 0

400 600 800
Temperature, K
Temperature, K
Fig. 4. Variation of SFE with temperature for pure
cobalt (after Ericsson [8 ] ). Fig. 5. Variation of SFE with temperature for Co-
33 at.% Ni alloy (after Ericsson [8] ).

increases. The magnitude of the change is,

however, approximately the same in both
cases, i.e. IdT/dTI = 3 × 10 -2 mJ m -2 K -1.
15
In these experiments the reversibility of the E
variations in node size could n o t be checked.
F: 10
It should be noted that the SFE does n o t UJ
appear to extrapolate to zero at the h.c.p.- IJ.
Ul 5
f.c.c, equilibrium temperature To*. At this
temperature the SFE is about 15 mJ m -2 in IT° o le
o J L l I
both phases. 100 200 300 400
Temperature, K
3.2.2. Cobalt-base alloys Fig. 6. Variation of SFE with temperature for Co-
3.2.2.1. Co-Ni alloys. Among the cobalt- 32 at.% Ni alloy: 7i, intrinsic SFE; 7e, extrinsic SFE
base alloys the Co-Ni system has been the (after Tisone [24]).
most widely investigated. The structure of
these alloys is either f.c.c, or h.c.p, depend-
ing on composition and temperature. Ericsson
[8] examined a h.c.p. Co-15 at.% Ni alloy
in the temperature range 293 - 693 K and
found the same temperature dependence as
t h a t observed in pure h.c.p, cobalt. F.c.c.
7
E
25
Co-35Hi

#a
~m
/'
Co-Ni alloys were studied by Ericsson (Co- ,4
E 20
33 at.% Ni) [8], Tisone (Co-32 at.% Ni) [24]
I,,U
and R~my (Co-35 at.% Ni) [18]. The U.
If)
measurements made by these different
authors are in quite good agreement and give
a value of 0.03 - 0.05 mJ m -2 K -1 for the 2
temperature dependence of the intrinsic SFE Iv0
(cf. Figs. 5- 7). As shown in Fig. 7, R6my's L
100
, L
'zOO
~

experiments demonstrate unambiguously the Temperature, K

reversibility of the variations in node size in
the C o - 3 5 at.% Ni alloy. As in the case of
pure cobalt the intrinsic SFE has a non-zero
value of approximately 12 - 16 mJ m -2 at the
*The temperature TO at which the free energy
change associated with the f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, mar-
tensitic transformation is zero, is not very well
known in these alloys. Estimates of To can, however,
be made from measurements of the temperature E d
below which the f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, transformation can
be strain induced during tensile testing [ 18 ].
F i g . 7. V a r i a t i o n o f S F E w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e for Co-
315 at.% Ni alloy (after R~my [18] ).
phase equilibrium temperature To in these
alloys. Tisone [24] also measured the varia-
tion of the extrinsic SFE in the C o - 3 2 at.%
Ni alloy, as shown in Fig. 6. His results indi-
cate that the extrinsic SFE increases more
rapidly with temperature than the intrinsic
SFE. Moreover, as illustrated in Fig. 6, the

