The Influence of Alloying, Temperature, and Related

Effects on the Stacking Fault Energy

P. C. J. GALLAGHER

The p r e s e n t paper r e v i e w s e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s for the magnitude of the stacking fault

e n e r g y (~) in pure fcc m e t a l s , and its v a r i a t i o n with alloying and with t e m p e r a t u r e .
Quantitative s t u d i e s have p r i n c i p a l l y involved e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c o b s e r v a t i o n s of
faulted defects (extended nodes, e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c fault p a i r s , t e t r a h e d r a ) or the de-
t e r m i n a t i o n of r o l l i n g t e x t u r e s , while much valuable i n f o r m a t i o n has also been obtained
from m e a s u r e m e n t s of the X - r a y faulting p r o b a b i l i t y . Extensive m e a s u r e m e n t s of the
v a r i a t i o n of ), with a l l o y i n g have been made in s i l v e r , copper, and n i c k e l base alloys
and in s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s , from which g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s can be d r a w n r e g a r d i n g the
composition dependence of ~ with v a r i o u s solute types. The p r e s e n c e of i r r e g u l a r
faulted c o n f i g u r a t i o n s in s a m p l e s of some high solute c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l l o y s following
room t e m p e r a t u r e d e f o r m a t i o n s u g g e s t s that s o l u t e / d i s l o c a t i o n p i n n i n g f o r c e s can
e x e r t c o n s i d e r a b l e influence on the d i s l o c a t i o n s u b s t r u c t u r e . A n n e a l i n g such s a m p l e s
leads to a r e d u c t i o n in the degree of i r r e g u l a r i t y of the s u b s t r u c t u r e and g e n e r a l l y to
a d e c r e a s e in m e a n faulted defect size. T h e s e changes appear to be due to the r e d u c t i o n ,
through a t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d p r o c e s s , of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the solute pinning f o r c e s
r a t h e r than a s a r e s u l t of a s t r o n g dependence of y on t e m p e r a t u r e . The v a r i a t i o n of
faulted defect size on a n n e a l i n g pure m a t e r i a l s is likely to a r i s e s o l e l y from the v a r i a t i o n
with t e m p e r a t u r e of 7 and the e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s , and r e s u l t s in s i l v e r indicate that y/G
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t e m p e r a t u r e .

T H E o b j e c t i v e of t h i s r e v i e w is to p r o v i d e a b r o a d
a n d u p - t o - d a t e s u m m a r y of the e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d i n g s
f o r t h e s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y (y) a s d e t e r m i n e d b y a
v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s on m a t e r i a l s with a wide r a n g e
of d i f f e r e n t s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n to
e s t a b l i s h i n g the g e n e r a l t r e n d s in the m a g n i t u d e of
with v a r i a t i o n of s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , s o l u t e
t y p e , t e m p e r a t u r e , d e g r e e of o r d e r , a n d s o f o r t h ,
p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d upon the m a n y a r e a s
in w h i c h c o n f u s i o n a n d c o n t r o v e r s y e x i s t . M a n y of
the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in the l i t e r a t u r e h a v e a r i s e n
f r o m the a p p l i c a t i o n of l e s s than' a d e q u a t e t h e o r e t i -
cal relationships between experimental measurables
a n d ~. W h i l e a n e v a l u a t i o n of the l e v e l of v a l i d i t y
of the v a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g ~ i s
t h o r o u g h l y c o n s i d e r e d in s e v e r a l of the o t h e r
p a p e r s in t h i s v o l u m e s o m e d i s c u s s i o n will a l s o
p r o v e e s s e n t i a l in s e c t i o n s of t h i s p a p e r w h e r e
c o n t r a d i c t o r y q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e s for ~ m u s t be
rationalized.
In s e c t i o n I e s t i m a t e s of ~ in the m o s t w i d e l y
s t u d i e d fcc e l e m e n t s - - A g , C u , Au, N i , a n d A l - - a r e
t a b u l a t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d . I n s e c t i o n II r e s u l t s f o r
the v a r i a t i o n of y with a l l o y i n g a r e t a b u l a t e d a n d
p l o t t e d , p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s b e i n g p l a c e d on the
most widely studied systems, namely, silver-base,
copper-base, and nickel-base alloys, and stainless
s t e e l s . O n l y the b r o a d e s t of c o n c l u s i o n s a r e
P. C. J. GALLAGHER,formerly Research MetallurgistSenior, Sci-
entific Research Laboratory, Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Mich., is
Group Leader, MechanicalProperties, Metallurgy Department, National
Lead Co., Hightstown, N. J.
This manuscript was prepared while the author was employed by
Ford Motor Co., and is based on a talk presented at the symposium on
The Measurement of Stacking Fault Energy, sponsored by the IMD-
TMS Physical MetallurgyCommittee, Pittsburgh, Pa., May 14-16,
1969.
d r a w n , a m o r e d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a n u m b e r
of i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s b e i n g d e f e r r e d to l a t e r
s e c t i o n s . S e c t i o n III i s c o n c e r n e d with the f a c t o r s
w h i c h c a n i n f l u e n c e the s i z e of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s
d u r i n g a n n e a l i n g t r e a t m e n t s . A t t e n t i o n is g i v e n to
the r o l e s of S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n , o r d e r i n g , s o l u t e
i m p e d a n c e f o r c e s , a n d to the t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e d e -
p e n d e n c e of ~. T h e r e s u l t s d i s c u s s e d a r e d e r i v e d
mainly from electron microscope studies, supple-
m e n t e d by d a t a f r o m X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y a n d
d e f o r m a t i o n s t u d i e s . In s e c t i o n IV the f o r m s of
the f u n c t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e of the s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y
a n d of the X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y on s o l u t e c o n -
centration are examined and a summary and gen-
e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in s e c t i o n V.
F a m i l i a r i t y with the n a t u r e of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s ,
with the c o n t r a s t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e i r o b s e r v a -
t i o n in the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e , a n d with the p r o -
c e d u r e s i n v o l v e d in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of ~ by all
the t e c h n i q u e s c i t e d i s a s s u m e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s
paper. The r e v i e w by C h r i s t i a n and S w a n n ' con-
t a i n s m u c h v a l u a b l e i n t r o d u c t o r y m a t e r i a l , in
a d d i t i o n to s u m m a r i z i n g r e s u l t s p r i o r to 1964,
a n d the o t h e r a r t i c l e s in t h i s v o l u m e m a y a l s o
be c o n s u l t e d for d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
I. T H E S T A C K I N G F A U L T E N E R G Y
IN F C C E L E M E N T S
I. 1) S i l v e r
T w o of the e a r l i e s t e s t i m a t e s of the s t a c k i n g
f a u l t e n e r g y in s i l v e r w e r e m a d e by s u b s t i t u t i o n
f o r the n u m e r o u s o t h e r f a c t o r s b e s i d e s ~ in
e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g c r e e p 2 a n d the o n s e t of
d y n a m i c r e c o v e r y 3 in c r y s t a l d e f o r m a t i o n studies.
T h e s e e s t i m a t e s , a d m i t t e d l y obtained by r a t h e r

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS VOLUME I, SEPTEMBER 1970-2429

ind_i eans, were nevertheless valuable in 50 e r g p e r s q c m . T h e f o r t u i t o u s a c c u r a c y of the
ena ~formation properties and substructure earlier result was due to the linear extrapolation
to be related to a numerical, albeit approximate, e m p l o y e d in t h e p l o t of ~ v s s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
value of a basic crystal property. As listed in having a greater slope than has been determined
chronological order in Table I, an extremely i n r e c e n t s t u d i e s , s e e s e c t i o n II. T h e r e s u l t o f
large number of determinations have been made Vassamillet and Massalski ~ which was determined
o f TAg s i n c e t h o s e e a r l y d a y s . 2-23 P e r h a p s t h e by normalizing X-ray faulting probability data
most important factor in arriving at an accurate to the uncorrected node work of Howie and Swann
v a l u e o f YAg w a s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n for the first should also be corrected, and thus leads to
t i m e i n a p u r e m e t a l o f e x t e n d e d d i s l o c a t i o n n o d e s 9,x~ YAg = 2 8 e r g s p e r s q c m ( p a r e n t h e s e s are used
achieved in 1964. The accuracy of t h e n o d e t e c h - where results in a table are known to be incorrect,
nique, which was first suggested and applied by but the correction-factor is either not known or
W h e l a n 24 i n 1 9 5 9 , h a d b e e n e n h a n c e d b y s u c c e s s i v e has not been applied).
refinements to the theory relating ~ to extended Recent determinations have for the most part
node measureable parameters ,6' ~s-27 u n t i l f i n a l l y involved direct examination using an electron
in 1964 three independent comprehensive treat- microscope of various faulted defects, including
m e n t s 2a-3~ i n g o o d a g r e e m e n t with one another tetrahedra, extrinsic-intrinsic fault pairs, and
established the method as most reliable and faulted dipoles in addition to extended nodes.
d i r e c t w i t h i n i t s r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n . Quite good agreement has been obtained, the mean
T h e v a l u e TAg = 25 e r g p e r s q c m h a d b e e n a n d s t a n d a r d e r r o r of t h e l a s t t w e l v e v a l u e s i n
obtained earlier by Howie and Swann 8 from the T a b l e I b e i n g 7Ag = 2 1 . 7 i 1 . 3 e r g p e r s q c m .
extrapolation of node data in Ag-Zn and Ag-A1 The only results which deviate at all strongly from
alloys, but their calculations were made from a the mean are some of those obtained from defor-
simpler relationship between T and node shape. mation studies. Particularly noticeable is the
B r o w n 28 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i r q u o t e d v a l u e s s h o u l d s p r e a d b y a f a c t o r of m o r e t h a n f o u r i n t h e r e s u l t s
be increased by a factor ~ 2.3, which emphasizes obtained from measurements of the temperature
the importance of m a k i n g f u l l a l l o w a n c e i n t h e dependence or strain-rate d e o e n d e n c e o f z3 ( t h e
calculations for the variation of line tension with stress at the onset of dynamical recovery in a
dislocation character and for the interaction of tensile test). The work by Ahlers and Haasen 7
the partials. A f u r t h e r c o m p a r i s o n 3~ b e t w e e n t h e a n d b y A h l e r s 13 w a s o n s i l v e r c o n t a i n i n g b o t h
relationships of Howie and Swann and of Brown high and low concentrations of oxygen, and they
indicated that the correction factor varies with were able to show that oxygen content has an
Poisson's ratio and node size within a range appreciable effect on many of the mechanical
1.7 t o ~ 2 . 4 , a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p a p e r a c o r - properties of o t h e r w i s e p u r e s i l v e r . A n a l y s i s o f
rection factor of 2.0 has been employed. Some the samples indicated that the value ~ = 65 erg
confusion has arisen from the fact that the value per sq cm was determined on silver containing
o f TAg-- 25 e r g p e r s q c m o b t a i n e d b y e x t r a p o l a t i o n 4 wt p p m O w h i l e y = 15 e r g p e r s q c m w a s
of the uncorrected node data of Howie and Swarm measured o n s i l v e r w i t h ~ 1 p p m w t O. T h i s
is closer to recent determinations than the extraordinary sensitivity of the strain rate
value obtained on applying the correction, )~Ag = s e n s i t i v i t y of T3 w a s i n t e r p r e t e d by Ahlers as
a r i s i n g f r o m t h e i n f l u e n c e of i m p u r i t y - o x y g e n
precipitates, a n d i s t h u s n o t t o b e t h o u g h t of a s
Table I. The Stackin9 Fault Energy of Silver a true dependence of ), o n o x y g e n c o n t e n t . I n d e e d ,
evidence has been provided from observations
Method 7, ergs/cm2 Reference of extended nodes in vacuum and air melted
Creep data (scaled) 35 Thornton and Hirsch, 1958 2 (5 t o 8 p p m O ) s i l v e r t h a t t h b s t a c k ~ . n g f a u l t
~'a 43 Suzuki and Barrett, 1958 4 e n e r g y i s i n s e n s i t i v e t o o x y g e n c o n t e n t 15--
Deformation twinning 21 Seeger et al., 1959 3 YAg ( v a c u u m m e l t ) = 2 1 . 9 e r g p e r s q c m a n d
Fault probability 24 Hu et al., 1961 5 ~Ag ( a i r m e l t ) = 2 3 . 8 e r g p e r s q c m . W i l k e n s
Extrapolated node data (25) Howie and Swann, 1961 6
rs 65 + 8 Ahlers and Haasen, 1962 7 e t a l . 16 h a v e c o n f i r m e d the insensitivity o f )~Ag
Normalized fault probability (14 -+3.5) Vassamilletand Massalski, 1963 8 to small concentrations of oxygen and other
Extended nodes 21 Loretto etal., 1964 9 solute s.
Extended nodes 20 -+7 Gallagher,1964 10 T h e ~'3 t e c h n i q u e t h u s p r o v i d e s v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a -
Tetrahedra stability <43 Seeger, 1964 11
tion on the extent to which solute-dislocation
ra ~40 Btihler and Liicke, 1964 12
rs 15 -+3 Ahlers, 1965 13 interactions can affect the cross-slipping of
Tetrahedra stability 17 + 4 JCssangand Hirth, 1966 14 dislocations, but for this very reason cannot in
Extended nodes 21.9 +-3.5 Gallagherand Washburn,1966 15 addition be considered a reliable technique for
Extrinsic-intrinisicfault pairs ~30 Gallagherand Washburn,1966 15 the determination o f T. O f c o u r s e , s i n c e o n e o f
Extended nodes 27 + 7 Wilkenset at, 1966 16
the main reasons for obtaining accurate values of
Faulted dipoles ,,.<21 +-6 I-la'ussermannand Wilkens, 1966 17
Extended nodes 22.8 + 4 Ruff and Ives, 1967 18 is to further our understanding of mechanical
Tetrahedra stability 15.4 Clarebrough et al., 1967 19 properties, t h e T3 m e t h o d r e m a i n s a n e x t r e m e l y
Normalized fault probability 18 + 3.5 Otte, 1967 20 i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r s a m p l i n g t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t of
Extended nodes 17432 Clarebroughetal., 1967 19 substructure on certain dislocation interactions. In
Faulted dipoles 30.7 Steeds, 1967 21
fact, while the techniques listed in Table I which
Extended nodes 17 -+3 Gallagher,1968 22
Extended nodes 19.6 + 2.3 Gallagherand Liu, 1969 23 involve measurements on faulted defects all have
proven ability in the determination of 7, care

2430-VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

s h o u l d be t a k e n in the p r e d i c t i o n of m e c h a n i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e on t h e s e
static defects.
I. 2) C o p p e r
T h e e a r l i e s t e x p e r i m e n t a l e s t i m a t e of the
s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y of a m a t e r i a l w a s m a d e on
c o p p e r b y F u l l m a n 32 in 1951, o n l y t h r e e y e a r s
a f t e r t h e c o n c e p t of p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s j o i n e d by
a b a n d of f a u l t w a s f o r m u l a t e d by H e i d e n r e i c h
a n d S h o c k l e y . 33 He d e t e r m i n e d the r a t i o of the
i n t e r f a c i a l f r e e e n e r g y of c o h e r e n t twin b o u n d a r i e s
(~T) t o t h e a v e r a g e g r a i n b o u n d a r y f r e e e n e r g y
(TG) b y m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e d i h e d r a l a n g l e s at
t w i n - g r a i n b o u n d a r y i n t e r f a c e s , and found ~ T / ~ G =
0.035 + 0.006. Such e x p e r i m e n t s a r e of n e c e s s i t y
p e r f o r m e d at high t e m p e r a t u r e s - - t h e a n n e a l i n g
t r e a t m e n t s in F u l l m a n ' s w o r k w e r e at 945 ~ C.
U t i l i z i n g an e s t a b l i s h e d v a l u e 34 of 7G = 600 e r g
p e r s q c m a n d a s s u m i n g ~, = 27T (see R e a d 3s and
H i r t h a n d L o t h e 36) the s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y w a s
d e t e r m i n e d a s ~ 40 e r g p e r s q c m . A s s h o w n in
T a b l e II, w h i c h l i s t s v a l u e o f ),_k;u in o r d e r of t h e i r
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t m n of t h i s s a m e
t e c h n i q u e by I n m a n and K h a n 4~ l e d t o a m u c h l o w e r
v a l u e of ~. F u r t h e r m o r e , s i m i l a r s t u d i e s in s i l v e r
by R h e a d 43 and by R h e a d a n d M c L e a n 44 l e d to v e r y
low v a l u e s of TT = 4 and 108 e r g p e r s q c m , r e s p e c -
t i v e l y , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i m p l e f o r m u l a ~, =
2 Y T t e n d s to u n d e r e s t i m a t e the m a g n i t u d e of the
s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y .
S u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g a v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s
h a v e , in f a c t , l e d to the a c c e p t a n c e of a s o m e w h a t
h i g h e r v a l u e f o r 7Cu. M u c h of the d i s c u s s i o n c o n -
t a i n e d in the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n a p p l i e s t o the v a l u e s
s h o w n in p a r e n t h e s e s in T a b l e H, and to ~ a s d e t e r -
m i n e d by the ~'3 m e t h o d . P e i s s k e r 4~ o b t a i n e d the
r e a s o n a b l e v a l u e of 7 = 50 e r g p e r s q c m f r o m t h e
s t r a i n r a t e d e p e n d e n c e of T3, and a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e
c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c u r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of
the t e c h n i q u e . T h e r a t h e r h i g h s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y
of c o p p e r u n f o r t u n a t e l y p l a c e s it o u t s i d e the r a n g e
of q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the e x t e n d e d n o d e
t e c h n i q u e . One c a n , n e v e r t h e l e s s , p l a c e a l o w e r
Table II. The Stacking Fault Energy of Copper
l i m i t on 7 by m a k i n g a r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n c o n -
c e r n i n g the m i n i m u m d e g r e e of d i s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h
c a n be d i s c e r n e d in a h i g h r e s o l u t i o n e l e c t r o n m i c r o -
graph. Contrast calculations indicate that dislocation
t i o n i m a g e w i d t h s a r e ~ 75/~ in c o p p e r , a n d t a k i n g
t h i s to be the m i n i m u m m e a s u r a b l e e x t e n s i o n ( m i n -
i m u m node i n s c r i b e d r a d i u s ) we f i n d ~ > 31 e r g
per sq cm.
Other techniques are, however, directly applicable
a n d the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d r e c e n t l y a r e i n g o o d a c c o r d
one with a n o t h e r a p a r t f r o m t h e v a l u e of ~Cu ~ 150
e r g p e r sq c m d e t e r m i n e d by S t e e d s 21 t h r o u g h a p p l i -
c a t i o n of h i s own c o n t r a s t c a l c u l a t i o n s t o h i s m e a s -
u r e m e n t s of f a u l t e d d i p o l e s . T h i s f i n d i n g i s s t r i k i n g l y
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of H / / u s s e r m a n n a n d W i l l l e n s 1~
who f r o m a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e i r own t h e o r y f o r f a u l t e d
d i p o l e s d e t e r m i n e d 7Cu ~< 59 e r g p e r s q c m .
T h e c o n s e n s u s of the f i n d i n g s i s t h u s t h a t the
s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y of c o p p e r i s a b o u t 55 e r g p e r
sq cm.
I. 3) Gold
A s s h o w n i n T a b l e III, s o m e i n i t i a l c o n f u s i o n in t h e
m a g n i t u d e of TA u n o w a p p e a r s to be r e s o l v e d in
f a v o r of a v a l u e s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n ~Cu" F o l l o w i n g
the s a m e p a t t e r n a s in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s r e s u l t s
f r o m the v3 m e t h o d h a v e p r o v e d v a r i a b l e a n d g e n -
e r a l l y l o w e r t h a n r e c e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of YAu-
E a r l y a p p l i c a t i o n s of the t e t r a h e d r o n s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s of C z j z e k e t a l . 4S a l s o l e d to v e r y low
v a l u e s of 7Au a n d i n d e e d the c o n c l u s i o n w a s d r a w n '1
t h a t YAu < TAg c o n t r a r y to the f i n d i n g s of n u m e r o u s
o t h e r s t u d i e s . F o r t u n a t e l y it is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
m a t t e r to c h e c k the a c c u r a c y of t h i s c o n c l u s i o n s i n c e ,
if c o r r e c t , it i n d i c a t e s t h a t e x t e n d e d d i s l o c a t i o n
n o d e s a r e o b s e r v a b l e in t h i n f o i l s of p u r e gold.
O b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e a s e a r l y a s 1964, in f a c t , r e v e a l e d
t h a t n o d e s in g o l d a r e not m e a s u r e a b l y e x t e n d e d , 9 ' ' ~
i n d i c a t i v e of a l o w e r l i m i t to the f a u l t e n e r g y , ~Au
> 28 e r g p e r s q c m . T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h the e a r l y
t e t r a h e d r a s t a b i l i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s a p p e a r to s t e m
f r o m the a n a l y s i s h a v i n g b e e n a p p l i e d t o q u e n c h e d -
in t e t r a h e d r a r a t h e r t h a n t h e m o r e r e c e n t a p p r o a c h
of o b s e r v i n g t e t r a h e d r a f o r m e d d u r i n g d e f o r m a -
t i o n (see R u f f , t h i s i s s u e ) . A p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n of the l o w v a l u e s of ~Au d e t e r m i n e d by the r3
m e t h o d i s a d v a n c e d in s e c t i o n IV of t h i s p a p e r .