extrinsic SFE becomes smaller than the
intrinsic SFE at temperatures below about
200 K, i.e. below the martensitic phase
transformation temperature Es*.
3.2.2.2. Co-Fe alloys. The intrinsic and
extrinsic SFE of a series of Co-Fe alloys were
also measured by Tisone [24]. The results
obtained on two of these alloys, Co-6 at.%
Fe and Co-8 at.% Fe, are reproduced in
Fig. 8. In both alloys the temperature de-
pendences of the intrinsic and extrinsic SFE
are very similar, i.e. dT/dT -~ 5 × 1 0 - 2 mJ
m-2 K-1, at temperatures above 300 K. The
ratio 7e/7i remains less than unity even at
temperatures which are definitely above To
and Es. For these alloys, the author made no
mention of the reversibility of the stacking
fault configurations.
30
E 20
E
hi
U.
tr~ 10 Co-6Fe
~S~,S S • Col8 Fe
0 I , '1 J
100 300 500 700
Ternperoture, K
Fig. 8. Variation of S F E with t e m p e r a t u r e for C o -
Fe alloys: 7i, intrinsic S F E ; 7e, extrinsic S F E (after
Tisone [24] ).
3.2.2.3. C o - N i - C r alloys. Ternary Co-Ni-
15 wt.% Cr alloys were recently studied in the
temperature range 100 - 800 K [18]. In these
alloys the ferromagnetic-paramagnetic transi-
tion occurs in this temperature range and the
shear modulus passes through a maximum at
the Curie temperature 0c [18]. The apparent
variation of the SFE with temperature in the
Co-35 wt.% Ni-15 wt.% Cr alloy (0c = 463 K)
is illustrated in Fig. 9. The node size was ob-
served to be practically constant from liquid
*E s is the t e m p e r a t u r e corresponding to the sponta-
neous f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, martensitic phase transforma-
tion.
55
Co - 3 0 N i - 15 C r
E
25
t.
~; 2o
E
m 15
!
I , J , ~[ J
100 300 500 700
Temperature, K
Fig. 9. Variation of apparent SFE with temperature
for Co-30 wt.% Ni-15 wt.% Cr alloy (after R6my
[181).
nitrogen temperature up to about 500 K. The
corresponding small increase in the apparent
SFE shown in Fig. 9 arises from the change in
shear modulus below the Curie temperature.
It is believed that this small variation in node
size is due to strong friction forces arising
from solute pinning. At higher temperature
the observed decrease in node size corre-
sponds to an apparent increase in SFE of the
order of 3 × 1 0 - 2 mJ m -2 K-1. However, on
cooling the thin foil from the highest temper-
ature obtained (800 K) the node size re-
mained practically unchanged. The large de-
crease in node size observed at temperatures
above 500 K is indicative of an important in-
crease in SFE with temperature, but in this
case the magnitude of the SFE temperature
dependence cannot be accurately estimated.
This behaviour was interpreted in terms of
Suzuki segregation at elevated temperatures
which tends to offset the decrease in node
size during heating and to prevent the nodes
from returning to their equilibrium size on
cooling. In fact a detailed estimation from
Ericsson's model [16] and available thermo-
dynamic data [25] predicts that chromium
atoms segregate to the stacking fault nodes
[18]; for example at 800 K, assuming
thermodynamic equilibrium is obtained, the
calculated excess chromium concentration at
the fault is 3.7 at.% and the corresponding
decrease in SFE is about 3.3 mJ m -2.
3.2.3. Iron-base alloys
Because of their practical importance f.c.c.
stainless steels have been studied by several
authors. Apart from Fe-Cr-Ni alloys, iron-
56

base alloys are rather poorly documented;

only F e - M n - C r alloys have been examined
recently. 30

3.2.3.1. F e - C r - N i alloys. Low carbon F e - ?

18 wt.% Cr-12 wt.% Ni alloys were examined
by Lecroisey and coworkers [26, 27] in the
temperature range 150 - 400 K. The large
linear increase in SFE observed in these alloys
(d~/dT = 7 X 10 -2 mJ m -2 K -1) is illustrated
in Fig. 10. In these experiments the tempera-
ture cycles were repeated several times on the
same node and the variations in node size
were found to be perfectly reversible over the
whole temperature range. Figure 10 also
shows an example of the results obtained on a
F e - 1 5 . 9 wt.% Cr-12.5 wt.% Ni alloy.
Latanision and R u f f [11] examined two
similar stainless steels: Fe-18.3 wt.% Cr-
10.7 wt.% Ni and Fe-18.7 wt.% Cr-15.9 wt.%
Ni in the temperature range 300 - 600 K
(Fig. 11). Most of the increase in SFE ob-
served above room temperature was revers-
ible, the difference in SFE measured on the
same nodes before and after the thermal
cycling being less than 2 mJ m -2. Between
300 and 400 K the increase in SFE with
temperature is large and of the same order as
that determined by Lecroisey and Thomas,
i.e. dT/dT = 5 X 10 -2 mJ m -2 K -1 and
0.10 mJ m -2 K -1 for the F e - 1 8 . 7 wt.% Cr-
15.9 wt.% Ni and Fe-18.3 wt.% Cr-10.7 wt.%
Ni alloys respectively. However, above 400 K
the temperature dependence appears to be
less marked. This can be partly attributed to
the decreasing accuracy of node measure-
E 25
E
d 2o
U.
J I I I
300 ~oo soo soo
Temperature~ K
Fig. 11. Variation of SFE with temperature for Fe-
Cr-Ni alloys (after Latanision and Ruff [11]).
ments as the SFE increases. Moreover,
Latanision and R u f f suggested that solute
segregation to the partial dislocations may
also contribute to the less marked increase in
SFE with temperature at higher temperatures
and also explain the small irreversibility on
recooling at room temperature.
The behaviour of high carbon stainless
steels appears to be more complex than that
of the "interstitial-free" alloys. This is
illustrated by Abrassart's measurements [28]
on an F e - 1 8 wt.% Cr-7 wt.% Ni-0.18 wt.% C
steel in the temperature range 300 - 600 K.
Although in these experiments the changes
occurring in each individual node were n o t
carefully checked, the mean size was found
to change discontinuously on heating. Figure
12 shows that the average SFE increases
linearly up to 500 K at a r a t e of 0.1 mJ m -2 K -1

2 5O
• fO
25

'i
'E
7
E 20
30
E
tJ.
u.. t~ 20

10 Fe - t6 Cr - 13Ni Fe- 18Cr- 7 Ni-O,18C

10
• Fe-tT, SCr~IgNi

I I J [ [ J [ I
100 200 300 ~00 300 400 500 600
Temperoture, K Temperoture, K
Fig. 10. Variation of SFE with temperature for F e - Fig. 12. Variation of apparent SFE with temperature
Cr-Ni alloys (after Lecroisey and Thomas [ 2 6 ] ) . for Fe-Cr-Ni-C alloy (after Abrassart [28 ] ).
 57

b u t above this temperature the rate of

Fe - 18 C r - IJ; N i -/, Si
increase appears to drop off markedly. On
recooling to room temperature the nodes in 12,5

this alloy did n o t recover their original size E

and, moreover, a large scatter in node dimen- ~4
E lO
sions was observed. The decrease in node size
on heating is presumably due, for the most U.
part, to a true SFE change with temperature U3 7, 5 I s t cycle
2 nd cycle
since the magnitude of d~//dT is very similar
to that observed in the low carbon stainless 5 I [ [
200 300 400
steels. The irreversibility on cooling was
Temperature, K
attributed to the formation of Cottrell
atmospheres of carbon atoms around the Fig. 13. Variation of apparent SFE with temperature
partial dislocations at high temperature. The for Fe-Cr-Ni Si alloy (after Thomas and Lecroisey
large scatter in node size on recooling can be [29]).
explained by differences in carbon segrega-
tion from one node to another or by the Fe - 2O Mn - z Cr - O,S C
statistical nature of the thermally activated
T
unpinning process. The levelling of the
variation of node size above 500 K may also T /'°
it1
be explained by the formation of Cottrell T
'7,
atmospheres which would inhibit the move- E
m e n t of the partial dislocations. However, E
here again the imprecision in measurements LU
LL
of node size at small node sizes prevents U~
10

definite conclusions from being drawn.