Method % ergs/cm 2 Reference

Table III. The Stacking Fault Energy of Gold
2x coherent twin energy ~40 Fullman, 1951 32
2x coherent twin energy 42 Fisher and Dunn, 1952 37 Method % ergs/cm2 Reference
r3 163 Seeger etal., 1959 3
Berner, 1960 38 Deformation twinning 30 Suzuki and Barrett, 1958 4
r3 102 ~ 165 Haasen and King, 1960 39 Creep data (scaled) 33 Thornton and Hirsch, 1958 2
Extrapolated node data (40) Howie and Swann, 1961 6 r3 30 Seeger et al., 1959 3
2x coherent twin energy ~24 Inman and Khan, 1961 40 r3 10 Berner, 1960 38
Recalculated node data (70 + 10) Thornton et al., 1962 26 Tetrahedra stability 16 Czjzek etal., 1962 45
Normalized fault probability (67 • 17) Vassamillet and Massalski, 1963 8 Loretto etal., 1964 9
Absence of extended nodes >31 Steeds(quotedinGallagher, 1964) 10 Absence of extended nodes >28 GaUagher, 1964 10
r3 50 Peissker, 1965 41 Tetrahedra stability 12 Seeger, 1964 11
Tetrahedra stability (scaled) 78 Loretto etal., 1965 42 r3 13 + 19 Alders and Haasen, 1965 46
Tetrahedra stability 73 • 15 J#ssang and Hirth, 1966 14 Tetrahedra stability (scaled) 56 Loretto et al., 1965 42
Faulted dipoles <:59 H/iussermann and Wilkens, 1966 17 Tetrahedra stability 55 + 11 J~ssang and Hirth, 1966 14
Faulted dipoles 150 • 30 Steeds, 1967 21 Faulted dipoles <42 H/iussermann and Wilkens, 1966 17
Tetrahedra stability 58.5 Clarebrough etal., 1967 19 Faulted dipoles 61 Steeds, 1967 21
Normalized fault probability 70 + 15 Otte, 1967 20 Tetrahedra stability 44.7 Clarebrough et al., 1967 19
Etrapolated node data 48 • 10 Gallagher and Liu, 1969 23 Extrapolated node data 42 • 5 Gallagher and Liu, 1969 23

ME'IALI.URGICAI_TRANSAC'IIONS V O L U M E I, S E P T E M B E R 1 9 7 0 - 2 4 3 1
 D i r e c t e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a c t u a l m a g n i t u d e of NAu
is derived mainly from the more recent calculations Table V. The Stacking Fault Energy of Nickel
of tetrahedron s t a b i l i t y t4,19,42 a n d f r o m o b s e r v a -
Method 7, ergs/cm2 Reference
t i o n s o f f a u l t e d d i p o l e s ) 7'2~ A s w a s t h e c a s e f o r NAg,
t h e w o r k of S t e e d s zt l e a d s t o a v a l u e o f NAu w h i c h ~'3 2,2 7Cu Haasen, 1958 51
i s 50 p c t g r e a t e r t h a n i s o b t a i n e d b y H ~ / u s s e r m a n n Creep data (scaled) 95 Thorntonand I-lirsch,1958 2
r3 410 Seegeretal., 1959 3
a n d W i l k e n s , ~7 b u t b o t h v a l u e s a r e in r e a s o n a b l e
Extrapolated node data (~150) Howieand Swann, 1961 6
accord with the mean value determined from the r3 300 Maderetal., 1963 52
m o s t r e c e n t r e s u l t s , NAu ~ 50 e r g p e r s q c m . Rollingtexture (scaled) (450) Dillamoreand Smallman, 1965 53
Faulted dipoles < 185 H~'ussermanuand Wilkens, 1966 17
Absence of tetrahedra >375 Jr and Hirth, 1966 14
I. 4) A l u m i n u m and Nickel Extrapolated tetrahedra data 160 Clarebroughet al., 1967 19
Rollingtexture 240 Beestonet al., 1968 54
Extensive data are available for only two other
fcc elements, aluminum and nickel. Table IV shows
t h e r e s u l t s f o r 7A1, f r o m w h i c h i t m a y b e c o n c l u d e d tions have an extension o f o n l y a c o u p l e of B u r g e r s
that the original estimate from the coherent twin v e c t o r s.
e n e r g y of NA1 ~ 200 e r g p e r s q c m i s a s r e a s o n a b l e
a s a n y m a d e s i n c e . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t d e s p i t e I. 5) D i s c u s s i o n
t h e h i g h s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y of a l u m i n u m ( w h i c h
From the previous sections we are able to con-
l e a d s t o t o t a l d i s l o c a t i o n w i d t h s of b a r e l y m o r e
c l u d e t h a t r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e d of N i n f c c e l e m e n t s
t h a n a B u r g e r s v e c t o r ) d i r e c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f NA1
a r e : NAg = 2 1 . 6 e r g p e r s q c m , VCu = 55 e r g p e r s q
h a v e p r o v e d p o s s i b l e f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s of f a u l t e d
c m , N A u = 50 e r g p e r s q c m , N A i = 2 0 0 e r g p e r s q c m ,
defects. The method involves comparisons of
a n d NNi = 250 e r g p e r s q c m . E s t i m a t e s f o r o t h e r
t h e s h r i n k a g e r a t e s of f a u l t e d a n d u n f a u l t e d d i s -
fcc elements are few and far between. Thornton
location loops during annealing and permits calcu-
a n d H i r s c h 2 f o u n d N p b ~ 0 . 6 3 N c u i n d i c a t i v e of Ypb
l a t i o n of 7 f r o m i t s p r e s e n c e in t h e t e r m w h i c h
35 e r g p e r s q c m , w h i l e B o i l i n g e t a l . ss m e a s u r e d
describes the collapsing force for the faulted loop.
Np b = 25 e r g p e r s q c m . E s t i m a t e s f o r P t , T h , P d ,
It r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n w h e t h e r f u r t h e r w o r k w i l l c o n -
Rh, Yb, and Ce are derived almost exclusively
f i r m t h e r a t h e r l o w v a l u e o f NA1 d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e
from the rolling texture results of Dillamore et
l a s t s u c h s t u d y l i s t e d in T a b l e I V , s o f o r t h e p r e s e n t
al. ~ or from the modified analysis of the same data
t i m e NA1 = 2 0 0 e r g p e r s q c m i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
b y D i l l a m o r e a n d S m a l l m a n . s3 T h e r e s u l t s in t h e
a reasonable estimate.
e a r l i e r of t h e t w o p a p e r s 56 a r e t o b e p r e f e r r e d
A s s h o w n i n T a b l e V t h e m a g n i t u d e of NNi i s s t i l l
a s t h e s c a l i n g v a l u e s u s e d t h e r e i n (NAg = 25 e r g p e r
rather poorly defined despite there having been sev-
eral recent determinations. The value quoted from s q c m , YCu = 7 0 e r g p e r s q c m , NNi = 225 e r g p e r
s q c m ) a r e o n t h e w h o l e b e t t e r t h a n in t h e m o d i f i e d
scaling rolling texture data is probably rather high
s i n c e D i l l a m o r e a n d S m a l l m a n 52 u s e d NA1 = 2 8 0 e r g v e r s i o n (NAg_= 21 e r g p e r s q c m , NCu = 85 e r g p e r
per sq cm and 7Cu=85 erg per sqcm as fixed points s q c m , NA1--280 e r g p e r s q c m ) . S i n c e t h e w e l l -
established values of N were used for scaling, and
in their analysis. Nor should strong reliance be
p l a c e d on t h e v a l u e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f a u l t e d d i p o l e s , little or no other work exists on the other elements,
a s t h e p u b l i s h e d m i c r o g r a p h o f s u c h a d e f e c t in the values obtained at present stand unchallenged.
n i c k e l ,7 i s c l e a r l y a t t h e l i m i t o f m e a s u r a b i l i t y . Of A l t h o u g h it h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r o l l i n g
texture is dependent upon the stacking fault energy
the remaining values those determined by Beeston et
al.~a f r o m r o l l i n g t e x t u r e s t u d i e s a n d by C l a r e b r o u g h
in some instances, reservations are still advisable
e t al.19 f r o m e x t r a p o l a t e d t e t r a h e d r a d a t a a p p e a r t o b e c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h i s d e p e n d e n c e . Some
w e l l - b a s e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . T h e s p r e a d in t h e r e s u l t s studies indicate that the transition from copper-
like to brass-like t e x t u r e o c c u r s in a r e l a t i v e l y
is such, however, that although the statement NNi~
narrow concentration range, as observed by Liu and
250 e r g p e r s q c m i s p r o b a b l y r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a t e ,
R i c h m a n S V , s~ in s e v e r a l c o p p e r - b a s e alloys and by
it might be as well merely to say that the stacking
H a e s s n e r s9 i n N i - C o a l l o y s . T h i s i s p r o b a b l y
f a u l t e n e r g y of n i c k e l i s v e r y h i g h i n d e e d . T h e u n -
associated with a change from occurrence to n o n -
c e r t a i n t y in t h e r e s u l t s c o u l d w e l l r e f l e c t t h e
occurrence of a c r i t i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n r e a c t i o n . I n
i m p o r t a n c e of f a c t o r s s u c h a s s p e c i m e n p u r i t y
Haessner's work the texture parameter was found
on dislocation interactions since screw disloca-
to be constant from pure nickel up to Ni-40 at. pct
Co, and although his findings were not confirmed
Table IV. The Stacking Fault Energy of Aluminum in t h e r e c e n t s t u d y of t h e N i - C o s e r i e s b y B e e s t o n
e t a l . s4 ( s e e n e x t s e c t i o n ) , it i s b y no m e a n s i m -
Method 7, ergs/cm2 Reference possible that N as determined from rolling tex-
tures is the critical value necessary for develop-
Ix coherent twin energy ~200 Fullman, 1951 32
Seegerand Sch6ck, 1953 47 m e n t of t h e o b s e r v e d t e x t u r e r a t h e r t h a n t h e
Creep data (scaled) >200 Thornton and Hirsch, 1958 2 actual value for the sample which was rolled.
Loop annealing (280) Edington and SmaUman, 1965 48 I n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s t h e r e s u l t s f o r 7 in p u r e
Absence of tetrahedra >150 J~ssang and Hirth, 1966 14 m a t e r i a l s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d in s o m e d e t a i l s o a s to
Loop annealing 210 Kannan and Thomas, 1966 49
Loop annealing 200 Clarebrough et al., 1967 19 a c q u i r e a f e e l i n g f o r t h e r a n g e of a p p l i c a b i l i t y
Loop annealing 135 Dobson, etal., 1967 50 and reliability of the various techniques. Perhaps
what emerges most clearly is that no single method

2432-VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

combines all the most desirable attributes. These y e t b e e n l i t t l e a p p l i e d t o s t u d i e s o f a l l o y s . T h e -r3
include a wide range of applicability, a direct, m e t h o d h a s a l s o b e e n a p p l i e d t o a n u m b e r of a l l o y
and preferably strong, dependence of ~ on the ex- systems and the results are discussed, although
perimental measurables, and a well-developed, and it is clear from the variable results in the tables
preferably simple, theory relating V to the experi- in the previous section that the predictions of this
mental measurables. The extended node method technique must be examined with caution.
is close to being ideal within its restricted range
of applicability which fortunately includes silver II) THE EFFECT OF ALLOYING
base alloys throughout the solid solution range, ON THE STACKING FAULT ENERGY
and stainless steels. The technique can also be
I I . 1) S i l v e r - B a s e Alloys
applied in copper- and gold-base alloys for
electron-atom ratios (e/a) greater than about 1.10, Determination of ~ for several compositions in
thus permitting observations over about 70 pct of a particular series have been made using the node
the solid solution range. Extrinsic-intrinsic fault technique in the alloys Ag-Zn,8'22'23 Ag-AI,6,~z
p a i r s 6~ may also be used within the same re- Ag-In,~5 Ag-Sn,TM and Ag-Mn. 62 In alloys for which
s t r i c t e d r a n g e a n d h a v e th.e a d v a n t a g e o f a n e x - the valences of the solute and solvent atoms (Zx
tremely:simple theoretical relationship between and Z2, respectively) are well known, it is common
both extrinsic and intrinsic fault energies (Ye a n d practice to denote an alloy with atomic fraction
7i, respectively) and fault pair measurables, thus solute content, x, by means of its electron-atom
permitting the use of anisotropic elasticity in r a t i o ( e / a ) , w h e r e e / a = (1 - x)Z1 + Z2 =- .1 + x,xZ.
the calculations. This procedure serves as a useful normalization
A technique which has been widely employed in factor for the data, since termination of the solid
studies of the variation of u with alloying, but solution range within alloy series tends to occur
which received little prominence in the tables for at a particular e / a value. Accordingly, in Table
y in the pure elements, is the use of X-rays to VI values of V and e / a are listed for all the series
determine the faulting probability of heavily de- which have been studied (except Ag-Mn for which
formed samples. The technique has application ~, i s s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n o f a t . p e t M n o n a c c o u n t
o v e r a w i d e r r a n g e of V t h a n t h e n o d e m e t h o d , b u t , of the difficulty in assigning a valence to manganese).
as discussed in more detail in later sections, is T h e r e s u l t s of H o w i e a n d S w a n n 6 h a v e b e e n c o r -
more suited to the qualitative determination of r e c t e d b y a f a c t o r of t w o , a n d h a v e b e e n c o n v e r t e d
trends in ~ than to the establishment of a b s o l u t e from their published values of y/Gb by assuming
values. It is notable, however, that determina- Gb = 7 . 1 9 10 ~ e r g p e r s q c m f o r a l l a l l o y s (G i s t h e
tions of the relative magnitudes o f TAg, TCu, a n d shear modulus and b the Burgers vector of a total
YAu m a d e f r o m 1 9 5 7 t o 1 9 6 4 b y s e v e r a l a u t h o r s dislocation).
(see Christian and Swann, 1 Table VIII) were con- The results, apart from those for Ag-Mn alloys
s i s t e n t i n r e v e a l i n g Y c u a n d YAu a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y which are shown in Fig 8, are plotted in Fig. 1 with
e q u a l , a n d g r e a t e r t h a n )'Ag" the open marks signifying data which have been
Estimates of ~ i n n i c k e l - b a s e alloys are mostly subjected to a correction factor. Error bars are
derived from tetrahedron stability findings, not shown for the individual points, but typically
from rolling textures, and at high solute concen- the standard error of the mean is 10 to 20 pct of
trations from extended nodes. The loop annealing V. C o n s i d e r a b l e scatter in node size is generally
technique and faulted dipole measurements have as observed in samples deformed and examined at

Table VI. % in erg per sq cm for Silver-Base Alloys

Reference Alloy
Howie and Swann, 3' 23.1 15.8 12.9 7.5 5.1
1961 Ag-Zn
Corrected X2 e/a 1.032 1.054 1.08 1.23 1.29
Howie and Swann, 1961 3' 22 15.9 8.2 2.0 16.1 15.8 15.2
Corrected X2 Ag-AI
Gallagher, 1968" e/a 1.054 1.078 1.15 1.35 1.02 1.04 1.06
Gallagher and 3' 21.9 20.7 20.6 21.8 16.1 8.7 5.6
Washburn, Ag-ln
1966 e/a 1.00 1.008 1.019 1.037 1.10 1.15 1.23
3' 22.8 20.3 18.5 11.7 6.7 4.5
Ruff and Ives,
1967 Ag-Sn
e/a 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.12 1.18 1.235
Gallagher and 3' 19.6 18.6 19.8 18.5 18.0 16.4
Liu, Ag-Zn
1969 e/a 1.00 1.016 1.020 1.030 1.065 1.091
3' 22.8 22.4 20.5 20.5 22.0 22,4
Quader and
Dodd, 1969 Ag-Mn
at. pet 0 1.9 3.8 7.5 13 I8