In the case of the quaternary F e - 1 8 wt.%
C r - 1 4 wt.% N i - 4 wt.% Si alloy studied by
Lecroisey and Thomas [29] the way in which
the nodes expanded and contracted during
thermal cycling provided convincing visual
evidence of the presence of strong local
lattice friction forces. As the temperature was
varied from one measuring temperature to
another the partial dislocations were observed
to move in discrete jumps. The combined
effects of strong friction forces and a strong
temperature dependence of SFE could
explain the large hysteresis in plots of
apparent SFE against temperature. An
example of the behaviour of one node
examined during two successive temperature
cycles is shown in Fig. 13.
3.2.3.2. Fe-Mn-Cr alloys. SFEs were
recently studied by R6my [14] in a F e -
20 wt.% M n - 4 wt.% Cr-0.5 wt.% C alloy in
the temperature range 100 - 400 K. It should
be noted that this alloy exhibits an antiferro-
magnetic-paramagnetic transition at 283 K
[18]. The results of SFE measurements are
shown in Fig. 14. On cooling from 300 to
100 K a small reversible increase in node size
is observed which suggests a true SFE varia-
100 20O 300 4OO
Temperature, K
Fig. 14. Variation of apparent SFE with temperature
for Fe-Mn-Cr-C alloy (after R6my [14]).
tion. The rate of change of SFE with tempera-
ture may in fact be greater than the indicated
value since the dislocation mobility m a y be
reduced by lattice friction forces due to
carbon atoms in solid solution and to ferro-
magnetic interactions produced between
nearest neighbours by the displacement of
the partial dislocations [30]. Calculations for
F e - M n binary alloys suggest, however, that
the lattice friction forces arising from this
ferromagnetic interaction effect are fairly
small [ 3 0 ] . On heating above room tempera-
ture, the node size decreases more rapidly
than in the low temperature range b u t this
variation is mainly irreversible. The rate of
change of node size above 300 K is equivalent
to an apparent SFE temperature dependence
of a b o u t 6 X 1 0 - 2 m J m - 2 K - 1 . This value is
of the same order of magnitude as those
measured in stainless steels. Assuming that the
58
decrease in node size is a consequence of a
true change in SFE the irreversibility can be
explained, as in the case of the high carbon
stainless steel studied by Abrassart [28], by
the formation of CottreU atmospheres which
prevent the nodes from recovering their
equilibrium size on recooling to room tem-
perature. This interpretation is supported
by two complementary experiments. Firstly
the variations in node size were found to be
reproducible during a second thermal cycling.
Secondly, nodes annealed in bulk at 400 K
for 20 min (equal to the holding time in the
hot-stage electron microscope observations)
exhibit a very important size increase which
occurs abruptly when the foil is subsequently
cooled down to 100 K in the electron micro-
scope.
4. DISCUSSION
The above review of the available experi-
mental results on the temperature depen-
dence of SFE shows that in practically all
of the f.c.c, systems that have been studied
the SFE increases with temperature. The
notable exceptions are pure silver and a
Ag-Zn alloy for which the experimental
results indicate negative but small values of
dT/dT. In spite of the various factors which
make a precise determination of the magni-
tude of dT/dT unrealistic, there do appear to
be quite large differences in the temperature
dependence of SFE from one system to
another. The theoretical justification for this
behaviour can be sought from considerations
based on thermodynamics or electronic
structure.
4.1. C o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e r m o d y n a m i c
The simplest way to account for a tem-
perature dependence of SFE is to consider a
model of short range interactions of atomic
structure according to which an infinite
intrinsic stacking fault can be viewed as an
h.c.p, platelet with a thickness of two close-
packed planes. This procedure, which was
applied by Ericsson [8] in his study of cobalt
and Co-Ni alloys, leads to the following
relation between the intrinsic SFE and the
bulk free energy difference between h.c.p.
and f.c.c, phases with the same composi-
tion:
~fce _+ hcp ~/-3 1
8 a Z N 7i (1)
where AF ecc -~ hop is the free energy change
between the h.c.p, and the f.c.c, phases at
constant composition, i.e. for the case of a
martensitic transformation, a is the f.c.c.
lattice parameter and N is Avogadro's
number.
From eqn. (1) it follows immediately that
the temperature dependence of intrinsic SFE
(i.e. the derivative dT/dT) is related to the
entropy difference between both phases at
constant composition by
_d7
_ _ 8 a2N ~ f c c --~ hcp (2)
dT V~-
This reasoning introduces a simple physical
explanation of the existence of a tempera-
ture dependence of SFE and the model is
qualitatively consistent with the fact that rela-
tively high values of d7/dT have been un-
ambiguously determined only in those alloy
systems in which a f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, transforma-
tion occurs at a temperature in the range over
which dT/dT was studied. The model is, how-
ever, clearly simplified in particular because
it implies that the SFE is zero at the tempera-
ture To at which the phases are in thermo-
dynamic equilibrium and this is definitely
not the case for example in Co-Ni alloys or
in certain iron-base alloys. Although in
general To cannot be accurately determined
experimentally in these alloys because the
f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, transformation is martensitic
and undercooling or plastic deformation are
required to induce the phase change, a lower
limit to the value of To can be obtained from
a determination of the temperature E d below
which the transformation can be induced by
data plastic deformation. In Co-Ni alloys To -~
E d [31] and ~/o -~ 15 mJ m - 2 [ 8 , 18] whilst
in Fe-Cr-Ni alloys To > Ed and ~/o > 7d -~
20 mJ m -2 [26 - 28]. However, Ruff and
Ives [13] estimated the value of ~/o to be
1 mJ m -2 in a Ag-Sn alloy.
Unfortunately no satisfactory improvement
of this simple model has so far been proposed.
Ericsson suggested that an additional term
may arise from the interaction between neigh-
bouring faults [8]. Recently Olson [32] tried
to circumvent this difficulty using the phe-
nomenological theory of martensite nuclea-
tion but this approach raises the question of
 59

TABLE 3
Comparison between experimental and calculated values of d v / d T for transition metals and alloys

Metals and alloys Calculated Measured References Calculated Measured References

~ksfCC --* hcp a ~ f c c --* hcp dT/dT dT/dT
(cal mo1-1 (cal mo1-1 (mJ m - 2 (mJ m - 2
K -1) K -1) K -1) K -1)

Co --0.15 --0.16 [33] 0.04 0.03 [8]

C o - 3 2 at.% Ni -0.20 0.05 0.04 [24]
C o - 3 5 at.% Ni 0.05 [18]
C o - 6 at.% Fe -0.20 0.05 0.04
C o - 8 at.% Fe -0.22 0.05 0.04 [24 ]
F e - 1 7 at.% Cr-
14 at.% Ni --0.71 a 0.18 0.08 [26]
F e - 1 9 at.% Cr-
13 at.% Ni --0.69 a 0.17 0.06 [26]
F e - 1 9 at.% Cr-
12 at.% Ni --0.70 a 0.175 0.10 [11]
F e - 2 0 at.% C r -
15 at.% Ni --0.66 a 0.165 0.05 [11]
F e - 2 0 at.% M n -
4 at.% Cr
(2 at.% C) --0.64 b 0.16 0.06 b [14]

aThese values were calculated with AS = 0.15 cal mo1-1 K- 1 for pure chromium, --1 cal mo1-1 K -1 for pure
iron (at 300 K) and --0.3 cal mo1-1 K -1 for pure nickel.
bThe quoted values are valid for T ~- 300 K.

TABLE 4
Comparison between experimental and calculated values of d'~/dT for noble metals and alloys

Metals and alloys Calculated a Measured References Calculated Measured References

~tsfcc "-*hcp ~ksfcc -* hcp d'y/dT dT/dT
(cal mo1-1 (cal mo1-1 (mJ m - 2 (mJ m - 2
K -1) K -1) K -1) K -1)

Ag --0.3 0.057 --0.013 (?) [2]

Ag-7.5 at.% In ---0.25 0.045 0.015 [20]
A g - l 1 . 5 at.% In --0.22
A g - 9 at.% Sn - --0.03 [34] 0.006 0.008 [13]
Cu- 15 at.% A1 --0.19 0.045 0.02 [12, 2]
C u - 3 0 at.% Zn --0.33 0.08 0.015 [2]

aThese values were calculated with AS = +0.43 cal mo1-1 K -1 for aluminium and indium, --0.3 cal mo1-1 K -1
for copper and --0.4 cal tool -1 K -1 for zinc.