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2433

 r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , the s m a l l e s t a n d l a r g e s t n o d e s
i n a s a m p l e c o m m o n l y d i f f e r i n g in s i z e by a f a c t o r
of two (see, for i n s t a n c e , F i g . 6 i n Ruff a n d I v e s l a
a n d F i g s . 2 a n d 3 in G a l l a g h e r 2 2 ) . T h e o r e t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t n o d e s i z e s (as c h a r a c t e r -
i z e d b y the i n s c r i b e d r a d i u s ) s h o u l d not be v a r i a b l e
to t h i s d e g r e e . A c c o r d i n g l y we m u s t c o n c l u d e t h a t
the e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n s do n o t c o n f o r m
f u l l y w i t h the c o n d i t i o n p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e o r y t h a t
the n o d e s a r e in e l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m r e s u l t i n g s o l e l y
f r o m t h e r e p u l s i v e f o r c e of t h e i r b o u n d i n g p a r -
t i a l s a n d the n e e d to m i n i m i z e the a r e a of f a u l t i n g .
I n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s a r i s i n g f r o m the p r e s e n c e of
n e i g h b o r i n g d i s l o c a t i o n s c a n i n f l u e n c e the n o d e
s i z e , a s a l s o c a n c o n s t r a i n t s a p p l i e d to the t o t a l
d i s l o c a t i o n s e m e r g e n t f r o m the n o d e t h r o u g h
t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n with o t h e r d i s l o c a t i o n s o r with
t h e s u r f a c e s of the t h i n f o i l . Of a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l
n a t u r e i s the f o r c e a r i s i n g f r o m i n t e r a c t i o n s b e -
t w e e n the s t r a i n f i e l d s of t h e p a r t i a l s b o u n d i n g the
node a n d the s t r a i n f i e l d i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s in the
c r y s t a l l a t t i c e due to the p r e s e n c e of a t o m s of
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s , r e f e r r e d to b y
C h r i s t i a n and Swann I as " t h e solute i m p e d a n c e
f o r c e " a p p e a r in s o m e a l l o y s to e x e r t a c o n s i d -
e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on d i s l o c a t i o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h u s ,
it s h o u l d be b o r n e in m i n d t h a t the v a l u e s of
quoted have been d e t e r m i n e d by assuming s i m p l e
e l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m , and should m o r e p r o p e r l y be
r e f e r r e d to a s " a p p a r e n t " o r " e f f e c t i v e " v a l u e s
of the s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y .
P e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s of F i g . 1
a r e t h a t f o r a l l the a l l o y s e r i e s p l o t t e d the a d d i t i o n
of s o l u t e h a s l e d to a d e c r e a s e in ~ a n d t h a t a s u b -
s t a n t i a l d e g r e e of n o r m a l i z a t i o n h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d
i n m a k i n g the plot with the e l e c t r o n - a t o m r a t i o a s
t h e a b s c i s s a . F o r i n s t a n c e , at e / a ~- 1.23 r e a s o n a b l e
a g r e e m e n t is obtained b e t w e e n y in t h r e e alloys
w h i c h d i f f e r m a r k e d l y in s o l u t e c o n t e n t , A g - 2 3 a t .
pct Z n , A g - 1 1 . 5 a t . pct I n , a n d A g - 7 . 8 a t . pct Sn. H o w -
e v e r , t h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n a p p e a r s t o be n o t q u i t e
c o m p l e t e , the plot r e v e a l i n g t h a t at m o d e r a t e l y h i g h
solute concentrations for a given e/a ratio, the
e f f e c t i v e v a l u e of ~ i s l o w e r t h e h i g h e r the v a l e n c e
of the a d d e d s o l u t e . We s h a l l e x a m i n e t h i s f i n d i n g
i n s e c t i o n III to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the v a r i a t i o n in
o 9 Ag - Zn
~;. \ o 9 Aq - At
20 9 9 ~il ~ 9 Ag- In
- ~ 9 A g - Sn
9 [3 o I9
}5 ( o o, Corrected Data )
), \ partial has (p = 3~g "bp. This leads to the char-
(ergs/cm 2 )
I0
-
o I I 1 1 ]
1.00 1.05 1,10 I.t5 1.20 I.;:'5
Electron -Atom Ratio, e/a
Fig. 1--The variation of the stacking fault energy with e/a in
silver-base alloys.
2434-VOLUME 1,SEPTEBMER 1970
node size at a given value of e/a i s attributable to
a true variation in I, or to the influence of other
factors.
A s e r i e s to illu strate the change in faulted defect
size with solute concentration in the Ag-ln s e r i e s
is shown in Fig. 2. The inscribed radius (w) of
the largest node is approximately 400]k, while that
in pure s i l v e r has w ~90A. It is of interest that
the node shown for silver melted in a i r , Fig. 2(g),
contains a s m a l l cusp in one of its bounding p a r -
t i a l s , indicative of the presence of a local interac-
tion between the dislocation and a lattice inhomo-
geneity.
The dislocation distribution also changes mark-
edly with alloying, from an i r r e g u l a r tangled cell-
structure in pure s i l v e r , Fig. 3(a), to the widely
dissociatedcoplanar arrangements found in Ag-i 1.5
at. pct In, Fig. 3(b), both micrographs being shown
at the same magnification. The substructure in
Fig. 3(a) is b a r e l y distinguishable from that of pure
copper, the only major distinctionbeing the presence
in the micrograph of two extended nodes which reveal
that y is reasonable low. One of the difficulties in
d e t e r m i n i n g ~ in high solute c o n c e n t r a t i o n alloys
i s c l e a r f r o m F i g . 3(b), n a m e l y t h a t i s o l a t e d n o d e s
are most infrequently observed. Considerable var-
i a t i o n of n o d e s i z e w i t h i n a n e t w o r k i s n o r m a l a n d
i n d i c a t e s the e x t e n t to w h i c h the f a u l t e d c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by the l o c a l s t r e s s f i e l d s .
A n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of F i g . 3 (b) i s the s u b s t a n t i a l
a m o u n t of e x t r i n s i c f a u l t i n g p r e s e n t i n the f o r m of
e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c node p a i r s (at A , B , C, D) a n d
a n e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c f a u l t p a i r (at E). Node p a i r s
w e r e f i r s t r e p o r t e d b y L o r e t t o e3 a n d h a v e s u b s e -
q u e n t l y b e e n o b s e r v e d by m a n y w o r k e r s in a
v a r i e t y of m a t e r i a l s . E x i s t e n c e of t h e e x t r i n s i c -
i n t r i n s i c f a u l t p a i r w a s p o s t u l a t e d b y H i r t h , 6~
and it was f i r s t recognized in Ag-In alloysfiI
The configuration is s i m i l a r to the multiple ribbons
studied by Amelinckx and Delavignette~4 in layer
structures and facilitates ready calculation of both
the extrinsic and intrinsic fault e n e r g i e s using an
equation identical to that employed by Amelinckx
and Delavignette. It is somewhat s u r p r i s i n g that
the presence of extrinsic faulting was not recog-
nized e a r l i e r , since several examples of e x t r i n s i c -
intrinsic fault p a i r s may be seen in some of the
e a r l i e s t published micrographs (e.g. Fig. 19,
Whelana4). A complicating factor in recognizing
the configurations is the contrast anomalyes'ee
that, despite all three p a r a l l e l p a r t i a l s having the
same Burgers vector, bp, the two outer p a r t i a l s
have a phase shift (q~)of yg'bp while the central
a c t e r i s t i c line of no contrast ((p = 2~) at the cen-
tral partial when g . bp = 2/3 while the two outer
p a r t i a l s are in contrast, as, for instance, at E in
Fig. 3(b).
For line contrast (g = 220 or 113 type) g. bp =
0 or 1 so that the phase shift for all three partials
/ I
is either z e r o or y • 2n~(n integral). Thus, as
1,30 1,35 illustrated in fault and line contrast in Fig. 4(a),
CrY- (b) for fault p a i r s in A g - l l . 5 at. pct In, all three
p a r a l l e l p a r t i a l s can be made visible, and both
extrinsic and intrinsic fault energies readily d e t e r -
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
 i
0 7 g ,s
m i n e d f r o m t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n . D e t a i l s of the p r o c e d -
u r e a r e a v a i l a b l e i n the p a p e r s c i t e d (see a l s o R u f f ,
t h i s i s s u e ) so t h a t o n l y t h e m a j o r e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d -
i n g s n e e d be p r e s e n t e d . P e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
of t h e s e i s t h a t the i n t r i n s i c a n d e x t r i n s i c fault e n -
e r g i e s a r e found to be a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l . 61 T h i s
c a n i n d e e d be i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e e x a m p l e s s h o w n s i n c e
the s y m m e t r y of the c o n f i g u r a t i o n l e a d s to ~i = ~e
w h e n t h e w i d t h s of the two b a n d s of f a u l t a r e e q u a l .
B e s i d e s i t s u s e in d e t e r m i n i n g Ye, the c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n a l s o p r o v i d e s a m e t h o d , in a d d i t i o n to o b s e r -
v a t i o n s o n e x t e n d e d n o d e s , of d e t e r m i n i n g Yi-
Good a g r e e m e n t h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d b e t w e e n ~i
d e r i v e d f r o m the two t y p e s of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s ,
u s u a l l y to b e t t e r t h a n 20 p c t . A s s h o w n in F i g . 5
w h i c h d e p i c t s e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c f a u l t i n g in p u r e
s i l v e r , t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e not r e s t r i c t e d to
m a t e r i a l s with e x t r e m e l y l o w f a u l t e n e r g y , a n d
it i s f o u n d t h a t ~i -~ Ye i n the p u r e s o l v e n t a s w e l l
a s i n the a l l o y s which h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d .
T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d in the p r e c e d i n g p a r a -
g r a p h s a r e b e l i e v e d to be t h e m o s t r e l i a b l e a v a i l -
a b l e f o r the v a r i a t i o n of y ( e f f e c t i v e ) in s i l v e r -
b a s e a l l o y s . O n l y a r a t h e r s m a l l n u m b e r of
different alloy series have been studied using
the d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s , h o w -
e v e r , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y we m u s t a l s o c o n s i d e r
the f i n d i n g s of l e s s d i r e c t t e c h n i q u e s . B e s i d e s
p r o v i d i n g d a t a on a d d i t i o n a l a l l o y s e r i e s , c o m -
p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the f i n d i n g s of the node t e c h n i q u e
a n d of the l e s s d i r e c t a p p r o a c h e s in the s a m e
s e r i e s c a n p r o v e of c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e . A s u b -
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
1 . 1.23, (b) e/a 1.15, (c) e/a 1.10, (aT)e/a
s t a n t i a l body of d a t a e x i s t s f o r the X - r a y f a u l t i n g
probability, ~, in silver-base alloys, selected
f i n d i n g s f r o m w h i c h a r e s h o w n in F i g . 6. B e -
c a u s e of the s t r o n g d e p e n d e n c e of a u p o n the
t e m p e r a t u r e at w h i c h f i l i n g s a r e p r e p a r e d a n d
e x a m i n e d the r e s u l t s in F i g . 6 h a v e b e e n d r a w n
only f r o m s t u d i e s made at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p o~ = r p / ~ , w h e r e p i s the
dislocation density and K a constant is widely
u s e d to r e l a t e ~ a n d ~ (see t h i s v o l u m e , f o r f u r -
t h e r d e t a i l s ) . T h e v a r i a t i o n of ~ w i t h a l l o y i n g
i s o f t e n d e r i v e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s of ~ b y
a s s u m i n g Kp to be i n d e p e n d e n t of a l l o y c o m p o -
s i t i o n , but t h i s c a n be s h o w n to be a p o o r a s s u m p -
t i o n in s o m e c a s e s at l e a s t . It i s , h o w e v e r ,
r e a s o n a b l e to c o n c l u d e t h a t ~ a n d ~ a r e i n v e r s e l y
f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d , a n d t h a t a m a t e r i a l with a
low s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y w i l l h a v e a h i g h f a u l t i n g
probability.
S i n c e the r e s u l t s in F i g . 6 a r e p l o t t e d a g a i n s t
a t o m i c p e r c e n t s o l u t e r a t h e r t h a n e / a we f i n d , a s
e x p e c t e d , t h a t t h e l a r g e s t v a l u e s of ~ a t a p a r t i c -
u l a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e a s s o c i a t e d with s o l u t e s h a v i n g
the g r e a t e s t v a l e n c e . T h e r e s u l t s a r e r e a s o n a b l y
w e l l g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g to the v a l e n c e d i f f e r e n c e ,
A Z , b e t w e e n s o l u t e a n d s o l v e n t a n d p e r m i t the c o n -
c l u s i o n that s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s to t h o s e of F i g . 1
w o u l d be o b t a i n e d on a p p l i c a t i o n of the n o d e t e c h -
n i q u e . T h e f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y r e s u l t s i n the A g -
Mn s e r i e s p r o v i d e good s u b s t a n t i a t i o n f o r t h e f i n d i n g s
of Q u a d e r a n d D o d d 62 l i s t e d in T a b l e VI t h a t ~Ag i s
not a l t e r e d b y a d d i t i o n s of up to 20 pct M n . D e l d -
VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970-2435
h o u z 4 e a n d D e r u y t t e r e 73 h a v e a n a l y z e d the f u n c -
t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e of a on ( f r a c t i o n a l ) s o l u t e c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n , x , and find t h a t m u c h of the d a t a in
t h e l i t e r a t u r e c a n be d e s c r i b e d by t h e e q u a t i o n

a = Oto e x p kl AZ i x - O~o e x p ~e(e/a - 1) [1]

w h e r e c~ o i s the f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y of the p u r e
s o l v e n t and k i s a c o n s t a n t . E q . [1] r e v e a l s t h a t
f o r a g i v e n e / a r a t i o the r e s u l t s f o r d i f f e r e n t a l l o y
s e r i e s w i l l be n o r m a l i z e d t o a s i n g l e v a l u e of
if /~ t a k e s the s a m e v a l u e in e a c h s e r i e s . In F i g . 7
the v a l u e s of k WAZ I d e t e r m i n e d by D e l 4 h o u z 4 e
a n d D e r u y t t e r e f r o m t h e c u r v e s in F i g . 6 a r e
p l o t t e d a g a i n s t I 4 2 t. T h e s t r a i g h t l i n e t h r o u g h
the o r i g i n of the p l o t d r a w n by the a b o v e a u t h o r s
i s a f a i r fit t o the d a t a , a n d f r o m i t s s l o p e we f i n d
t h a t k -~ 0.08 m a y be u s e d in E q . [1] f o r s i l v e r -
b a s e a l l o y s . H o w e v e r , a s o m e w h a t b e t t e r fit i s
p r o v i d e d by the d a s h e d l i n e in F i g . 7 i n d i c a t i v e
of k -~ 0.06 to 0.08 f o r I/xZI = 1 and k -~ 0.08 t o
0.095 f o r I LxZ I ='4. T h u s , f o r a p a r t i c u l a r e / a
r a t i o ~ i s l a r g e r in a l l o y s w i t h the g r e a t e r v a l e n c e
s o l u t e . T h i s f i n d i n g c o n f o r m s w e l l with the c o n -
c l u s i o n f r o m F i g . 1 t h a t T ( e f f e c t i v e ) i s l o w e r at a
g i v e n e / a r a t i o in a l l o y s w i t h the g r e a t e r v a l e n c e
s o l u t e , a s i s , of c o u r s e , to be e x p e c t e d w i t h c~
p r o p o r t i o n a l to 1 / ~ . T h i s c o n f o r m i t y d o e s n o t ,
however, provide further insight into whether or
n o t it i s the a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e of ), w h i c h s h o w s
t h i s d e p e n d e n c e s i n c e the X - r a y s t u d i e s a s w e l l
a s t h e n o d e r e s u l t s a r e l i a b l e to be a f f e c t e d b y t h e
p r e s e n c e of n o n e q u i l i b r i u m p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n
s e p a r a t i o n s . S t u d i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e of the v a r -

Fig. 4--Extrinsic-intrinsic fault pairs in fault (a) and line (b)

contrast in A g - l l . 5 at. pct In. G1

Fig. 3--{a) The dislocation structure in pure silver. 23 (b) The
dislocation structure in Ag-11.5 at. pct In. 61
i a t i o n of ~ on a n n e a l i n g , and t h e s e a r e d i s c u s s e d
in s e c t i o n III.
So f a r in t h i s s e c t i o n the r e s u l t s f r o m two
t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d a n d the g e n e r a l
finding is that solute additions to p u r e s i l v e r
l o w e r ~, a p a r t f r o m the A g - M n s e r i e s in w h i c h
d i d not v a r y w i t h a l l o y i n g . In F i g . 8 f u r t h e r
r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n not a l l of w h i c h c o n f o r m with
the p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d t h u s f a r . T h i s i s r e a s o n a b l e
in c e r t a i n c a s e s - - f o r i n s t a n c e , in a l l o y s c o m p o s e d
of two f c c m e t a l s (with f a u l t e n e r g i e s TA and 7 8 )
h a v i n g c o m p l e t e s o l i d s o l u b i l i t y , y in t h e a l l o y s
m a y be e x p e c t e d to v a r y m o n o t o n i c a l l y f r o m 7A
t o ~ 8 . T w o s e t s of d a t a f o r s u c h a s e r i e s , A g - P d ,
a s d e t e r m i n e d by the ~-3 and r o l l i n g t e x t u r e
t e c h n i q u e s 75'76 a r e i n c l u d e d in F i g . 8. T h e r o l l i n g

2436-VOLUME I, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 --7
9
Fig. 5--Extrinsic-intrinsic faulting in pure
silver, (a), (b) fault pairs, (c) node pair.

9 Ag-Pd Roo r Rao, 1968 40

9 Ag-Sb Sostryetol, 196,5
Ag-Sb }
l
Ag-As
Ag -Ge
Del'ehouz'eeand
Ag-Go Oeruytlere, 1967
. :OoeX0kl zl x SbO
/
I00 - v Ag-At

/ O Ag-Sn 'I
// oo, o
0 Ag-Mg Daviesand Cohn, 1962 30 _ --a o exp k ( e / a - I ) GeA//~As
9 | Ag-In
~- /0" ~ /I~/AI 9 A9 Cd }" Adl. . . . d Wogner 1962
1 Go - '
kl zl f S n
/ 5 /
2O

_ /@In
0 l I" ~ _t " Iv I ..A__ l
O 5 I0 15 20 25 50 55
10
a/o Solute M~i n
'7o Cd
Fig. 6--Selected room temperature measurements of the var-
iation of the faulting probability, a , as a function of at. pct
solute in silver base alloys. 0 l I I I
0 I 2 3 4

t e x t u r e r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n o n l y up to A g - 3 0 at. pct IAzl----

Pd although measurements were made across the Fig. 7--hi AZI as a function of I AZI in silver-base alloys
(after Del~houz6e and Deruyttere r3)
e n t i r e c o m p o s i t i o n range to pure palladium and
i n d i c a t e d a m o n o t o n i c i n c r e a s e of ~ with i n c r e a s i n g

"~
p a l l a d i u m c o n t e n t up to YPd = 180 e r g p e r sq c m .
T h e 73 r e s u l t s a r e for two d i l u t e a l l o y s and t h e y
a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t ;r i n c r e a s e s f r o m the v a l u e
obtained for pure silver. The sole stacking fault C] 9
Y 30 A 9
p r o b a b i l i t y r e s u l t is f o r A g - 2 0 at. pct P d , s e e
F i g . 6, a n d i s i n d i c a t i v e of l i t t l e c h a n g e in a f r o m (ergs/cm2) ~ 9

~YA.~9 20 9 9 9
Complete solid solubility also exists across the , Ahlers , 1965
lAAg-Zn
e n t i r e A g - A u s e r i e s , and it m a y t h u s be e x p e c t e d ~, T3 lO.g-pd Rogausch, 1967
t h a t i n c r e a s i n g g o l d c o n c e n t r a t i o n will l e a d to a tOAg-Au
I0 [ - RollingT~ture l A g - P d , Horris etot, 1966
g r a d u a l v a r i a t i o n of ~ f r o m :FAg -~ 21 e r g p e r sq c m J"IIAg-Mn , Quoder ond Dodd, 1968
Nodes ]&Ag-Au , Gollogher, 1968
to YAu ~-- 50 e r g p e r sq Cm. A l I b y s of A g - 2 at. p c t I.vAg-P! , Gollog her, Unp~Jblished
Au h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d u s i n g the n o d e , a n d ~-.~ t e c h - I [
o P t I
n i q u e s with s u r p r i s i n g l y d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s . W h i l e Ag I0 20 30
t h e n o d e m e t h o d 22 led to ? w i t h i n 10 pct of y~g, t h e ot % Solute

73 t e c h n i q u e ?s l e d to ~ ~ 32 e r g p e r s q c m , o r m o r e Fig. 8--The stacking fault energy in silver-base alloys for

t h a n t w i c e 7Ag a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the s a m e t e c h -
n i q u e . 12 T h e X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y h a s a l s o
b e e n d e t e r m i n e d f o r a n u m b e r of d i l u t e A g - A u
a l l o y s ( c o n t a i n i n g 1.0, 2.0, 3.5, and 5.0 at. pct Au)
by V a s s a m i l l e t and M a s s a l s k i , vv and ~ w a s in t h e
r a n g e 0.009 < c~ < 0.013. T h e s e v a l u e s a r e s i m i l a r
to, but s o m e w h a t l a r g e r t h a n the C~Ag o b t a i n e d in
the s a m e s t u d y and a r e t h u s s u g g e s t i v e of a s l i g h t
d e c r e a s e in YAg on a l l o y i n g with g o l d . R e s u l t s
a r e l a c k i n g for high c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l l o y s although
Snyder (private communication), from measure-
m e n t s on n o d e s of e d g e c h a r a c t e r l y i n g at the g o l d /
s i l v e r i n t e r f a c e of s u p e r p o s e d e v a p o r a t e d l a y e r s ,
which 2/ does not decrease with increase of solute concen-
tration.
f i n d s ~ = 36 e r g p e r sq c m . T h i s v a l u e i s e x t r e m e l y
c l o s e t o the m e a n of TAg and YAu a n d i s t h u s in g o o d
a g r e e m e n t w i t h a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n of :F b e t w e e n the
e x t r e m e v a l u e s of the s o l v e n t m e t a l s if we m a k e the
a s s u m p t i o n that the c o m p o s i t i o n at the i n t e r f a c e
i s A g - 5 0 at. p e t Au. T h e node t e c h n i q u e h a s a l s o
b e e n a p p l i e d in the a l l o y A g - 5.5 at. pct P t ( G a l l a g h e r ,
unpublished) and the m e a n value d e t e r m i n e d from
o v e r 20 n o d e s w a s 7 = 26 e r g p e r s q c m . T h e in
c r e a s e f r o m TAg on a l l o y i n g i s to be e x p e c t e d s i n c e

METALLUR(;ICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2437

 Table Vll. 7, in erg per sq cm, for Copper-Base Alloys

Reference Alloy

Howie and Swann. 1961 7 35.2 25.4 18.0 14.0 ll.l 14.3 12.0
(corrected X 2) Cu-Zn
Gallagher and Ku,* 1967 e/a 1.10 1.14 1.20 1.30 1.36 1.22 1.30

Howie and Swann, 7 37.1 19.5 7.4 4.8 3.6

1961 Cu-Al
(corrected X2) e/a 1.11 1.16 1.20 1.31 1.34

Nordstrom and Barrett, 1969 3, 24.5 17.6 8.3 9.7 5.0

Gallagher,* Cu-Si
unpublished e/a I. 114 I. 15 1.207 1.207 1.255

Gallagher and Ku,* 1967 7 28.3 16.6 5.8 10.0 4.8 5.3
Kamada," 1968 Cu-AI * * * + + $
Tisone $et al., 1968 e/a 1. I 14 1.17 1.32 1.20 1.28 1.30
Gallagher, unpubl. ~, 35.0 23.0 13.3 (4.4) 35.0 16.5 2.5
Rogausch,* 1967 Cu-Ge * -1- + 4-
Christian and Swann,+ e/a 1.111 I.I 17 1.195 1.27 1.10 1.15 1.25