the validity of the concept of surface energy
for a defect of one atomic layer in thickness.
Nevertheless eqn. (2) should give a first
order estimate of the temperature derivative
of SFE from the entropy difference asso-
ciated with a f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, transformation.
Unfortunately experimental data for
~ c c -: hop are available only for pure cobalt
[33] and A g - 1 0 at.% Sn alloy [ 3 4 ] . In both
cases the estimated derivative o f the intrinsic
SFE is in good agreement with the SFE mea-
surements as shown in Tables 3 and 4.
We.have estimated ~ c c -* hop for the other
alloys mentioned in this review b y using
thermodynamic solid solution models. In the
regular solution approximation [34, 35] the
entropy difference associated with the f.c.c. -~
h.c.p, transformation for an alloy at constant
composition can be related to that for pure
components (A Si ) by
~ f c c -0 hcp = ~,Xi ~k~ifcc ~ hcp (3)
where xi is the atomic fraction of element i.
60
Estimates of the e n t r o p y difference /~Si
were made b y Kaufman and Bernstein [36]
for elements of groups IVA - VIII using the
lattice stability concept. In this model the
entropy difference is unique for a group
number and independent of temperature
above 300 K. The model cannot be applied to
iron and manganese since magnetic contribu-
tions are n o t taken into account. For these
elements the free energy change associated
with the f.c.c. -~ h.c.p, transformation was
estimated using the classical decomposition of
specific heat into lattice, electronic and
magnetic contributions proposed by Weiss
and Tauer [ 3 7 ] . The free energy change was
determined for iron in the temperature range
0 - 1800 K from data on F e - R u alloys [38,
3 9 ] . For manganese this free energy change
was calculated b y Breedis and Kaufman using
Weiss and Tauer's data from 300 to 1600 K
[40] ; the data were extended to lower tem-
peratures by R~my [14, 18].
The entropy differences calculated for
various cobalt-base and iron-base alloys are
given in Table 3. The corresponding deriva-
tives dT/dT calculated from eqn. (3) are com-
pared with the values measured at room tem-
perature in this table. For cobalt-base alloys
both sets of values are in good agreement.
For iron-base alloys the agreement is n o t very
satisfactory, the experimental values being
only from one-third to one-half of the calcu-
lated ones. Nevertheless for all these alloys
the observed values of dT/dT are in the same
order as that of the calculated values.
The AS i values given by Kaufman and
Bernstein for elements of groups IB - IIIB
(i.e. for noble and some normal elements) are
less reliable since the lattice stability concept
is less justified [ 4 1 ] . Therefore the calculated
values of dT/dT given in Table 4 must only be
considered as giving an order of magnitude.
According to these estimates a positive tem-
perature dependence should exist in pure
silver and in various copper and silver alloys.
Although the magnitude of the calculated
values is considerably higher than that of the
experimental values, an experimental verifica-
tion of the reported decrease in SFE with in-
creasing temperature in the case of silver
appears to be necessary. The good agreement-
between the calculated value of dT/dT (based
on an experimental determination of
AS~CC-* hcp [34] ) and the careful experimental
determinations of dT/dT b y R u f f and Ives
[ 13] is, however, encouraging.
4.2. Comparison with computations from
electron theory
Theoretical derivations of SFE based on
the electronic structure have been obtained
for pure normal metals b y Blandin et al. [42]
and Nourtier [17] and for transition metals
b y Ducastelle and Cyrot-Lackman [43].
Blandin's theory was recently extended to
account for the case of noble metals [44, 4 5 ] .
These computations of SFE are very attrac-
tive b u t a major difficulty with the electron
theory is to account for alloying and tem-
perature effects (see e.g. ref. 46). However, it
is interesting to consider the conclusions of
this theory in the case of transition metals for
which the experimental measurements of
dT/dT seem to be fairly well established.
Using a tight-binding scheme Ducastelle
and Cyrot-Lackman [43] have approximated
the density of states to its four first moments.
Accordingly the extrinsic and intrinsic SFE
are identical and both are proportional to the
energy difference 8Ec between the f.c.c, and
h.c.p, phases: 5Ec = E ( f . c . c . ) - E(h.c.p.). This
energy difference SEe is positive but small near
the edges of the d band and it has a negative
minimum in the middle of this band. This
energy difference has two zeros near Z ~ 3
and Z ~ 7 and is symmetrical with respect
to the middle of the band. This behaviour is
in qualitative agreement with enthalpy and
free energy differences between the f.c.c, and
h.c.p, phases estimated at 300 K by Kaufman
and Bernstein [36] for 4d and 5d elements.
However, the energy minimum seems in fact
to be shifted towards the b o t t o m of the d
band.
Further improvement of this theory is to
be expected from the consideration of higher
order moments of the density of states. In
particular Ducastelle and Cyrot-Lackman
[43] showed that the difference between the
extrinsic SFE 7e and the intrinsic SFE 7i is in
fact an oscillating function of the number of
d electrons with at least four zeros. This
prediction is borne o u t b y Tisone's experi-
ments on C o - F e and C o - 3 2 at.% Ni alloys
[ 2 4 ] . In the latter case the 7J7i ratio de-
creased below unity near 100 K while in the
former case it is smaller than unity (about
0.5 - 0.7) over the whole temperature range

studied. It is worth connecting this result with
the recent identification of a double h.c.p.
phase in low alloyed C o - F e crystals [47]
since in models of short range interactions an
extrinsic fault can be viewed as a double
h.c.p, phase nucleus.
In the same way if higher order moments
were taken into account, the SFE should be
no longer simply proportional to the energy
difference between the h.c.p, and the f.c.c.
phases. This might provide a physical inter-
pretation of the non-zero value ~/0 of SFE
at the phase equilibrium temperature To. This
is of interest since this quantity is fairly high,
in the range 10 - 25 mJ m -2 in transition
alloys [8, 18, 26] while it seems to be
negligible in noble alloys, namely a few milli-
joules per square metre [ 13].
This model predicts an influence of ferro-
magnetism upon SFE due to the splitting of
the d band into t w o spin ~ and spin ~ sub-
bands. It was shown that the SFE of pure
cobalt must increase drastically as it changes
from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic. There-
fore a high positive temperature dependence
of SFE is expected in the vicinity of the Curie
temperature. The only measurements of SFE
near this temperature are those made by
R~my [18] on C o - N i - C r alloys but it was
n o t possible to test the validity of the theo-
retical prediction because of the effects of
solute pinning of the dislocations. On the
other hand a strong increase of the tempera-
ture dependence of SFE was recently ob-
served near the antiferromagnetic-paramag-
netic transition of a high manganese steel
[ 1 4 ] , b u t the influence of antiferromagnetism
on SFE is unfortunately still b e y o n d the
present possibilities of the electron theory
[ 4 8 ] . Nevertheless using the classical decom-
position of specific heat due to Weiss and
Tauer [37] and eqn. (2), the increase in
d~//dT was shown to arise for the most part
from the magnetic contribution [ 1 4 ] .
In the case of noble and normal metals
Tisone t o o k into account the influence of
temperature in a phenomenological way
through the relaxation time of conduction
electrons [42] and a significant negative value
of d'~/dT was predicted for pure normal
metals. Comparison with Kaufman and
Bernstein's data shows good agreement in the
case of pure aluminium but this prediction is
at variance for pure zinc (see the f o o t n o t e to
61
Table 4). For pure noble metals and their
dilute alloys, the contribution of free elec-
trons is much smaller than that of d electrons
and the SFE is hence expected to be quite
temperature insensitive. This is at variance
with Kaufman's data b u t is supported by
Gallagher's SFE measurements on pure silver
and low alloyed A g - Z n alloys [2].
In contrast, in concentrated noble metal
alloys (Z > 1.14) a significant increase of SFE
with temperature should be observed. A large
effect is expected for trivalent solutes such as
indium or aluminium while a smaller one is
predicted for two-valence and four-valence
solutes such as tin, germanium, silicon and
zinc. As a matter of fact Ag-In alloys and
C u - 1 5 at.% A1 alloys seem to exhibit a tem-
perature dependence of SFE. However, a
smaller temperature dependence was clearly
observed in Ag-Sn alloys in agreement with
Tisone's prediction [13]. Further observa-
tions on C u - G e and Cu-Si alloys seem to
indicate a small variation of SFE with tem-
perature [2].
5. C O N C L U S I O N S
In spite of the experimental difficulties
useful information concerning the tempera-