Gallagher, "y )32.6 29.1 28.8 28.3

Cu-Sb Cu-ln Cu-P Cu-Ga
unpublished e/a 1.06 1.064 1.096 1.104

Rave and Hnrnbogen, '~ 30.0 10.0 6.0 4.0 <2.0

1964 Cu-Ga
(corrected X 2) e/a 1.12 1.178 1.244 1.278 1.334

Koster and ~' 33.0 21.6 15.4 13.6 I1.1

Speidel, Cu-Sn
1965 e/a 1.113 1.186 1.224 1.238 1.264

i n t e r m e d i a t e p h a s e s a r e n o t f o r m e d in the s y s t e m 78
a n d p l a t i n u m h a s a fault e n e r g y of a b o u t 75 e r g
per sq cm.
T h u s , a p a r t f r o m one o r t w o d i s c r e p a n c i e s
b e t w e e n the f i n d i n g s of d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s ( n o t a b l y
the A g - Z n r e s u l t s in F i g s . 1 and 8, f r o m n o d e a n d
7a m e t h o d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) w h i c h w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
in m o r e d e t a i l in s e c t i o n I V , a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n
f o r the v a r i a t i o n of ): with a l l o y i n g in s i l v e r b a s e
s y s t e m s i s a p p a r e n t . In the m u c h s t u d i e d a l l o y s of
s i l v e r with B - g r o u p II, III, I V , and V e l e m e n t s ~/
i s o b s e r v e d to d e c r e a s e m o n o t o n i c a l l y with i n c r e a s -
ing s o l u t e c o n t e n t to a low v a l u e a t the b o u n d a r y w i t h
the n e x t p h a s e (how l o w ~, i s at the p h a s e b o u n d a r y
is d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n IV). In the a l l o y s A g - A u
and A g - P d which h a v e c o m p l e t e m u t u a l s o l u b i l i t y
~: a p p e a r s to v a r y m o n o t o n i c a l l y b e t w e e n ~Ag a n d
the f a u l t e n e r g y of the o t h e r e l e m e n t , a l t h o u g h in
the A g - P d s y s t e m the m a j o r p a r t of the c h a n g e
o c c u r s for p a l l a d i u m c o n t e n t s in e x c e s s of 30 at.
pct. S i n c e g o l d and p a l l a d i u m h a v e f a u l t e n e r g i e s
g r e a t e r t h a n that of s i l v e r t h e e f f e c t of a l l o y i n g i s
t h u s to r a i s e y . M a n g a n e s e i s the o n l y t r a n s i t i o n
m e t a l that is s o l u b l e to a n y g r e a t e x t e n t in s i l v e r ,
and f o r the c o m p o s i t i o n r a n g e s t u d i e d ( a l l o y s c o n -
t a i n i n g up to 20 at. pct Mn) y w a s found to be the
s a m e a s in p u r e s i l v e r .
II. 2) C o p p e r - B a s e Alloys
Q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s of the v a r i a t i o n of y
with a l l o y i n g in c o p p e r - b a s e s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n
m a d e f o r the m o s t p a r t u s i n g the e x t e n d e d n o d e
t e c h n i q u e a l t h o u g h the T3 m e t h o d , e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c
f a u l t p a i r s , and s t a c k i n g f a u l t t e t r a h e d r a h a v e a l s o
b e e n s t u d i e d . Much c a n a l s o be i n f e r r e d f r o , n X - r a y
f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y and r o l l i n g t e x t u r e s t u d i e s .
W h i l e the e n t i r e s o l i d s o l u t i o n r a n g e c a n n o t be
c o v e r e d u s i n g e x t e n d e d n o d e s the d i r e c t n e s s of
the a p p r o a c h m a k e s the r e s u l t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n
o b t a i n e d the s o u n d e s t a v a i l a b l e a n d t h e y a r e
accordingly presented first. Extensive studies
h a v e b e e n m a d e in the a l l o y s C u - Z n , C u - A I ,
C u - S i , C u - G e , C u - S n , and C u - G a , t h e r e s u l t s
of which a r e s h o w n in T a b l e VII. T h e e a r l i e s t
r e s u l t s by H o w i e and Swann 6 f o r ' C u - Z n and C u - A I
a l l o y s h a v e b e e n c o r r e c t e d x2. a s a l s o h a v e the
f i n d i n g s of R a v e and H o r n b o g e n 83 in the C u - G a
series.
T h e r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of e / a
in F i g . 9 and p r o v i d e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n
in the r a n g e 1.10 < e / a < 1.35 w h i l e a f e w m e a s u r e -
m e n t s h a v e a l s o b e e n m a d e at e / a ~- 1.06. So f a r
a s c o m p a r i s o n c a n ' b e m a d e with the f i n d i n g s in
silver-base alloys close similarity is observed.
I n d e e d , if the l i n e s b o u n d i n g the d a t a p o i n t s in
F i g . 9 a r e e x t e n d e d at low e / a a s s h o w n , e x t r a p -
o l a t i o n is r e a d i l y o b t a i n e d to ~ ~ 55 e r g p e r s q
c m , c o n s i d e r e d in s e c t i o n I to be t h e m o s t r e a -
s o n a b l e v a l u e f o r p u r e c o p p e r , a n d F i g s . 1 and 9
a r e in a d d i t i o n found to b e a r a m o s t s t r i k i n g
r e s e m b l a n c e to one a n o t h e r . A l s o s h o w n in F i g .
9 a r e the t e t r a h e d r a r e s u l t s of L o r e t t o el a l , es
the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s p l o t t e d h a v i n g b e e n o b t a i n e d
by n o r m a l i z a t i o n of the r e s u l t s t a b u l a t e d in the
a b o v e p a p e r to t h e v a l u e 7Cu = 58 e r g p e r s q c m
d e r i v e d f r o m f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s by C l a r e b r o u g h
et al.'9 T h e v a l u e s s o o b t a i n e d a r e in g o o d a c c o r d
with the o t h e r d a t a in F i g . 9 a n d a f f i r m the r e a -
s o n a b l e n e s s of the e x t r a p o l a t i o n w h i c h h a s b e e n
m a d e at low e / a .
It is n o t i c e a b l e in F i g . 9 t h a t u s e of e / a a s the
a b s c i s s a h a s not l e d to c o m p l e t e n o r m a l i z a t i o n

2 4 3 8 - V O L U M E I , S E P T E M B E R 1970 MEfALLUR(;I('AL f R AN~,A('TIONS

o f the d a t a . As in s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s , f o r a g i v e n
e / a r a t i o 7 ( e f f e c t i v e ) is l o w e r in a l l o y s with the
g r e a t e r v a l e n c e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n solvent and
s o l u t e . F o r h i g h s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l l o y s , 1.25
< e / a < 1.30, t h e v a r i a t i o n f r o m one a l l o y s e r i e s t o
a n o t h e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r k e d , with the e f f e c t i v e
f a u l t e n e r g y in C u - Z n a l l o y s m o r e t h a n a f a c t o r
o f 2 g r e a t e r t h a n in Cu-A1, C u - G a , C u - S i , and C u - G e .
T h e r e i s a l s o m u c h e v i d e n c e of loc~tl i n t e r a c t i o n s
b e t w e e n d i s l o c a t i o n s and l a t t i c e i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s
in h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l l o y s , a n e x a m p l e of a t y p i c a l
a r e a in C u - 1 6 at. pet A1 b e i n g s h o w n in F i g . 10.*
*All microgtaphsin this paper for which referencesare not cited are the unpub-
lished work of the present author.
T h e e x t e n d e d node in the m i c r o g r a p h c l e a r l y d e -
v i a t e s f r o m i t s n o r m a l s y m m e t r i c a l s h a p e (at A),
w h i l e t h e t h r e e l o n g S h o c k l e y p a r t i a l s b o u n d i n g the
e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c f a u l t p a i r (B) a r e i r r e g u l a r l y
s e r r a t e d r a t h e r t h a n s m o o t h and p a r a l l e l t o one
a n o t h e r a s w o u l d be the c a s e u n d e r c l a s s i c a l
e l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m . At the p o i n t s m a r k e d C
c o n s t r i c t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y v i s i b l e in t o t a l d i s -
l o c a t i o n s , i n d i c a t i v e of the p r e s e n c e of s h o r t -
r a n g e f o r c e s . T h e a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e of the
f o r c e w h i c h c a n be e x e r t e d by the l a t t i c e i n h o m o -
g e n e i t i e s i s not r e a d i l y e s t a b l i s h e d ; h o w e v e r , t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the i n t e r a c t i o n l o c a l l y can be
g a g e d by m e a s u r i n g the p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n
r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e and i n t r o d u c i n g the c o n c e p t
of an e q u i v a l e n t s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e p e r u n i t
l e n g t h , F s . M e a s u r e m e n t of the c u s p in the n o d e
in F i g . 10 i n d i c a t e s that F s ~- 11 d y n e s p e r c m .
T h u s , in C u - 1 6 at. pct A1 w h i c h h a s 7 ( e f f e c t i v e ) =
5.8 e r g p e r s q c m ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a f o r c e p e r
unit l e n g t h of 5.8 d y n e s p e r c m ) t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of c o n s i d e r i n g the i n f l u e n c e of l o c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s
is apparent.
Profuse extrinsic-intrinsic faulting is observed
in m a n y c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s , an e x a m p l e of w h i c h
r e s u l t i n g f r o m the i m p i n g e m e n t of t w o p i l e - u p s in
C u - 22 a t . pct Zn i s s h o w n in F i g . 11. A p p r o x i m a t e l y
f i f t y d i s l o c a t i o n s of one B u r g e r s v e c t o r h a v e i n t e r -
a c t e d with a d o z e n o r m o r e d i s l o c a t i o n s with a d i f -
f e r e n t b to p r o d u c e the n e t w o r k . C o n s t r i c t i o n s at
the e n d s of t h e b a n d s of e x t r i n s i c f a u l t p e r m i t the
r e a d y a s s i g n m e n t of the n a t u r e of t h e two t y p e s of
fault f r o m one b r i g h t field m i c r o g r a p h such as that
s h o w n . M u c h l e s s l o c a l d i s t o r t i o n i s a p p a r e n t in
t h i s a l l o y , t h e p a r t i a l s b o u n d i n g the f a u l t p a i r s
being smooth and parallel.
Extremely good agreement has been obtained
in c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s b e t w e e n i n t r i n s i c f a u l t e n e r g y
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f r o m n o d e s and f a u l t p a i r s , 79 s o m e
e x a m p l e s of w h i c h a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e VIII ( s e e a l s o
F i g . 35). T h e e x t r i n s i c a n d i n t r i n s i c f a u l t e n e r g i e s
a r e a l s o found to be c l o s e l y t h e s a m e a s one a n o t h e r .
A d a n g e r w h i c h m u s t be a v o i d e d in u s i n g the
n o d e t e c h n i q u e i s the t e n d e n c y to o v e r e x t e n d i t s
r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n by a t t e m p t i n g to m a k e o b s e r v a -
t i o n s in m a t e r i a l s with r a t h e r h i g h s t a c k i n g f a u l t
e n e r g y . It i s t h u s i m p o r t a n t to e s t a b l i s h a c r i t e r i o n
f o r when a n o d e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y e x t e n d e d to be m e a s -
u r a b l e . B o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l f a c t o r s
p o s e l i m i t a t i o n s at a b o u t the s a m e e x t e n d e d n o d e

o 9 CU-Zn
\ o 9 Cu-AI
50 \
\
9 Cu - Si
o 9 Cu-Ge
9 Cu-Sn
\ \\ 9 Cu - Go
40 i
\\ \ [] BB C u - A t (Telrahedro)
~3 ( o o 0 0 Corrected Data )
)" 2
(ergslcm)

30 -
\\ +'sb p~:\
\.. ..:\

io- T
0 IoN

o [ _J_ I I i i t- i
1.00 1.05 LIO 1,15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35
Electron- Atom Ratio, e/a

Fig. 9--The variation of the stacking fault energy with e / a Fig. 10--Distorted faulted configurations in a Cu-16 at. pet
in copper-base alloys. A1 sample after deformation at room temperature.

Fig. 11--Extensive extrinsic-intrinsic faulting in a Cu-22 at. pet Zn sample.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970--2439

 Table VIII. The Effective Intrinsic and Extrinsic Fault Energies from Nodes and Fault Pairs

Fault Pairs
NodesTint, Number of Tint, ~'ext,
Alloy,at. pct e/a Number of Nodes ergs/cm2 Fault Pairs ergs/cm2 ergs/cm2 %xt/Tint
Cu-22 Zn 1.22 25 14.3• 28 15.6• 16.6• 1.06•
Cu-30 Zn 1.30 17 12.0• 7 12.6• 13.1• 1.04•
Cu-16 Al 1.32 31 5.8• 24 5.0• 5.0• 1.01•

Fig. 12--Slightly extended nodes in a Cu-2

at. pct Sn sample. (insets: high magnifica-
tion prints taken from the photographic
plates.)

s i z e , s o o n l y the f o r m e r t y p e of l i m i t a t i o n i s c o n -
s i d e r e d . D i s l o c a t i o n i m a g e widths a r e n o r m a l l y of
t h e o r d e r of 75/~ u n d e r f a u l t c o n t r a s t i m a g i n g c o n -
d i t i o n s , 8 8 but c a n d i f f e r q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m
t h i s f i g u r e a c c o r d i n g to t h e m o r e r e c e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s
o f S i l c o c k a n d T u n s t a l l . 8~ I m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s
are the deviation from the Bragg condition for the
o p e r a t i n g r e f l e c t i o n and the a n g l e s between the
d i f f r a c t i o n v e c t o r , the d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e a n d i t s
Burgers vector.
F i g . 12 s h o w s an a r e a in a s a m p l e of C u - 2 at. p c t
Sn t a k e n u n d e r two d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g r e f l e c t i o n s in
w h i c h s l i g h t l y e x t e n d e d n o d e s a r e p r e s e n t at p o i n t s
A a n d B. A s s h o w n in t h e i n s e t s , h o w e v e r , t h e o b -
s e r v e d n o d e s i z e i s d e p e n d e n t upon the i m a g i n g
c o n d i t i o n s , the node at A a p p e a r i n g l e s s e x t e n d e d
f o r g = 111 t h a n f o r g = 111. C o r r e c t i o n s m u s t a l s o
b e m a d e to the o b s e r v e d n o d e s i z e s t o a l l o w f o r
i m a g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s a n d t h e s e c a n be a s i g n i f i c a n t
f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n s c r i b e d r a d i u s (w) f o r s u c h s m a l l
n o d e s . A c c o r d i n g l y , the m i n i m u m n o d e s i z e w h i c h
c a n be m e a n i n g f u l l y m e a s u r e d is w ~ 75 + 10/~.
T h e o r y i n d i c a t e s ( B r o w n a n d T h S l ~ n , ~ E q . [7]) t h a t
f o r d i l u t e c o p p e r a l l o y s yw = 2.3 9 103 w h i l e in
s i l v e r a n d d i l u t e s i l v e r a l l o y s T w = 1.8 9 1 0 3 ( T i s
in e r g p e r s q c m a n d w i s in 4 ) . T h u s , r e l i a b l e
e s t i m a t e s of t h e f a u l t e n e r g y f r o m e x t e n d e d n o d e s
in c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s s h o u l d l e a d t o y ~< 31 i 4
e r g p e r s q c m , and f o r s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s to
~,--< 24 9 3 e r g p e r s q c m .
T h e f u l l s o l i d s o l u t i o n r a n g e i s c o v e r e d by the
X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y r e s u l t s s h o w n in F i g . 13,
a l t h o u g h the s e n s i t i v i t y of t h i s t e c h n i q u e , t o o , i s
l i m i t e d in t h e d i l u t e a l l o y s w h i c h l i e b e y o n d the
r a n g e of the n o d e m e t h o d . T h e f o r m of the r e s u l t s
in F i g . 13 i s v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t of F i g . 6
for silver-base alloys--indeed, remarkably so, con-
sidering that the solvent metals have fault energies
d i f f e r i n g by m o r e t h a n a f a c t o r of 2. A d d i t i o n s
of m a n g a n e s e to c o p p e r a r e f o u n d to b u t s l i g h t l y
i n c r e a s e ~, w h i l e the f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y of C u - N i
a l l o y s i s f o u n d in one s t u d y to be s o m e w h a t l e s s
t h a n in p u r e c o p p e r . N a k a j i m a a n d N u m a k u r a , 9~
on the o t h e r h a n d , found t h a t ~ i n c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y
in the C u - N i a l l o y s , but the i n c r e a s e in d i s l o c a t i o n
d e n s i t y w a s g r e a t e r , so t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
= Kp/ot i n d i c a t e d the f a u l t e n e r g y i n C u - 4 8 at.
pct Ni t o be 50 p c t m o r e t h a n in p u r e c o p p e r . In

2440-VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 0 Cu- Zn
0 Cu-Sb = ,o 0 Cu-Sb~
& Cu-As
I00 ~ Cu-Sn 80 z~ Cu-As /
Go//I 9 Cu-In Del~houz~eond
[] Cu-Sn l
I{I 9 Cu-Ga Deruyttere,1967 9 Cu- In ~" Del(~houz~=e ond
80 v Cu-AI 70 9 Cu-Go / Deruyttere, 1967
r
si 9 Cu- Be ~7 Cu-AI |
,-,x io~ ]~n 9 Cu- Mn Cu-ZnJ
60 /In 60
, S /As.~ 9 Cu-Mn "~ Nokajimo and
bhi ~//Gej/InB~~
/ e 9 Cu-N, J} Numokuro,1965
.Cu-.i I I Cu-Si l F o l e y et ol
[/ ~I j ~/ ~ m Cu-GeJ 1963
40 99 cu-si
Cu-Ge Foley e,, ol ,1963 50

40

30
0 5 15 I0 20 215 310 " 315
ol % Solute
Fig. 13---Selected room temperature measurements of the 20
variation of the faulting probability, ~, as a function of at.
pct solute in copper-base alloys.
I0

0 Y I I I I I I I I
the p r e v i o u s section independent studies r e v e a l e d l.O0 I. I0 1.20 1.30 1.40
t h a t b o t h a a n d 7 a r e u n c h a n g e d by a l l o y i n g in t h e
e/o
A g - M n s e r i e s , so the f i n d i n g s in the c o p p e r s e r i e s
Fig. 14--Selected room temperature measurements of the
with this t r a n s i t i o n e l e m e n t as solute a r e s i m i l a r variation of the faulting probability, c~, as a function of
to a n e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n ( I m u r a et al.9z a l s o r e - e/a in copper-base alloys.
ported f r o m n o d e s t u d i e s on C u - 2 a t . pct M n , C u - 4 a t .
p c t M n , a n d C u - 1 0 . 2 a t . p c t M n t h a t y did not c h a n g e
bJ
a p p r e c i a b l y f r o m i t s v a l u e in p u r e c o p p e r ) . A p a r a l - n-
l e l a l s o e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e i n c r e a s e in ~ in the C u - N i Y. I00,
s e r i e s a n d the f i n d i n g s in A g - P d and A g - A u a l l o y s , x
bJ
p.
in t h a t s o l i d s o l u b i l i t y e x i s t s a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e
Cu-Ni series and nickel has a substantially higher z_
J
fault energy than does copper. d
F i g . 14 s h o w s a in c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s p l o t t e d
w
a s a f u n c t i o n of e / a . T h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n a c h i e v e d n 50
>-
in t h e p l o t i s f a r l e s s t h a n in the c o m p a r a b l e p l o t Y
f o r s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s . T h u s , the c o n s t a n t k in the u
e x p r e s s i o n c~ =~o e x p k ( e / a - I) v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
o
f r o m o n e s o l u t e to a n o t h e r , f r o m k = 0.07 f o r the
C u - Z n s e r i e s t o k = 0.11 in the C u - S b a l l o y s . It
i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e in F i g . 14 t h a t the h i g h e s t z
0 O O O--
f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y at a g i v e n e / a i s not o b t a i n e d
w i t h t h e C u - S b o r C u - A s a l l o y s f o r w h i c h the w
D.
1 1 1 1 1 1 I I i I i I i l

v a l e n c e d i f f e r e n c e between s o l v e n t and solute is
g r e a t e s t (AZ = 4). At e / a = 1.20 the f a u l t i n g p r o b a -
b i l i t y in C u - I n a l l o y s (AZ = 2) is g r e a t e r t h a n in
C u - S b , w h i l e both C u - S i a n d C u - S n (AZ = 3) h a v e
t~ g r e a t e r than in C u - A s . T h u s , the m a g n i t u d e of
A Z a p p e a r s t o be but one of the f a c t o r s to be c o n -
s i d e r e d in a t t e m p t i n g a f u l l c o r r e l a t i o n .
R o l l i n g t e x t u r e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e on a
c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of C u - b a s e a l l o y s i n c l u d i n g
C u - G e , sv Cu-Sn, sv C u - P , ss C u - A s , sa Cu-Sb, ~
C u - Z n , 92 Cu-Si, a~ and Cu-AI. 9a T h e finding in all
cases has been that solute additions eventually
cause a transition f r o m the copper-type texture
found in copper and dilute alloys to the {II0}
(112> texture generally referred to as brass-type.
T h e exact form of the transition curve is however,
dependent upon the a m o u n t of rolling reduction and
the temperature of rolling. Thus, while several
studies have led to detailed plots of the percent of
brass texture against alloy solute content, their in-
terpretation is by no m e a n s straightforward. Fig.
15 illustrates such a plot in the C u - Z n series for
0 4 16 8
20 24 12
28
Zn w/o
Fig. 15--The rollingtexture developed in Cu-Zn alloys at
97.5 pct reduction.92
s a m p l e s r o l l e d to 97.5 pct r e d u c t i o n at r o o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e . T h e t e x t u r e t r a n s i t i o n t a k e s p l a c e in a
n a r r o w r a n g e of s o l u t e c o n t e n t , i n i t i a t i o n o c c u r r i n g
at C u - 4 p c t Zn a n d c o m p l e t i o n at C u - 1 2 p c t Zn. A
s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r f o r m of t r a n s i t i o n c u r v e w a s
a l s o f o u n d b y H a e s s n e r s9 f o r N i - C o a l l o y s r o l l e d
at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e to r e d u c t i o n of 96, 98, and
99 pct and s e v e r a l of the p l o t s in o t h e r c o p p e r - b a s e
alloys have somewhat less well developed curves
of the s a m e t y p e . It s e e m s u n l i k e l y , h o w e v e r , t h a t
the f o r m of t h e y v s s o l u t e c o n t e n t p l o t s i s r e l a t e d
in a n y s i m p l e w a y to t h e s e c u r v e s , a l t h o u g h a m o n -
otonic relationship between y/Gb and a texture pa-
r a m e t e r h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by D i l l a m o r e e t al. 56
f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n s on a n u m b e r of p u r e m a t e r i a l s .
It h a s in f a c t b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p in
t h e n o r m a l s e n s e d o e s not e x i s t b e t w e e n y / G b a n d