ture dependence of the SFEs can be obtained
by careful measurements of the size variation
of stacking fault configurations in thin foils
on a heating or a cooling stage in the electron
microscope. In order to assess the perturbing
effects of lattice friction forces, partial dis-
location pinning or Suzuki segregation it is
desirable to cycle the specimen several times
over the experimental temperature range.
(1) In pure cobalt and a number of transi-
tion metal alloys (Co-Ni, C o - F e , F e - C r - N i ,
F e - M n - C r ) a strong increase in SFE with
temperature has been unambiguously demon-
strated even though in some cases the ob-
served changes in node size are partly or
wholly irreversible. In the case of silver-base
and copper-base alloys the experimental data
are often contradictory and, except in the
case of a A g - 9 at.% Sn alloy which shows a
small reversible increase in SFE with tempera-
ture, the quantitative estimation of d 7 / d T is
less reliable. In pure silver and A g - Z n alloys
the SFE appears to decrease slightly with in-
creasing temperature whilst in the copper-base
62
alloys dT/dT is positive, the magnitude of the
temperature dependence decreasing in the
order Cu-16 at.% AI, C u - 3 0 at.% Zn, Cu-6.8
at.% Ge and Cu-8.6 at.% Si.
(2) The temperature dependence of
intrinsic SFE can be related to the stability of
the f.c.c, phase with respect to the f.c.c. -~
h.c.p, martensitic transformation. In this
approximation the temperature derivative of
intrinsic SFE is proportional to the entropy
difference associated with this transforma-
tion. Good agreement was found for Ag-
10 at.% Sn alloy and pure cobalt for which
entropy measurements were available. Fairly
good agreement (within a factor of 2 or 3)
was found for transition alloys using esti-
mated data based on the lattice stability
concept. For alloys of noble metals with
normal solute elements no reliable lattice
stability data are available. In this case quali-
tative agreement is found with theoretical
computations based on electron theory.
Tisone's phenomenological treatment of the
influence of temperature predicts no signifi-
cant temperature dependence in pure noble
metals and in dilute alloys (Z < 1.14). A
larger positive temperature dependence of
SFE is predicted in concentrated alloys with
three-valence solutes (e.g. Cu-A1 and Ag-In
alloys) than with two-valence or four-valence
solutes, all features which are in agreement
with experimental results. It would seem
worthwhile to carry out further experiments
on silver and certain silver-base and copper-
base alloys is order to put the experimental
data on a firmer basis for comparison with
theoretical calculations (in particular to
verify the small decrease in SFE with temper-
ature in silver and A g - Z n alloys).
(3) The need is felt for (a) new experimen-
tal studies on alloy systems in which solute
impedance forces are expected to be low
(i.e. systems in which the size o f the solute
atoms is close to that of the solvent) and
(b) further development of electron theory
calculations to account for alloying and tem-
perature effects at least in transition metal
alloys where numerous and rather well estab-
lished experimental data are now available.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e authors express their thanks to
Professor F. Gauthier a n d Dr. F. DucasteUe
for helpful discussions and to Professors J.
Friedel, J. Phflibert and G. Saada for their
comments on the manuscript.
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