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME I, SEPTEMBER 1970-2441

 t e x t u r e , r a t h e r t h a t t h e r e i s a c r i t i c a l v a l u e of
y / G b a n d m a t e r i a l s w i t h y / G b in e x c e s s of t h i s
value will develop a copper texture when rolled.
T h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n is c e n t e r e d on t h i s c r i t i c a l
v a l u e , s u g g e s t e d by L i u 94 a s ~ / G b = 3.75 9 10 -3
f o r s a m p l e s r o l l e d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d b r a s s
' t e x t u r e i s o b t a i n e d in m a t e r i a l s w i t h l o w e r f a u l t
e n e r g y . A p p l y i n g t h i s c r i t e r i o n to t h e r e s u l t s o f
F i g . 15 y i e l d s ), = 39 e r g p e r s q c m ( a s s u m i n g
Gb = 10.4 9 103 a s in p u r e c o p p e r ) f o r C u - 5 a t .
p c t Z n , w h i c h i s c o m p a t i b l e with the node d a t a
s h o w n in F i g . 9. U s i n g t h e s a m e a p p r o a c h p u b l i s h e d
d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t y = 39 e r g p e r s q c m f o r t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n s C u - 1 at. p c t Sn ( e / a = 1.03), C u - 1 . 2 at .
p c t A s ( e / a = 1.048), a n d C u - 2 . 3 a t. p c t Ge ( e / a =
1.0 6 9 ) , o n c e m o r e a s s u m i n g Gb = 10.4 9 103.
F u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s of a q u a n t i t a t i v e n a t u r e f o r
a s a f u n c t i o n of a l l o y i n g f r o m t e x t u r e s t u d i e s
do n o t a p p e a r j u s t i f i e d f o r c o p p e r b a s e a l l o y s a t
t he p r e s e n t t i m e .
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s s e c t i o n , a s in t h e p r e v i o u s o n e
on s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s , t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m
a n u m b e r of t e c h n i q u e s h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l l o y i n g
c o p p e r o r s i l v e r w i t h a s o l u t e of h i g h e r v a l e n c e
l e a d s to a d e c r e a s e in s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y . T h e
s o l e e x c e p t i o n n o t e d in s e c t i o n II w a s t h e f i n d i n g
by R o g a u s c h 75 u s i n g the T3 m e t h o d t h a t ~ in A g - 2
at. p c t Zn w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e a s l a r g e a s in
pure silver. A similar unusual result has also
f o l l o w e d f r o m a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e T3 t e c h n i q u e t o
dilute C u - G e , C u - G a , and C u - Z n a l l o y s , the r e -
s u l t s of P e i s s k e r 41 i n d i c a t i n g t h a t f o r e / a ~ 1.03
t h e f a u l t e n e r g y w a s ~ 75 p c t g r e a t e r t h a n in p u r e
c o p p e r . A l t h o u g h the r e s u l t s of t h e T3 m e t h o d
w e r e f o u n d to be e x t r e m e l y v a r i a b l e in s e c t i o n I ,
c r e d e n c e in t h e a b o v e f i n d i n g s i s e n h a n c e d b y
t h e i r r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y in a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t
a l l o y s an d by t h e c a r e f u l e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s
w h i c h w e r e e m p l o y e d . It i s of i n t e r e s t t h a t s e v e r a l
other deformation parameters show maxima or
m i n i m a at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e s o l u t e c o n c e n -
t r a t i o n , the data having b e e n obtained by a n u m b e r
of d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s . P a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e
r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e l e n g t h of t h e e a s y
g l i d e r e g i o n in t e n s i l e d e f o r m a t i o n , a s t r o n g m a x -
i m u m h a v i n g b e e n o b s e r v e d in C u - Z n , 9s C u - A s , ~
C u - A 1 , 97 C u - G e , 41 a n d C u - G a 4~ a l l o y s . P e i s s k e r
a l s o f o u n d a m i n i m u m in e ~/G a n d a m a x i m u m in
0 ~ / G in t h e s a m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e f o r C u - G a
a n d C u - G e a l l o y s (0~ a n d 0 1~ a r e t h e s l o p e s o f
t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e in s t a g e s I a n d II, r e s p e c -
t i v e l y ) . R e c e n t w o r k by W a w r a 98 h a s a l s o i n d i c a t e d
that numerous elastic, electrical, mechanical,
a n d X - r a y p r o p e r t i e s of d i l u t e C u - Z n a l l o y s h a v e
a n o m a l o u s v a l u e s in the r a n g e 0 to 10 a t . p c t , t h e
w o r k h a v i n g b e e n p e r f o r m e d on b o t h a n n e a l e d a n d
deformed samples. There is thus clear experimental
e v i d e n c e f o r a n o n m o n o t o n i c v a r i a t i o n with a l l o y i n g
of s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y in m a n y d i -
lute alloys. Confirmation is required, however,
that this p r o p e r t y is the s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y ,
s i n c e n o d e s t u d i e s in d i l u t e A g - Z n a l l o y s f a i l e d
t o c o n f i r m t h e a n o m a l o u s r e s u l t s of R o g a u s c h ,
a n d t h e t e t r a h e d r a r e s u l t s in C u - A 1 a l l o y s
s h o w n in F i g . 9 do n o t s u g g e s t the p r e s e n c e o f
2442-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970
a p e a k in y. In a d d i t i o n , s t a c k i n g f a u l t p r o b a -
b i l i t y r e s u l t s a r e in a l l c a s e s i n d i c a t i v e of a
m o n o t o n i c d e c r e a s e in y with i n c r e a s i n g s o l u t e
concentration.
A p a r t f r o m t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b e t w e e n t he
r e s u l t s of d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s in c e r t a i n d i l u t e a l l o y s
(which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in m o r e d e t a i l in s e c t i o n
IV) t h e v a r i a t i o n of y w i t h a l l o y i n g in c o p p e r -
b a s e a l l o y s is s e e n to follow the s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
p a t t e r n of a m o n o t o n i c d e c r e a s e t o w a r d s the p h a s e
boundary.
II. 3) N i c k e l - B a s e A l l o y s an d S t a i n l e s s S t e e l s
M u c h of t h e w o r k on t h e e f f e c t of s o l u t e a d d i t i o n s
to n i c k e l h a s b e e n p e r f o r m e d on t h e N i - C o s e r i e s ,
w h i c h i s no d o u b t a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e f a c t t h a t c o n -
s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t s of c o b a l t a r e u s e d i n c o m m e r c i a l
n i c k e l - b a s e a l l o y s . T h e r e s u l t s of s e v e r a l s t u d i e s
on t h i s s e r i e s a r e c o n t a i n e d in F i g . 16 in a s e m i -
l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t w h i c h p e r m i t s m o r e d e t a i l t o be
s h o w n at l o w e r v a l u e s of y. F a i r l y g o o d a g r e e m e n t
i s o b t a i n e d in t h e high f a u l t e n e r g y r e g i m e b e t w e e n
t h e r o l l i n g t e x t u r e and t e t r a h e d r a r e s u l t s , and the
findings a r e a l s o w e l l - g r o u p e d at g r e a t e r cobalt
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a p a r t f r o m the r a t h e r high v a l u e s
o b t a i n e d f r o m f a u l t e d d i p o l e s . T h e f o r m of t h e
c u r v e i s m u c h t h e s a m e a s w a s f o u n d in s i l v e r -
a n d c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s , a s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d
w i t h a p h a s e b o u n d a r y a t C o - 3 0 wt p c t N i (at r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e ) s e p a r a t i n g the fcc r e g i o n f r o m a
hcp structure.
C o n s i d e r a b l e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on the v a r i a t i o n
of y on a l l o y i n g n i c k e l with t r a n s i t i o n e l e m e n t s
w a s r e c e n t l y p r o v i d e d by t h e r o l l i n g t e x t u r e s t u d i e s
of B e e s t o n a n d F r a n c e , 1~ and t h e X - r a y f a u l t i n g
p r o b a b i l i t y r e s u l t s of D e l d h o u z 6 e a n d D e r u y t t e r e . 73
T h e r o l l i n g t e x t u r e r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 17(a)
with t h e v a l u e o f ~ / G b in t h e a l l o y s n o r m a l i z e d
t o i t s m a g n i t u d e in p u r e n i c k e l . A l l of t h e s o l u t e s
r e d u c e ~ / G b , b u t to m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t e x t e n t s ,
a g i v e n a m o u n t of t i t a n i u m b e i n g an o r d e r of
m a g n i t u d e m o r e e f f e c t i v e than a l i k e a m o u n t of
i r o n . A s p o i n t e d out by B e e s t o n a n d F r a n c e , '~
a d d i t i o n s of c o b a l t a r e o n l y m o d e r a t e l y e f f e c t i v e
in l o w e r i n g y d e s p i t e b e i n g t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d f o r
this purpose.
500
200
I00
~, 5 0
(ergs/cm 2)
20
I0
5
9 Rolling Texture ( Beeston et o1,1968 )
D Tetrahedra ( Loretto et ol, 1965 ; Beeston et ol, 1968 )
2
I I I ] I I I
Ni I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
wt % Cobolt
Fig. 16--The variation of the stacking fault energy with
alloying in Ni-Co alloys.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
 1.0 o f 7/Gb in m u l t i p l e c o m p o n e n t c o m m e r c i a l a l l o y s
a p p e a r s t o be t h e s i m p l e s u m of the r e d u c t i o n s
a t t r i b u t a b l e to e a c h solute acting a l o n e , a l l o w a n c e
0.8 b e i n g m a d e in t h e a d d i t i o n f o r the a m o u n t of
Ni - Fe
s o l u t e t a k e n out of s o l u t i o n by p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
D e t e r m i n a t i o n s of y in s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s h a v e
proved straightforward since the fault e n e r g y is
0.6
l o w e n o u g h to p e r m i t the o b s e r v a t i o n o f e x t e n d e d
X / G b (alloy)
n o d e s . T h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e n o d e t e c h n i q u e
7"/Gb (nickel)
w a s , in f a c t , m a d e on a s a m p l e o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
0.4 b y W h e l a n , 24 a n d l e d to a v a l u e of ~ = 13 e r g p e r
~ c . o s q c m . T h i s v a l u e , a s a l s o s e v e r a l o t h e r e a r l y de-
t e r m i n a t i o n s m u s t , h o w e v e r , be i n c r e a s e d by a
0.2 f a c t o r of 2 to a l l o w f o r m o r e r e c e n t i m p r o v e m e n t s
in the t h e o r y r e l a t i n g node p a r a m e t e r s to ~,. T h e
r e s u l t s p l o t t e d in F i g . 18 a r e c o r r e c t e d w h e r e
o I l I I I I I I I I n e c e s s a r y , a n d the d a s h e d l i n e i s t h e l e a s t s q u a r e s
0 I0 20 30 40 50 b e s t fit to t h e d a t a . T h e c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e t r e n d
at % Solute i s f o r y to i n c r e a s e w i t h n i c k e l c o n t e n t w h e n the
Fig. 17(a)--The variation ofy/Gb with at. pet solute in c h r o m i u m c o n t e n t is m a i n t a i n e d c o n s t a n t (at ~ 18
nickel-base alloys, as determined from rolling texture
data. 10t pct C r f o r t h e d a t a s h o w n ) . It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t
the f a u l t e n e r g y i s f a r f r o r q low in m a n y of the
a l l o y s - - i n d e e d , a s s h o w n in F i g . 19, e x t e n d e d
n o d e s a r e b a r e l y d i s c e r n i b l e in an a l l o y s u c h a s
O NI-Ti ~ ~>
[] N i ' M o r / F e - 1 8 C r - 9Ni.
25 n Ni-W | /
: Nl-~r L Delehouzee and /
v Ni"Mn ( Deruyttere, 1967 /
20 Mo/ ~ Ni-Co J / 120 Fe - C r - Ni Alloys
/'o 9 Ni-Cu l /
/ & Ni-F. J / /
a x I03
I00 - /

15 /
V " Cr /
8O /
Y /
[] W Co (erQs/cm 2 ) /
I0 /
60
~, V Whelon ( 19 % Cr )
9 Da~ilal! It al ( 20 % Cr )
40 o
j I-I
o.......
X2
,[ C] Swarm { 17.7%Cr- O04N)
5 9 SIl9 (15.7% Cr)
9 9 Cu
9 jn
0 Gollogher (18 % Cr)
20 / 9 Coulomb el ql ( 16.6% Cr )
o I - I I I I I Fe [ / LI Thomas8 Henry ( 17".8% Cr )
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 i I I L
0
I0 20 30 40
at % Solute
Fig. 17(b)--Room temperature determinations of the v a r i - Ni (wt % )
ation of the faulting probability, ~, as a function of at. pct Fig. 18--The variation of the stacking fault energy in stain-
solute in nickel-base alloys. 73 less steels as determined from node data.

T h e f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y r e s u l t s in F i g . 17(b)
a r e in e x c e l l e n t c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the a b o v e f i n d -
i n g s . A d d i t i o n s of c o p p e r o r i r o n p r o d u c e l i t t l e
c h a n g e in (~, a l l o y i n g w i t h c o b a l t o r c h r o m i u m
l e a d s to m o d e r a t e i n c r e a s e s , and t i t a n i u m ,
m o l y b d e n u m , o r t u n g s t e n a d d i t i o n s l e a d to m a r k e d
i n c r e a s e s . T h e f u r t h e r w o r k of D e l 6 h o u z 6 e a n d
D e r u y t t e r e 73 on t h e f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y in a l l o y s
o f n i c k e l with B s u b g r o u p e l e m e n t s r e v e a l s t h a t
a n t i m o n y and tin a r e m o r e e f f e c t i v e than t i t a n i u m
in i n c r e a s i n g a , w h i l e g e r m a n i u m , s i l i c o n , i n d i u m ,
and a l u m i n u m a r e about as e f f e c t i v e as m o l y b -
denum or tungsten. Zinc additions are as ineffec-
t i v e in i n c r e a s i n g (~ with n i c k e l a s s o l v e n t a s t h e y
w e r e f o u n d to be in s i l v e r a n d c o p p e r . A f a i r l y
q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e v a r i a t i o n of y/Gb
w i t h a l l o y i n g f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of n i c k e l -
b a s e a l l o y s b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e upon n o r m a l i z i n g
the (~ r e s u l t s t o the f i n d i n g s in F i g . 17(a). B e e s t o n Fig. 19--The dislocation structure of an Fe-18Cr-14Ni alloy
a n d F r a n c e 1~ a l s o s h o w t h a t t h e o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n illustrating the relatively high fault energy.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2443

 temperature. To reduce confusion, interpretation
Table IX. The Magnitude of 7 in Fe-Cr-Ni-Si Alloys of the findings is deferred to the end of the section,
where attempts are made to separate out the extent
Ni, wt pet Cr, wt pet Si, wt pet 7, ergs/cm2 to which a true, reversible temperature dependence
14.1 17.8 0.01 50 of 7 exists. Due to the considerable number of fac-
14.0 17.7 0.90 32 tors which can be involved in substructural changes
13.55 17.4 1.86 26 on annealing, it is advantageous to estimate the
13.75 17.2 2.79 22
13.70 17.1 3.66 21
temperature d e p e n d e n c e of 7 f r o m d i r e c t o b s e r v a -
tions of faulted defects. For this reason the available
results have, for the most part, been obtained by
Further solute additions can, however, be most studies of extended nodes and extrinsic-intrinsic
e f f e c t i v e i n l o w e r i n g T. T h o m a s a n d H e n r y m~ fault pairs in the electron microscope. Many in-
m a d e a d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t s of s i l i c o n teresting findings have also arisen from measure-
additions on the mechanical properties and sub- ments of the X-ray faulting probability on filings
structure of a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , a n d t h e i r r e s u l t s given annealing treatments prior to study. More
f o r t h e m a g n i t u d e of 7 a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e I X . limited information i s a v a i l a b l e f r o m r3 s t u d i e s
Further comprehensive s t u d i e s of t h i s n a t u r e a r e at different temperatures.
clearly required to achieve a more complete
understanding of t h e e f f e c t s o f s p e c i f i c s o l u t e s H I . 2) E l e c t r o n M i c r o s c o p e Studies of the
in the frequently complex alloys used commercially. Variation of Faulted Defect Size with Temperature
Since many of the nickel-base alloys are employed III.2.a) COPPER ALLOYS
at elevated temperatures, it is of course also
III.2.a.i) After Annealing in Bulk. Table X is a
essential to consider the possibility that y varies
summary of published data on the variation of faulted
with temperature. defect size as determined at room temperature after
annealing in bulk form. More detailed quantitative
HI. THE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF information is contained in the references cited.
THE STACKING FAULT ENERGY The conclusions which can be drawn from the
tabulation are :
III. 1) I n t r o d u c t i o n
1) A n n e a l i n g a t t e m p e r a t u r e s less than ~ 200~
S i n c e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f y i s o n e of t h e f a c t o r s of generally leads to rather small changes in faulted
fundamental importance in determining the mechan- defect size.
ical (and other) properties of f c c m e t a l s a n d a l l o y s
it is clearly important to know how y varies with Table X. The Effect of Annealing in Bulk on the Faulted Defect Size in
temperature, particularly since many of the mate- Copper-Base Alloys
rials of interest have applications at elevated tern-
peratures. Properties such as electrical resistivity, Change in
Annealing FaultedDefect
resistance to corrosion, mechanical strength, and Alloy Temperature,~ Size Reference
creep rate under constant load can all be expected
t o v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a g n i t u d e of ~. A s a Cu-4.5 at. pet AI 250 None Howie and Swann 6
case in point, the creep rate at temperatures 450 None Howie and Swann 6
above half the melting point has been shown to be Cu-10 at. pet A1 150 (225 hr) Increase15 pet Kamada 81
proportional to 3.s from studies on Ag, Cu, Ni, Cu-14 at. pet Al 150 (180 hr) None Kamada 81
a n d A1 b y B a r r e t t a n d S h e r b y . l ~ 300 Decrease 50 pet Kamada 81
Unfortunately, a v.ariation in the magnitude of Cu-15 at. pet Al 200 None Tisone et al. 82
~, i s o n l y o n e o f m a n y p o s s i b l e c a u s e s f o r a c h a n g e 250 None Howie and Swann 6
in faulted defect size upon changing the tempera- 275 None Swarm and Nutting 108
ture of a sample. Listed below are several of the 300 Decrease 30 pet Tisone et al. 82
340-400 Decrease (x2) Swarmand Nutting 108
possible factors which must be considered in 400 Decrease 45 pet Tisone etal. 82
many cases, and an indication of whether they are 450 Decrease (x3) Howieand Swann 6
likely to increase or decrease the area of faulting 600 Decrease 27 pet Tisone et at 82
in a particular defect. Cu-16 at pet A1 100 Decrease 60 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
1) S e g r e g a t i o n (increase) 175 Decrease 20 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
2) Desegregation (decrease) 250 Decrease 30 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
3) T h e r m a l l y activated unpinning of partial dis- 320" Decrease (x2.1) Gallagher (unpub.)
410* Decrease (x 1.9) Gallagher (unpub.)
locations (decrease)
4 ) C h a n g e of e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s (decrease with Cu-30 at pet Zn 200 None Thomas 109
200 quenched Decrease25 pet Thomas 109
temperature increase)
100 Increase 20 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
5) O r d e r i n g 175 Decrease~15 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
6) R e d u c t i o n i n t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e s s l e v e l ( e i t h e r ) 250 Decrease~30 pet Gallagherand Ku 79
7) Loss of solute through precipitation (decrease) 250 None Howie and Swann 6
8) A true dependence of yon temperature 450 None Howie and Swann 6
Since so many factors can affect the substructure Cu-6.9 at. pet Si 200 None Nordstrom and Barrett 80
of a material upon annealing the description of ex- 300-500 Decrease 12pet Nordstrom and Barrett 80
perimental results in this section is wherever pos- *At room temperature after hot-stageanneal.
sible in terms of the variation of faulted area with

2444-VOLUME I, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 2) O n l y s m a l l d e c r e a s e s in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e a r e
o b s e r v e d in C u - 1 0 at. p c t A1 a n d C u - 3 0 at. p c t Z n Table Xl. Summary of Hot Stage Studies in Copper-Base Alloys
a f t e r a n n e a l i n g at t e m p e r a t u r e s a s h i g h a s 4 5 0 ~
3) E x t r e m e l y v a r i a b l e r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d in a l - Node Radius at 20~ Pct Reversible
l o y s c o n t a i n i n g 14-16 a t . p c t A l , b u t in s o m e c a s e s Composition, Temperature, Inscribed Radius Change,
d e c r e a s e s in n o d e s i z e b y f a c t o r s of 2 to 3 a r e f o u n d at. Pet ~ Radius, A at Temperature per 100~
a f t e r a n n e a l i n g a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of f r o m 300 ~ t o 400~ Cu-30 Zn 20 187 1.00
4) S i n c e a l l t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s in T a b l e X w e r e m a d e 135 163 1.15
a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e the c h a n g e s r e c o r d e d a r e i r - 220 129 1.45 3.2
r e v e r s i b l e in n a t u r e . 20 after 220 138 1.36
In a d d i t i o n to the r e d u c t i o n in the s i z e of f a u l t e d Cu-16 A1 20 385 1.00
d e f e c t s on a n n e a l i n g , c h a n g e s h a v e a l s o b e e n r e - 220 194 1.98
320 142 2.71 8.8
p o r t e d in the g e n e r a l n a t u r e of t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e
20 after 320 182 2.12
a s a r e s u l t of h e a t t r e a t m e n t . A s s h o w n in F i g . 20
w h i c h i s a m i c r o g r a p h f r o m a s a m p l e of C u - 1 6 at. Cu-6.8 Ge 20 208 1.00
p c t A1 a n n e a l e d for 2 h r at 1 0 0 ~ t h e r e i s no e v i - 310 171 1.22 0.3
20 after 310 173 1.20
d e n c e f o r the i n f l u e n c e of l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s on t h e
d i s l o c a t i o n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h i s i s in m a r k e d Cu-8.6 Si 20 574 1.00
300 425 1.35
c o n t r a s t to the f i n d i n g s on t h e s a m e a l l o y i m m e d i - 360 402 1.43 5.8
a f t e r r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e d e f o r m a t i o n , s e e F i g . 10, 20 after 360 490 1.17
where considerable irregularity was observed.
Cu-9.2 Ge 20 Completely
T h u s , t h e f u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n m a y be a d d e d . Dissociated
5) T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e f o r a r e d u c t i o n in the i n - 20 after 380 670
f l u e n c e of l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s on d i s l o c a t i o n s a s a
r e s u l t of a n n e a l i n g .
I I I . 2 . a . i i ) Hot Stage Studies. A n n e a l i n g s a m p l e s in dissociated faults were visible immediately
a h o t s t a g e in the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e h a s t h e d i s - following room temperature deformation.
a d v a n t a g e t h a t the m a t e r i a l i s h e a t t r e a t e d w h i l e in C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s at t h e h i g h e s t a n n e a l i n g
thin foil form. However, advantages more than out- temperature,and at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r cooling
w e i g h t h i s f a c t o r in m o s t c a s e s in t h a t t h e s a m e at 6 5 ~ p e r m i n , r e v e a l s t h a t t h e n o d e s i n c r e a s e in
s a m p l e m a y be s t u d i e d b e f o r e , d u r i n g , a n d a f t e r s i z e d u r i n g c o o l i n g . In a l l c a s e s e x c e p t C u - 8 . 6 at.
a n n e a l i n g and in t h e i d e a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e p c t Si, h o w e v e r , t h e m e a n node s i z e a f t e r c o o l i n g
c h a n g e s w h i c h o c c u r in a ])articular f a u l t e d d e f e c t i s m u c h c l o s e r to the v a l u e at h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e
m a y s i m i l a r l y be f o l l o w e d . T h e r e s u l t s of hot s t a g e t h a n to t h e ' v a l u e o b t a i n e d p r i o r t o h e a t i n g . T h e
s t u d i e s in s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s a r e l a s t c o l u m n in T a b l e X I c o n t a i n s e s t i m a t e s of the
s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e XI. T h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n w h i c h p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e in n o d e s i z e on c o o l i n g (per
e m e r g e s i s t h a t r a i s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e s a m p l e 100~ f r o m i t s v a l u e at h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . There
l e a d s to p r o g r e s s i v e l y s m a l l e r e x t e n d e d n o d e s , with i s a t e n d e n c y f o r the s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y m e a s -
the e x t e n t to w h i c h c h a n g e o c c u r s v a r y i n g q u i t e u r e d a f t e r a n n e a l i n g in d i f f e r e n t a l l o y s y s t e m s t o
s t r o n g l y f r o m one a l l o y to a n o t h e r . In t h e C u - 1 6 a t . be m o r e c l o s e l y t h e s a m e at a g i v e n e/a t h a n w h e n
p c t A1 a l l o y the r e d u c t i o n in n o d e s i z e i s by m o r e m e a s u r e d i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n at
t h a n a f a c t o r of 2, in g o o d a g r e e m e n t w i t h the r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s t e n d e n c y (which has been
r e s u l t s f r o m b u l k a n n e a l i n g , w h i l e the r e s u l t s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y in the c a s e of C u - A I a n d C u - Z n
s h o w n in the two t a b l e s f o r C u - 3 0 Zn a l s o a g r e e a l l o y s 79) e n c o u r a g e s the v i e w p o i n t t h a t a s t r a i g h t -
w e l l . M o d e r a t e r e d u c t i o n s in n o d e s i z e ( ~ 1 0 t o f o r w a r d r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e true stack-
15 p c t p e r 1 0 0 ~ r i s e in t e m p e r a t u r e ) a r e o b - ingfault energy a n d the F e r m i s u r f a c e , s u c h t h a t
s e r v e d in C u - 6 . 8 at. p c t Ge a n d C u - 8 . 6 at. p c t S i , i s a u n i q u e f u n c t i o n o f e/a r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s p e c i f i c
a n d in C u - 9 . 2 a t . p c t Ge a n n e a l i n g e n a b l e s n o d e s solute additions.
to be o b s e r v e d w h e r e a s only i r r e g u l a r , widely A t y p i c a l s e r i e s of m i c r o g r a p h s o n a p a r t i c u l a r
n o d e i s s h o w n in F i g . 21. T h e n o d e d e c r e a s e s in
s i z e by a f a c t o r of m o r e t h a n 2 on h e a t i n g to 320~
t h e m a j o r p a r t of t h e c h a n g e b e i n g a c c o m p l i s h e d in
5 to 10 m i n . A s l i g h t i n c r e a s e in n o d e s i z e on
c o o l i n g to r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e i s a l s o a p p a r e n t ,
in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e a v e r a g e d r e s u l t s of T a b l e XI.
A s i s t o b e e x p e c t e d f r o m s e r i e s s u c h a s t h i s on
i n d i v i d u a l i s o l a t e d d e f e c t s , the s u b s t r u c t u r e of a
m o r e h e a v i l y d e f o r m e d r e g i o n is g r e a t l y changed
by a n n e a l i n g . F i g . 22 i s a s e r i e s of m i c r o g r a p h s
on an a r e a in a C u - 1 6 at. p c t A1 s a m p l e w h i c h
v i v i d l y d e m o n s t r a t e s the d e g r e e to w h i c h i r r e v e r -
s i b l e c h a n g e s o c c u r . F i g . 22 (a) s h o w s a t y p i c a l
a r e a f o l l o w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e ,
containing several stacking fault ribbons, a broad
Fig. 20--The dislocation structure in a Cu-16 at. pet A1 sam- b a n d of e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c f a u l t i n g a t A , a n d n u m e r -
ple after bulk annealing for 2 hr at 100 ~ C. 79 o u s e x t e n d e d n o d e s (e.g., a t B). A n n e a l i n g a t 2 2 0 ~

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2445

 (a) (b)
Fig. 21--The variation of node size in a Cu-16 at. pet A1 sample on annealing: (a) at room temperature, (b) at 320 ~C, after
annealing at 320~ for 20 min, (c) at room temperature after cooling at 65~pet min from 30 min anneal at 320 ~C.
f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1/2 h r l e d t o the m a r k e d l y d i f -
f e r e n t s u b s t r u c t u r e s h o w n i n F i g . 22(b) w h e r e t h e
b r o a d b a n d s of i n t r i n s i c s t a c k i n g f a u l t h a v e c o l l a p s e d ,
and the only fault c o n t r a s t v i s i b l e a r i s e s from the ex-
t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c f a u l t p a i r s (at A, C , D ) a n d the m u c h
s h r u n k e n e x t e n d e d n o d e s ( a t B). R a i s i n g the a n n e a l i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e to 320~ l e d t o a f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n i n the
a m o u n t of f a u l t i n g p r e s e n t , a n d to l e s s e x t e n d e d n o d e s
a n d f a u l t p a i r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , f o r e x a m p l e , at B , C,
a n d D i n F i g . 22(c). On c o o l i n g to r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
a s l i g h t , b u t g e n e r a l , i n c r e a s e in the s i z e of f a u l t e d
d e f e c t s r e s u l t e d , of a c o m p a r a b l e m a g n i t u d e to t h a t
f o u n d i n F i g . 21. It i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t the
c h a n g e s w h i c h h a v e o c c u r r e d a r e for the m o s t p a r t
i r r e v e r s i b l e . F u r t h e r a n n e a l i n g of the s a m e
s a m p l e at 385~ l e d t o t h e u n z i p p i n g of the f a u l t
p a i r a t A , a p r o c e s s w h i c h c a n a l s o be s e e n to
h a v e s t a r t e d the e l i m i n a t i o n of the f a u l t p a i r a t C.
T h u s , p r o l o n g e d s t a t i c a n n e a l i n g o f ' a t h i n foil of
C u - 1 6 at. pct A1 l e a d s f i r s t to a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n
i n the e x t e n s i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y
to t h e i r e l i m i n a t i o n . P e r h a p s of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e
i s t h e f a c t that the s t r u c t u r e i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g
r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e d e f o r m a t i o n is e x t r e m e l y i r -
r e g u l a r , a n d that both the s i z e of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s
and t h e i r i r r e g u l a r i t y a r e r e d u c e d by a n n e a l i n g . A
s i m i l a r s e r i e s of m i c r o g r a p h s of a s e l e c t e d a r e a
i n C u - 3 0 at. pct Z n s a m p l e i s s h o w n in F i g . 23. It
i s n o t i c e a b l e t h a t n o e f f e c t o c c u r s on h e a t i n g to 82~
a n d t h a t o n l y s l i g h t c h a n g e s t a k e p l a c e at 1 3 4 ~ In
F i g . 23(d) f o r a t e m p e r a t u r e ~ 2 2 5 ~ c o n t r a c t i o n of
t h e l a r g e r e x t e n d e d node h a s o c c u r r e d , a n d the d i s -
l o c a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y s m o o t h e r t h a n at r o o m
2446-VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970
(c)
t e m p e r a t u r e . In s o m e c a s e s m o r e p r o l o n g e d a n n e a l -
i n g at 2 2 5 ~ l e d t o f u r t h e r node s h r i n k a g e , b u t
p i t t i n g of the s p e c i m e n s u r f a c e s u g g e s t e d t h a t d e -
z i n c i f i c a t i o n w a s o c c u r r i n g , a n d t h a t it m i g h t no
l o n g e r be c o r r e c t to a t t r i b u t e the c h a n g e s s o l e l y to
the e f f e c t of t e m p e r a t u r e .
I I I . 2 . a . i i i ) The E f f e c t on the Studies o f the
Cooling R a t e A f t e r Annealing. B e c a u s e of the
p o s s i b l e o c c u r r e n c e of t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d p r o -
cesses (segregation, desegregation, ordering,
r e p i n n i n g , a n d so f o r t h ) d u r i n g the p e r i o d of
c o o l i n g f o l l o w i n g a n a n n e a l , it i s i m p o r t a n t to
m e a s u r e the i n f l u e n c e of s a m p l e c o o l i n g r a t e
on f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e . T h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d r e -
s u l t s a r e t h o s e of S w a n n , 11~ who c o o l e d s a m p l e s
of C u - 1 5 At. p c t A1 a t f r o m 103 to 1 0 - 5 ~ p e r
sec after a n n e a l i n g at t e m p e r a t u r e s g r e a t e r
t h a n 200 ~ C. T h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of e x t e n d e d
n o d e s w a s f o u n d n o t to be a f f e c t e d b y t h i s v a r i a -
tion in cooling r a t e f r o m which Swann concluded
t h a t the i r r e v e r s i b l e d e c r e a s e in n o d e s i z e on
a n n e a l i n g a r o s e f r o m u n p i n n i n g a n d t h a t n o n e of
the f a c t o r s i n p a r e n t h e s e s a b o v e h a d i n f l u e n c e d
the r e s u l t s . H o w e v e r , in a r e c e n t s t u d y ( G a l l a g h e r ,
u n p u b l i s h e d ) of n o d e s in C u - 1 6 at. p c t A1 s a m p l e s
a f t e r c o o l i n g f r o m ~ 3 0 0 ~ at f r o m 1 to 10 -2 ~
per sea some e v i d e n c e was obtained for a v a r i a -
t i o n of m e a n node s i z e with c o o l i n g r a t e . T h e
r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e XII a n d w e r e o b t a i n e d
b y c o n t r o l l e d c o o l i n g of a hot s t a g e i n the e l e c t r o n
m i c r o s c o p e . C o o l i n g at 65~ p e r m i n f r o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e l e d t o the p r e s e n c e of n o d e s o n l y 15 pct
l a r g e r than had been o b s e r v e d d u r i n g ~mnealing.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
Decreasing the cooling rate by one or two orders p e r f o r m e d t h e i n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t of a n n e a l i n g
of m a g n i t u d e r e s u l t e d in t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of n o d e s s a m p l e s of C u - 1 5 at. p c t A1 at 6 0 0 ~ ffor 10 r a i n ) ,
~80 pct larger than at temperature, but still a n d t h e n a n n e a l i n g at v a r i o u s l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s
s m a l l e r in s i z e t h a n t h o s e o b s e r v e d at r o o m t e m - b e f o r e e x a m i n i n g the s i z e of e x t e n d e d n o d e s a t
p e r a t u r e p r i o r to a n n e a l i n g . room temperature. T h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r s t u d y a r e
Thus, at the present time there is disagreement s h o w n in T a b l e X I I I , t h e t i m e s of a n n e a l i n g b e i n g
between the only studies which have been made.
Further comprehensive experiments appear to be
j u s t i f i e d on a c c o u n t of t h e u n c e r t a i n t y w h i c h e x i s t s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o s s i b l e r o l e s of s e g r e g a t i o n , r e -
pinning, and so forth.
III.2.a.iv) Stepped Bulk Annealing Studies.
S t u d i e s of s a m p l e s a n n e a l e d in b u l k o r e x a m i n e d in
an electron microscope hot stage have revealed,
a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , t h a t n o d e s in s e v e r a l c o p p e r -
b a s e a l l o y s s h r i n k on a n n e a l i n g . A s s h o w n in
T a b l e s X a n d XI t h e e f f e c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r k e d
in c o n c e n t r a t e d Cu-A1 a l l o y s , s o t h a t e x t r e m e l y
s m a l l n o d e s w o u l d be f o u n d in s u c h s a m p l e s a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s in e x c e s s of ~ 3 0 0 ~ T i s o n e et al. 82

(c)

(a)

C (d
'i
(a)

.
il
(b)
Fig. 22--Hot stage study of the v a r i a t i o n of the d i s l o c a t i o n
s t r u c t u r e in Cu-16 at. pct A1 on annealing: (a) at r o o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e , fb) at 220 ~ C, (c) at 320* C, (d)'at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
a f t e r c o o l i n g at 65 ~ p e r rriin f r o m 320 ~ C, (e) a t 385 ~ C. (e)

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970-2447

 s u c h a s to p e r m i t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s a m e III.2.b) S i l v e r a n d S i l v e r - B a s e A l l o y s
fraction of the equilibrium short range order at
T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e in a p u r e
each temperature. The mean node sizes observed
material is of particular interest since the number
a f t e r i n t e r m e d i a t e a n n e a l s a t 450 ~ 400 ~ a n d 3 0 0 ~
of f a c t o r s w h i c h c a n c a u s e c h a n g e s t o o c c u r ( l i s t e d
are equal (within experimental error) with that
in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h i s s e c t i o n ) i s m u c h m o r e
found after cooling directly from 600~ The in-
l i m i t e d t h a n in a l l o y s . B y s t u d y i n g t h e e f f e c t of
t e r m e d i a t e a n n e a l at 2 0 0 ~ led to a mean node size
a n n e a l i n g on i s o l a t e d n o d e s in l i g h t l y d e f o r m e d
35 p c t l a r g e r t h a n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n a n n e a l
s a m p l e s v a r i a t i o n s in i n t e r n a l s t r e s s l e v e l c a n b e
a t 6 0 0 ~ C.
minimized, and the variation of the elastic constants
T h e s e f i n d i n g s of a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s r e v e r s i -
with temperature is known and can be allowed for.
b i l i t y d o n o t j i b e c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e r e s u l t s of
Any variation of faulted defect size with temperature
o t h e r s t u d i e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e s u l t s in T a b l e
is thus readily related to the temperature dependence
X I o n C u - 1 6 a t . p c t A1 i n d i c a t e a r e v e r s i b l e c h a n g e
of 7. S i n c e s i l v e r i s t h e o n l y p u r e f c c m e t a l in
i n n o d e s i z e of ~ 8 . 8 p c t p e r 1 0 0 ~ w h i l e c o o l i n g ,
in e x c e l l e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o n n o d e s which nodes have been observed at room tempera-
annealed at 600~ 200~ b y T i s o n e e t a l . 8~ H o w - ture the annealing studies which have been made
e v e r , s i n c e T i s o n e e t a l . s2 f o u n d o n l y a 45 p c t d e - a r e of s i n g u l a r v a l u e .
c r e a s e in n o d e s i z e a s a r e s u l t of a n n e a l i n g s a m - A d o u b l e t i l t i n g h o t - s t a g e d e s i g n e d b y V a l d r ~ 111
ples at temperatures as high as 600~ see Table w a s u t i l i z e d in t h e f i r s t s t u d y ( G a l l a g h e r , 1~ G a l -
X , t h e y c a n c l a i m t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of T a b l e s X a n d l a g h e r a n d V a l d r ~ 112 ) in w h i c h s a m p l e s w e r e e x -
XI prove that the temperature d e p e n d e n c e of t h e a m i n e d a t 300* C a n d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e after
faulted defect size is completely reversible, and completing the annealing treatment. A number of
t h e y a t t r i b u t e it t o t h e r e v e r s i b l e temperature de- isolated nodes were observed both at temperature
p e n z a n c e of 7-
Table XIII. Mean Node Size (w) on Annealing at T~ Relative to the
Mean Node Size After Annealing at 600~
Table XII. The Variation of Mean Node Size With Cooling Rate in
Cu-16 at. Pct AI
Annealing Time of Anneal, w (annealed at T~
Annealing 7 effective, Temperature T, ~ rain w (annealed at 600~
Temperature, ~ CoolingRate ~, A ergs/cm2
600 10 1.00
320 65~ per min 160 15.6 450 75 1.06
320 0.7~ per min 260 10.1 400 200 0.96
275 5~ per min 260 10.1 300 1650 1.04
275 0.7~ per min 243 10.7 200 35600 1.35

Fig. 23--Hot stage study of the variation

of the dislocation structure in Cu-30 at.
pct Zn: (a) at room t e m p e r a t u r e , (b) at
82~ C, (c) at 134 ~ C, (d) at 225* C.

2448-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

a n d a f t e r a n n e a l i n g a n d w e r e f o u n d to be of the s a m e A l l the r e s u l t s in F i g . 24 w e r e o b t a i n e d at r o o m
size in each case. T h e s e r e s u l t s thus indicate that t e m p e r a t u r e , s o m e of t h e s a m p l e s h a v i n g b e e n b u l k
up to 3 0 0 ~ the r e v e r s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e a n n e a l e d (Ives a n d Ruff 1'3) w h i l e t h e o t h e r s w e r e
of ~ i n s i l v e r i s s l i g h t , b e i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h a t h e a t t r e a t e d in the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e in t h i n f o i l
of t h e s h e a r m o d u l u s . T h e r e s u l t s a l s o s u g g e s t e d f o r m ( G a l l a g h e r a n d W a s h b u r n , is G a l l a g h e r , u n p u b -
the p o s s i b i l i t y of a n i r r e v e r s i b l e c h a n g e i n f a u l t e d l i s h e d ) . It i s e n c o u r a g i n g t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s of the
d e f e c t s i z e , b u t no s u c h c h a n g e h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s a r e in good a g r e e m e n t i n p u r e
in more recent comprehensive studies. s i l v e r a n d in A g - 4 at. pct Sn, the v a r i o u s a n n e a l i n g
t r e a t m e n t s h a v i n g l i t t l e e f f e c t on y ( e f f e c t i v e ) in
e i t h e r c a s e . I n A g - 7 . 8 at. pct S n , a l s o , o n l y a
2.2
s l i g h t d e c r e a s e in y ( e f f e c t i v e ) r e s u l t s f r o m a n n e a l -
oe Ag
v 9 A g - 4 at % Sn
i n g f o r 72 h r at 300~ o r f o r 1 h r a t 6 0 0 ~ More
2.0 o A g - Z 8 O t %Sn r e c e n t ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) w o r k b y Ruff a n d I v e s on A g - 9
9 A g - g o t % Sn
[] A g - 7 . 5 o t % Zn
at. pct Sn r e v e a l s t h a t w h i l e a n n e a l i n g a t h i n foil
1.8 9 Ag-ll.Sat %Tn f o r 5 m i n a t 3 0 0 ~ d o e s not g r e a t l y a l t e r the
[]& Gallagher a Washburn, 1966 f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e , the s a m e t i m e a t 400 ~ C l e a d s
OVO I r e s a Ruff, 1968
1.6
e9 Golloghet ( Unpublished ) t o a 50 pct d e c r e a s e in n o d e s i z e o r e x t r i n s i c - i n -
[] Ruff a Ives (Unpublished) t r i n s i c f a u l t p a i r s p a c i n g on a n n e a l i n g . As p r e -
~o 1.4 v i o u s l y n o t e d i n the s e c t i o n on C u - b a s e a l l o y s t h e
[]
a n n e a l i n g l e a d s to a r e d u c t i o n in b o t h the s e p a r a -
1.2 t i o n of the p a r t i a l s a n d t h e i r d e g r e e of i r r e g u l a r i t y ,
a s s h o w n i n F i g . 25.
i,O I n A g - I n a l l o y s a n n e a l i n g at m o d e r a t e t e m p e r a -
oe g tures leads to strong irreversible shrinkage in
0.8, :-
o faulted defect size. In A g - l l . 5 at. pct In the
I I i I I I 1
0 I00 200 300 400 500 600 700 c h a n g e s w e r e b y a f a c t o r of 1.6 to 2 a f t e r a n n e a l -
ANNEALING TEMPERATURE, "C i n g f o r p e r i o d s of the o r d e r of 1 h r a t f r o m 175 ~
Fig. 2 4 - - T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e f a u l t e n e r g y in p u r e to 425 ~ C, w h i l e c h a n g e s of 25 to 35 pct w e r e o b -
s i l v e r a n d in s l i v e r - b a s e a l l o y s a f t e r a n n e a l i n g . s e r v e d in A g - 7 . 5 at. pct In.

Fig. 2 5 - - T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e d i s l o c a t i o n
s t r u c t u r e in A g - 9 at. p c t Sn s a m p l e on
a n n e a l i n g : (a), (b) in f a u l t a n d line c o n -
t r a s t at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , (c), (d) in
f a u l t a n d line c o n t r a s t a t r o o m t e m p e r a -
t u r e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g 5 m i n a t 400 ~ C
(courtesy of Ruff and Ives).

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME l, SEPTEMBER 1970--2449

 A f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d s t u d y of the t e m p e r a t u r e w h i c h i s w i t h i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l e r r o r ( t y p i c a l l y
d e p e n d e n c e of y h a s b e e n m a d e in s i l v e r a n d i n • pct for e a c h p o i n t ) . T h u s , it m a y w e l l be t h a t the
several dilute Ag-Zn alloys (Gallagher, unpub- plot r e p r e s e n t s a m e a s u r e of the t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e
l i s h e d ) t h e r e s u l t s of w h i c h a r e s h o w n in F i g . 26. d e p e n d e n c e of 7 i n t h e s e a l l o y s . At 220"C the f a u l t
The study was made using a new tilting hot-stage e n e r g y i s f r o m 5 to 23 pct l e s s t h a n a t r o o m t e m p e r a -
a n d p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n both r e v e r s i b l e a n d t u r e , a n d at 3 2 0 ~ it i s f r o m 13 to 28 pct l e s s . I n
i r r e v e r s i b l e c h a n g e s in n o d e s i z e . T h e d a t a p o i n t s s i l v e r the s h e a r m o d u l u s , G, d e c r e a s e s b y 4 p c t f o r
s h o w n a r e f o r the m o s t p a r t b a s e d on s e r i e s of e a c h 100~ r i s e in t e m p e r a t u r e (see N e i g h b o u r s
m i c r o g r a p h s of i n d i v i d u a l d e f e c t s at d i f f e r e n t a n d A l e r s T M f o r d a t a ) . T h e d a s h e d l i n e s in F i g . 26
t e m p e r a t u r e s w h i c h s e r v e s to r e d u c e the e x p e r i - i n d i c a t e the e x p e c t e d l e v e l s of the d a t a p o i n t s f o r
m e n t a l s c a t t e r . T w o s e r i e s of t y p i c a l m i c r o - a n n e a l i n g at 2 2 0 ~ (8 pct d e c r e m e n t ) a n d a t 3 2 0 ~
g r a p h s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 27 f o r a node in A g - 1 . 5 (12 pct d e c r e m e n t ) if (1/7) (dy/dT) = ( l / G ) (dG/dT)
a t . p c t Z n a n d for one i n A g - 9 . 1 at. pct Zn. T h e (plotted a s s u m i n g G a n d dG/dT i n t h e d i l u t e a l l o y s
n o d e i n A g - l . 5 at. pct Z n i n c r e a s e s i n s i z e b y ~ 1 0 a r e the s a m e a s i n s i l v e r ) .
p c t at 2 1 0 ~ a n d b y a t o t a l ~ 2 0 pct a t 3 2 5 ~ The
n o d e i n A g - 9 . 1 at. pct Z n a l s o i n c r e a s e s in s i z e on
h e a t i n g , b y ~15 pct, a n d on c o o l i n g to r o o m t e m p e r a - III.2.c) Cobalt and Co-Ni Alloys
t u r e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g r e m a i n s ~ 1 0 pct l a r g e r t h a n S t u d i e s of the v a r i a t i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e
it w a s o r i g i n a l l y . with t e m p e r a t u r e in p u r e c o b a l t a n d in C o - N i
In F i g . 26 e a c h of the d a t a p o i n t s i s the m e a n f r o m a l l o y s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t on a c c o u n t of the
m e a s u r e m e n t s on f r o m 7 to 25 n o d e s a n d for a l l t h e c h a n g e of s t a b l e p h a s e with t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e
a l l o y s the t r e n d s u g g e s t e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l r e s u l t s t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the hcp s t r u c t u r e s t a b l e at l o w e r
of F i g . 27 i s a p p a r e n t . A s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s to the fcc s t r u c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e at
r e s u l t s i s t h a t the c h a n g e s i n n o d e s i z e which o c - 4 1 7 ~ for c o b a l t , a t 3 6 0 ~ f o r C o - 1 5 wt p c t N i
c u r r e d on a n n e a l i n g a p p e a r to be c o m p l e t e l y r e - a n d at - 1 0 0 ~ f o r C o - 3 3 wt pct N i . T h e r e s u l t s
versible--the maximum difference between mean of the hot s t a g e s t u d y by E r i c s s o n 1~176 a r e s h o w n in
n o d e s i z e p r i o r to a n d f o l l o w i n g the a n n e a l w a s 8 pct F i g . 28, the f a u l t e n e r g y in the h c p s t r u c t u r e b e i n g
taken negative conventionally.
In p u r e c o b a l t a n d C o - 1 5 wt pct N i the s i z e of
o Room Temperature faulted defects b e c o m e s l a r g e r as the t e m p e r a t u r e
9 At ;- 220*C i s r a i s e d a s i s e x p e c t e d s i n c e the t r a n s i t i o n t e m -
2O -- O
A At- 320*C
~ D p e r a t u r e i s b e i n g a p p r o a c h e d . R e s u l t s on c o b a l t
19t -- Room Temperature after Anneal
a b o v e the t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e t h a t 7
2 o i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a s the fcc
18 p h a s e b e c o m e s m o r e s t a b l e . In C o - 3 3 wt pct N i
the p h a s e t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s b e l o w r o o m t e m p e r a -
~, 17 q
(ergs/cm z )
t u r e a n d a c c o r d i n g l y 7 i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g
16
....~.C ~ en -,.,.. ~ o t e m p e r a t u r e , a l l the m e a s u r e m e n t s b e i n g m a d e i n
the fcc r e g i o n . T h e r a t e of c h a n g e of 7 with
15- t e m p e r a t u r e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 e r g per sq cm per
I 0 0 ~ C.
14- T h e r e s u l t s t h u s show the c l o s e p a r a l l e l w h i c h i s
to be e x p e c t e d with the v a r i a t i o n of 7 with s o l u t e
, I I I i I I I i
c o n c e n t r a t i o n for s y s t e m s in which a l l o y i n g f a v o r s
0 2 4 6 8
at % Zinc
the f o r m a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t p h a s e . It i s of s o m e
Fig. 26--The temperature dependence of the fault energy in i n t e r e s t , h o w e v e r , t h a t the f a u l t e n e r g y d o e s n o t
pure silver and in Ag-Zn alloys. e x t r a p o l a t e t o z e r o at t h e f c c / h c p t r a n s i t i o n t e r n -

Fig. 27(a)--The variation of node size

on annealing a sample of Ag-l.5 at. pct
Sn, (i) at room temperature, (ii) at 210~C,
(iii) at 325~C.

(a)

Fig. 27(b)--The variation of node size on

annealing a sample of Ag-9.1 at. pct Zn
(i) at room temperature, (ii) at 245* C for
20 min, (iii) at room temperature, having
annealed at 245* C for 60 rain.
(b)

2450-VOLUME 1, SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS

 40
To fee: Co-33% Ni - 40 w o u l d be p o s s i b l e in t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s on
30 f. e.e : Co TO ~ -
/
~O a n n e a l i n g at h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e r e s u l t s of
20 a n u m b e r of X - r a y a n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n
)" I0 Io d i s c u s s e d by K l e i n 116 who c o n c l u d e d t h a t c h a n g e s
(er<js/cm 2 } 0
I00
I I
300
I I
500
I I
700
L I
-I00 0
I t
I00
t I
300
t I
500
O (ergs/cm2}
Y
in t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s u b s t r u c t u r e , r a t h e r t h a n v a r -
I0 i a t i o n s in ~, a r e p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t he
20 20 c h a n g e s o b s e r v e d a f t e r a n n e a l i n g in p a r a m e t e r s
30 measured using X-rays.
h.c.p: CO To h.e.p: Coo 15% Ni I 30
40
I I I I II I
,40 D e s p i t e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d in i n t e r p r e t i n g
0 I00 300 500 the d a t a m u c h v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s u b -
Fig. 28--The variation of the fault energy with temperature s t r u c t u r e of h e a v i l y d e f o r m e d s a m p l e s c a n be
in pure cobalt and in Co-Ni alloys (after Ericssonl~176 d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s . M i k k o l a a nd
C o h e n n7 m a d e t h e i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t
in C u - 1 4 . 3 at . p c t AI t h e r e d u c t i o n in cy t a k e s
p e r a t u r e s . T h e e x t r a p o l a t e d v a l u e o f ~ at t h e p l a c e in t w o s t a g e s upon a n n e a l i n g a t a s u i t a b l e
b o u n d a r y is b e t w e e n 10 a n d 20 e r g p e r s q c m in temperature. M o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d i e s in
a l l c a s e s , w h i c h s e r v e s to e m p h a s i z e t h e d e g r e e s e v e r a l C u - G e a l l o y s by T r u c k n e r an d M i k k o l a u8
of o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n l i k e l y in r e g a r d i n g y a s t h e
d i f f e r e n c e in b u l k f r e e e n e r g i e s b e t w e e n t he f c c a n d
hcp phases. Table XIV. The Faulting Probability in the Ag-Cd Series Before
and After a 3 Week Anneal at 25~

10 -3 a 10 "s
III. 3) T h e V a r i a t i o n of the X - r a y F a u l t i n g Material, at. Pet Before Anneal After Anneal Pet Decrease in
Probability with Temperature
Ag 10.6 3.4 68
T h e X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y , ~ , c a n be r e l a t e d Ag-1 Cd 14.6 11.5 21
Ag-2 Cd 16.1 15.9 1.2
to t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e of a s a m p l e by t h e e x p r e s s i o n Ag-5 Cd 21.7 20.0 7.8
Ag-lO Cd 24.0 23.6 1.7
c~ = g ~ Di d i [2] Ag-15 Cd 32.3 28.0 13
i Ag-20 Cd 38.6 36.7 5
w h e r e K is a c o n s t a n t , p and d a r e the d i s l o c a t i o n Ag-30 Cd 53.8 47.6 11
d e n s i t y an d p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s p a c i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
and the s u m m a t i o n ex ten d s o v e r those d i s l o c a t i o n
s p a c i n g s which c o n t r i b u t e to the ( X - r a y ) s c a t t e r i n g
0.04 - 0 8.50t % Ge
cross-section. E v a l u a t i o n o f th e t e m p e r a t u r e d e - 9 7.70t % Ge
p e n d e n c e of T f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s of ot t h u s i n - % z~ 6.7ot % Ge
0.03 t:~ 9 5 6 0 1 % Ge
v o l v e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e n u m e r o u s f a c t o r s w h i c h I

c a n i n f l u e n c e d (noted in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h i s -9 " E k . ~ ~ ~ A 9 14.3ot % AI

(2 ~ ~ t 3 rl 14.3ot % A[ (at ?..20*C
s e c t i o n ) p l u s a l l o w a n c e f o r the v a r i a t i b n of p w i t h O.O2
temperature.
Many studies have shown that annealing for short 0,01
p e r i o d s at m o d e r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s l e a d s t o a
m a r k e d r e d u c t i o n in th e m a g n i t u d e of a . F o r i n - o I
s t a n c e , W a r r e n a n d W a r e k o i s l's f o u n d t h a t I0 102 103 104 i05
d e c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r of 5 on a n n e a l i n g f i l i n g s o r t, MINUTES
various a-brasses f o r 1 h r at 1 7 5 ~ 250~ and Fig. 29(a)--The variation of the faulting probability, ~, as
comparable results have been reported from a function of time on annealing Cu-A1 and Cu-Ge alloys at
200 ~C (after Truckner and Mikkola, 118 and Mikkola and
a n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s in C u - A I a n d C u - S i a l l o y s . Cohen117).
T a b l e XI V s h o w s an i n t e r e s t i n g s e t of r e s u l t s
t a k e n f r o m t h e d a t a r e p o r t e d by V a s s a m i l l e t a n d
M a s s a l s k i ~ on the A g - C d s e r i e s . A n n e a l i n g at 0.05
r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e for 3 w e e k s led to a sub-
s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n in a f o r p u r e s i l v e r a n d A g - 1 0.04 0 180"C
at. p e t Cd, but m u c h s m a l l e r c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d COLD WORKED 9 200*C
.......... zx 220"C
in t h e m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s . T h e s u b s t a n t i a l 9 240*C
c h a n g e s c l e a r l y c a n n o t be a s c r i b e d to a v a r i a t i o n 0.03

of 7 w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e a r i s e O.

f r o m a r e d u c t i o n in the d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y a n d / o r 0.02
f r o m a r e d u c t i o n in the e x t e n t to w h i c h n o n e q u i l i b -
r i u m s p a c e d p a r t i a l s a r e p r e s e n t in the f i l i n g s .
O.OI o o
T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e r e d u c t i o n in ot w i t h a l l o y i n g
p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s th e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e r m a l
O I --"
a c t i v a t i o n at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e i s a b l e t o o v e r c o m e I0 I0 z 103 104 IO5
t h e l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s in e a c h of the a l l o y s . T h e 1, MINUTES
r e s u l t s c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n d i c a t i v e t h a t t h e Fig. 29(b)--The variation of the faulting probability, cr as
m e a n b a r r i e r h e i g h t i n c r e a s e s on a l l o y i n g , a function of time on annealing Cu-8.5 at. pct Ge at various
and thus s u g g e s t that s u b s t a n t i a l f u r t h e r r e c o v e r y temperatures (after Truckner and Mikkolat18).

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2451

 h a v e , a s s h o w n in F i g . 29(a) a n d (b), e s t a b l i s h e d
the g r e a t e r g e n e r a l i t y of t h i s f i n d i n g . A c o n -
v e n i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e t o a n n e a l the s a m p l e s i s
~ 2 0 0 ~ f o r w h i c h the f i r s t s t a g e in the r e d u c t i o n
i n a i s c o m p l e t e d in l e s s t h a n 103 m i n a n d the
s e c o n d s t a g e i n l e s s t h a n 2.104 m i n a s s h o w n i n
F i g . 29(a). W h e n the f i l i n g s a r e h e a t t r e a t e d a t
2 0 0 ~ the p l a t e a u l e v e l b e t w e e n the two s t a g e s of
a n n e a l i n g i s at a v a l u e of a s o m e 15 to 45 p c t
l e s s t h a n a i n the c o l d - w o r k e d s a m p l e s . A s
s h o w n in F i g . 29(b) the l e v e l of the p l a t e a u
i s l o w e r e d b y r a i s i n g the a n n e a l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e ,
a n d , a s e x p e c t e d , the d e c r e a s e in a p r o c e e d s
m o r e r ap i d l y the h i g h er the t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e a r r o w s on the c u r v e s i n d i c a t e the t i m e
e l a p s e n e c e s s a r y for a n y o b s e r v a b l e c h a n g e i n
e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e to o c c u r . T h u s , o v e r 80
pct of the f a u l t i n g w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s to the X - r a y
s c a t t e r i n g c r o s s s e c t i o n i s e l i m i n a t e d p r i o r to t h e
m o v e m e n t of s u b b o u n d a r i e s . T r u c k n e r a n d M i k k o l a *.8
c a l c u l a t e that the a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y f o r the f i r s t
stage p r o c e s s is s m a l l and v a r i a b l e while that for
t h e s e c o n d s t a g e i s - 4 7 k c a l p e r m o l e which p r o b -
a b l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o the e n e r g y f o r d i f f u s i o n .
T h e r e s e e m s l i t t l e d o u b t e v e n f r o m the X - r a y
r e s u l t s a l o n e t h a t the f i r s t s t a g e a r i s e s a s a
r e s u l t of the e l i m i n a t i o n of s o l u t e / d i s l o c a t i o n
l o c k i n g f o r c e s l e a d i n g to a d e c r e a s e in the m e a n
w i d t h of e x t e n d e d d i s l o c a t i o n s . T h e c r e d i b i l i t y
of t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s m u c h e n h a n c e d b y the o b -
s e r v a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e b e e n m a d e with the e l e c t r o n
m i c r o s c o p e s h o w i n g the e l i m i n a t i o n of i r r e g u l a r
faulting under similar annealing conditions.
T h e v a r i a b i l i t y of the p l a t e a u l e v e l i n F i g . 29(b)
s u g g e s t s that the s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e c o n t a i n s
a s p e c t r u m of d i f f e r e n t b a r r i e r h e i g h t s , p r e s u m a b l y
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of l o c a l s t r a i n
i n h o m o g e n e i t y . A n n e a l i n g a t 2 2 0 ~ l e d to a
p l a t e a u with a 37 pct l e s s t h a n i n the c o l d -
w o r k e d s a m p l e , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t at l e a s t t h i s
f r a c t i o n of a i n a c o l d - w o r k e d s a m p l e i s a t t r i b u -
t a b l e t o the n o n e q u i l i b r i u m s p l i t t i n g of p a r t i a l
d i s l o c a t i o n s . A l i m i t a t i o n of the X - r a y t e c h n i q u e
i n s t u d y i n g c h a n g e s in p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s e p -
a r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e i s , h o w e v e r ,
the n e c e s s i t y of r e s t r i c t i n g s t u d i e s to t e m p e r a -
t u r e s below that at which the d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y
s t a r t s to d e c r e a s e a p p r e c i a b l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s t u d -
i e s s u c h a s t h o s e of M i k k o l a a n d c o - w o r k e r s "*7,'*s
p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e i n f o , . m a t i o n on the s e n s i t i v i t y of
the s u b s t r u c t u r e i n h e a v i l y d e f o r m e d a l l o y s to
a n n e a l i n g at m o d e r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s , a l t h o u g h
t h e r e s e e m s l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y of e s t i m a t i n g the
r e v e r s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e -
p e n d e n c e of ~ t h e r e f r o m .
III. 4) E s t i m a t e s of the T e m p e r a t u r e
D e p e n d e n c e of ~ F r o m the 73 T e c h n i q u e
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of 7 f o r p u r e
s i l v e r w a s e s t i m a t e d b y B i ] h l e r a n d L~cke ~ f r o m
m e a s u r e m e n t s of ~'3 at a w i d e r a n g e of t e m p e r a -
t u r e s . T h e t e n s i l e t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d at s t r a i n
r a t e s of f r o m 5 9 10 -3 s e c - * a n d led to the c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t 7 d e c r e a s e s f r o m ~ 5 7 e r g p e r s q c m at - 1 0 0 ~
to ~ 1 8 e r g p e r sq c m at 6 0 0 ~ As d i s c u s s e d by
2452-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970
P e i s s k e r , 4. h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s s o m e u n c e r t a i n t y
in both the a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e a n d the t e m p e r a t u r e
d e p e n d e n c e of c e r t a i n p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v e d i n the
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n y a n d T3. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e
d e p e n d e n c e of ~ d e t e r m i n e d by B i l h l e r a n d L'flcke
i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.5 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of the
shear modulus. Ahlers and Haasen 7 also de-
t e r m i n e d a s t r o n g d e p e n d e n c e of ~ o n t e m p e r a t u r e
f r o m T3 m e a s u r e m e n t s on s i l v e r w i t h a m o d e r a t e
o x y g e n c o n t e n t , f i n d i n g ~ = 65 e r g p e r s q c m at
2 9 6 ~ which d e c r e a s e d to 16 e r g p e r s q c m a t
373~ T h e l o w e r v a l u e of 7 (15 e r g p e r sq c m )
d e t e r m i n e d b y A h l e r s .3 at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e on
d e - o x y g e n a t e d s i l v e r s u g g e s t s t h a t the v a r i a t i o n
with t e m p e r a t u r e o b s e r v e d in t h e s e s t u d i e s m a y
w e l l be a t l e a s t p a r t l y d u e to a r e d u c e d e f f e c t i v e -
n e s s of s o l u t e / d i s l o c a t i o n l o c k i n g f o r c e s at h i g h e r
temperatures. A much smaller temperature de-
p e n d e n c e of 7 w a s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d b y R o g a u s c h 75
who m e a s u r e d the s t r a i n r a t e d e p e n d e n c e of 73 o n
a A g - 0 . 8 at. p c t P d a l l o y at 2 0 0 ~ 293~ He
f o u n d ~ = 22 i 4 e r g p e r s q c m at 2 0 0 ~ a n d y =
24 • 4 e r g p e r s q c m at 2 9 3 ~ v a l u e s w h i c h a r e
i n good a c c o r d with the r e s u l t s f r o m node m e a s -
u r e m e n t s in o t h e r d i l u t e s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s .
III. 5) T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n the S t a c k i n g
F a u l t E n e r g y a n d the D e g r e e
of S h o r t R a n g e O r d e r
N u m e r o u s a l l o y s d e v e l o p s h o r t r a n g e o r d e r (SRO)
a s a r e s u l t of s u i t a b l e h e a t t r e a t m e n t so t h a t ~ t u d i e s
of the v a r i a t i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e with t e m p e r a -
t u r e m a y , in s o m e c a s e s , be i n f l u e n c e d by the e x -
t e n t to w h i c h SRO i s p r e s e n t o r u n d e r g o e s c h a n g e .
A p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of SRO i s , of
c o u r s e , t h a t the e n e r g y of the m a t e r i a l i s r e d u c e d
t h e r e b y . It h a s b e e n s h o w n f r o m X - r a y , * ' g e ' l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t i v i t y , ~ ~ a n d c a l o r i m e t r y studies,*2~ t h a t SRO
c a n be d e v e l o p e d in c o n c e n t r a t e d C u - A 1 a l l o y s , f o r
instance, particularly comprehensive results being
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n C u - 1 5 a t . pct A1.
S i n c e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a s t a c k i n g f a u l t to a n o r d e r e d
structure causes disordering locally and thus an
a l t e r a t i o n to the p r e - e x i s t i n g low e n e r g y b o n d i n g
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , the f a u l t e n e r g y m a y w e l l , a s s u g -
g e s t e d by F l i n n , '22 be g r e a t e r t h a n in a d i s o r d e r e d
s t r u c t u r e with the s a m e c o m p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r ,
M i k k o l a a n d C o h e n .17 found t h a t the f a u l t i n g p r o b -
a b i l i t y m e a s u r e d on C u - 1 4 . 3 at. pct A1 s a m p l e s
w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of SRO was g r e a t e r i n the m o r e
h i g h l y o r d e r e d s a m p l e s , w h i c h s u g g e s t s that the
partial dislocations are more widely spaced when
SRO i s p r e s e n t . C o h e n a n d Fine*Z3 c o n c l u d e d t h a t
d i s l o c a t i o n s w o u l d be l e s s e x t e n d e d i n a l l o y s c o n -
t a i n i n g SRO s i n c e high s t r e s s e s a r e n e c e s s a r y to
cause their propagation.
F e w s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e to d e t e r m i n e the
e f f e c t of SRO on y. P e r h a p s the m o s t r e l i a b l e
a r e t h o s e in w h i c h f a u l t e d d e f e c t s w e r e e x a m i n e d
d i r e c t l y u t i l i z i n g the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e . T h e
e x p e r i m e n t s a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g
factors :
1) How m u c h SRO i s r e t a i n e d in a s a m p l e on
c o o l i n g to r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n
of h e a t t r e a t m e n t , a n d what f o r m does. it t a k e ?
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
 2) How m u c h of the SRO i s r e t a i n e d a f t e r d e -
f o r m a t i o n of the s a m p l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the a c t i v e
s l i p p l a n e s w h e r e f a u l t e d d e f e c t s a r e l i k e l y to
be f o u n d ?
3) T o what e x t e n t a r e o b s e r v a b l e c h a n g e s in
f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e a t t r i b u t a b l e to a) the v a r i a t i o n
of ~ with SRO, b) the v a r i a t i o n of d i s l o c a t i o n
l o c k i n g with SRO, c) o t h e r f a c t o r s ?
T h o m a s ~ 4 o b s e r v e d t h a t the s i z e of e x t e n d e d
n o d e s in C u - 3 2 at. pct Z n a n d C u - 3 3 . 5 at. pct Z n
s a m p l e s v a r i e d a s a f u n c t i o n of p r i o r h e a t t r e a t -
m e n t . S a m p l e s f u r n a c e c o o l e d f r o m 600 ~ o r 400 ~ C,
o r q u e n c h e d a n d a g e d 1 h r at 2 0 0 ~ p r i o r to d e -
f o r m a t i o n at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t a i n e d s m a l l e r
nodes than samples which had been quenched from
800 ~ C. T h e s a m p l e s q u e n c h e d f r o m 8 0 0 ~ c a n b e
e x p e c t e d to c o n t a i n the l e a s t SRO a n d t h u s the r e -
s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t the p r e s e n c e of SRO l e d to a n
i n c r e a s e in 7. T h e v a l i d i t y of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
i s e n h a n c e d by the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t p a i r e d d i s l o -
c a t i o n s w e r e p r e s e n t in the s a m p l e s c o n t a i n i n g
the s m a l l e r n o d e s . ( C a r e m u s t be t a k e n to e s t a b -
l i s h t h a t the p a i r s a r e d i s l o c a t i o n s of the s a m e
sign--the " s u p e r l a t t i c e p a i r s " o b s e r v e d in C u - 1 5
at. p c t AI by S w a n n a n d N u t t i n g , F i g . 13, '~ a r e
a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n s i c fault p a i r s
s i m i l a r to t h a t s h o w n at C i n F i g . 22 of t h i s p a p e r . )
F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r a d e p e n d e n c e of ~ on t h e
d e g r e e of SRO w a s o b t a i n e d by T i s o n e e t a l . 82
f r o m a s t u d y of the s i z e of e x t e n d e d n o d e s , f a u l t
p a i r s , a n d F r a n k t r i a n g l e s i n C u - 1 5 at. pct A1
samples. Deformation was introduced at room
t e m p e r a t u r e to s a m p l e s q u e n c h e d f r o m 200 ~,
300 ~ 400 ~ 450 ~ a n d 6 0 0 ~ T h e r e s u l t s of
M a t s u o a n d C l a r e b r o u g h ~ ' on C u - 1 5 at. p c t A1
i n d i c a t e that s a m p l e s q u e n c h e d f r o m b e l o w 350 ~
or f r o m above 550~ (after a n n e a l i n g for s u i t -
a b l e p e r i o d s ) c o n t a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e SRO, w h i l e a
much smaller amount is present after quenching
f r o m the i n t e r m e d i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e . I n
F i g . 30 the m a g n i t u d e of 7 i s p l o t t e d a s a f u n c -
t i o n of the e q u i l i b r a t i o n a n d q u e n c h t e m p e r a t u r e ,
and i n d i c a t e s that ~ t a k e s a m i n i m u m value in
s a m p l e s which a r e l i k e l y to c o n t a i n the l e a s t
a m o u n t of SRO. T h e v a r i a t i o n of ~ with p r i o r
h e a t t r e a t m e n t i s , h o w e v e r , r a t h e r s m a l l , the
u p p e r a n d l o w e r l i m i t s d i f f e r i n g b y o n l y 1.5
e r g p e r sq c m (7 to 5.5 e r g p e r s q c m ) . At the
p r e s e n t t i m e it is not c l e a r . w h e t h e r t h i s r e s u l t
s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d a s d u e to 7 o n l y h a v i n g a
s l i g h t d e p e n d e n c e on SRO, o r w h e t h e r the c o m p l i -
cating factors listed above have prevented a true
measure from being obtained.
A n u m b e r of i n d i r e c t e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e b e e n
i n t e r p r e t e d by s o m e w o r k e r s a s due to the i n f l u e n c e
of SRO (e.g. a n n e a l h a r d e n i n g 8 9 ) , b u t i n g e n e r a l
t h e s e s t u d i e s do n o t p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h
i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y r e l a t a b l e to the v a r i a t i o n
of -y.
I l l . 6) T h e E f f e c t of S o l u t e S e g r e g a t i o n
o n the S t a c k i n g F ~ u l t E n e r g y
A s f i r s t s u g g e s t e d b y S u z u k i 125 a d e c r e a s e of
with i n c r e a s e in s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a n
a l l o y s y s t e m l e a d s to the p r e s e n c e of a d r i v i n g
f o r c e f o r s o l u t e to s e g r e g a t e a t s t a c k i n g f a u l t s .
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
8
6
Y
( ergs/cm 2 )
4
9 Extended Nodes
2 --
A Frank T r i a n g l e s
o Fault Pairs
o I I I I I I
0 I00 200:500 400 500 600 700
Teq ( ~
Fig. 30--The fault energy as a function of sample heat treat-
ment (atTeq) in Cu-15 at. pct A1 (after Tisone et al.82).
S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n h a s s i n c e b e e n i n v o k e d in the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a r e m a r k a b l e n u m b e r of p a p e r s ,
a n d y e t the q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r u n d e n i a b l e e v i d e n c e
for its occurrence has been established is still a
m a t t e r of c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y . W h e r e a s
clear evidence for solute/dislocation binding
e x i s t s in s o m e s y s t e m s f r o m aging and m e c h a n i c a l
p r o p e r t y s t u d i e s (see F l a r e a n d B a u e r '~8 for d i s -
c u s s i o n ) , c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u n d with
r e g a r d to the p r e s e n c e o r o t h e r w i s e of s e g r e g a -
t i o n to f a u l t s .
If s e g r e g a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e on a l a r g e e n o u g h
s c a l e in a d e f o r m e d alloy d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for its
o c c u r r e n c e i s to be e x p e c t e d in the f o r m of m o r e
w i d e l y f a u l t e d d e f e c t s . S m a l l m a n a n d W e s t m a c o t t ~7
f o u n d a n i n c r e a s e in the X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y ,
, o n a n n e a l i n g at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e f i l i n g s of a
f a u l t i n g A u - 5 0 at. pct Ag a l l o y w h i c h h a d b e e n d e -
f o r m e d at 77~ Initially ~ increased, reaching a
v a l u e 60 pct g r e a t e r t h a n that i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g
d e f o r m a t i o n , b u t a f t e r 1 h r of a n n e a l i n g a r e v e r s e
t r e n d developed. S t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r r e s u l t s were ob-
t a i n e d by R u d e e a n d H u g g i n s l~s who a n n e a l e d at 25~
f i l i n g s of C u - 2 2 . 8 a t . p c t Z n p r o d u c e d a t r o o m t e m p e r -
a t u r e . T h e y o b s e r v e d a n i n c r e a s e i n a b y - 2 5 pct a t
t h e e n d of a n h o u r , f o l l o w e d by a g r a d u a l d e c r e a s e
on f u r t h e r a n n e a l i n g . It i s d i f f i c u l t to e n v i s a g e a n y
p r o c e s s o t h e r t h a n s e g r e g a t i o n to t h e d i s l o c a t i o n
r i b b o n s w h i c h c o u l d b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n i t i a l
i n c r e a s e in a on a n n e a l i n g . H o w e v e r , s i m i l a r e x -
p e r i m e n t s t o the a b o v e on C u - 1 7 at. pct A1'27 a n d
a n d C u - 1 4 . 3 at p c t A1 '17 d i d n o t l e a d to a n i n c r e a s e
i n a o n a n n e a l i n g . T h i s c o u l d p e r h a p s a r i s e due
to t h e p r e s e n c e of a s u b s t a n t i a l d e g r e e of n o n -
e q u i l i b r i u m s p l i t t i n g i n the C u - A 1 s a m p l e s , the
r e c o v e r y of w h i c h m i g h t p r o d u c e a l a r g e r e f f e c t
t h a n a n y c h a n g e i n the o p p o s i t e s e n s e due to S u z u k i
s e g r e g a t i o n . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t a n n e a l h a r d e n i n g ,
VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2453
 w h i c h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r k e d in C u - A 1 a l l o y s ~29
d e v e l o p s u n d e r the s a m e a n n e a l i n g t r e a t m e n t s a s
l e a d t o a decrease in a. u7 In t h i s c a s e , t o o , it
a p p e a r s n e c e s s a r y to p o s t u l a t e that the e l i m i n a t i o n
of n o n e q u i l i b r i u m s p a c e d d i s l o c a t i o n s m o r e t h a n
o f f s e t s a n y s e g r e g a t i o n e f f e c t if the a n n e a l h a r d -
e n i n g i s to be i n t e r p r e t e d in t e r m s of S u z u k i s e g -
r e g a t i o n . C a r e f u l s t u d i e s b y Otte ~3~ on C u - 3 0 a t .
p c t Z n r e v e a l e d that a g i n g f o r 1000 h r at 120~
l e d to no s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e in a f r o m i t s v a l u e
in a n a s - d e f o r m e d s a m p l e .
S t u d i e s of the v a r i a t i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e
with t e m p e r a t u r e by m e a n s of e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y
h a v e a l s o , in s o m e c a s e s , b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d in
t e r m s of S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n . K a m a d a 8' s t u d i e d
f a u l t e d d e f e c t s in C u - 1 0 at. pct A1 a n d C u - 1 4 a t .
p c t A1 a n d , o n f a i l i n g to o b s e r v e a n y i n c r e a s e i n
n o d e s i z e on a n n e a l i n g , c o n c l u d e d t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n
had occurred immediately following deformation
at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . M o r e positive e v i d e n c e was
f o u n d b y L o r e t t o 131 f r o m a s t u d y of A u - S n a l l o y s
b e f o r e a n d a f t e r a n n e a l i n g f o r 15 m i n at 360 ~ C.
T h e h e a t t r e a t m e n t l e d to m a r k e d i n c r e a s e s i n
e x t e n d e d node s i z e in A u - 4 . 8 at. pct Sn, w h i l e i n
A u - 0 . 8 at. p c t Sn e x t e n d e d n o d e s c o u l d o n l y be
observed after annealing.
T h u s , w h i l e both X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y a n d
electron microscope studies provide some evi-
d e n c e f o r the o c c u r r e n c e of S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n the
r e s u l t s a r e r e s t r i c t e d in s c o p e a n d i n m a n y c a s e s
ambiguous.
III. 7) C o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e A n n e a l i n g S t u d i e s
III.7 .a) I n t r o d u c t i o n
B e c a u s e of the p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e of a g r e a t
m a n y f a c t o r s it i s , at the p r e s e n t t i m e , e x t r e m e l y
d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t f u l l y the c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t
of e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a w h i c h h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n
t h i s s e c t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , c o n c i s e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s
c a n n o t be m a d e on a c c o u n t of the v a r i a b i l i t y of
t h e f i n d i n g s f r o m one s y s t e m to a n o t h e r a r i s i n g
f r o m t h e d i f f e r i n g e x t e n t s to w h i c h t h e s e f a c t o r s
exert influence. A most important consideration
i n the e v a l u a t i o n of the f i n d i n g s i s the e x t e n t to
w h i c h t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d p r o c e s s e s (or o t h e r
f a c t o r s , e.g. t h e r m a l l y i n d u c e d s t r e s s e s ) c a u s e
c h a n g e s in the f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e d u r i n g c o o l i n g
f r o m the a n n e a l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . As d i s c u s s e d in
s e c t i o n s III. 2. a. i i i a n d iv), c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s
h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d on t h i s p o i n t f r o m the o n l y
s t u d i e s m a d e w h i c h w e r e on C u - 1 5 at. pct A1 s a m -
p l e s . B e c a u s e of t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y the d a t a o b -
t a i n e d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r c o o l i n g a r e
d i s c u s s e d b e l o w i n s e c t i o n III. 7. c) on the a s s u m p -
t i o n t h a t the f i n d i n g s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of c o o l i n g
r a t e , a n d in s e c t i o n III. 7. d) w i t h o u t t h i s a s s u m p -
t i o n . F i r s t l y , h o w e v e r , a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to the
c h a n g e s in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e which o c c u r on
heating.
III.7.b) The Changes in F a u l t e d Defect Size and in
a s a Result of Heating
It i s c o n v e n i e n t to s u m m a r i z e a n d i n t e r p r e t the
r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s b y
2 4 5 4 - V O L U M E 1 , S E P T E M B E R 1970
g r o u p i n g t o g e t h e r t y p e s of m a t e r i a l s to which the
s a m e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a p p l y . T h u s , in c o b a l t
a n d C o - N i a l l o y s the t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of
7 i s due to t h e v a r i a t i o n of the s t a b l e p h a s e ( h c p /
fcc) with t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s a r e to
be e x p e c t e d f o r m a t e r i a l s in w h i c h the p h a s e
s t a b i l i t y is a l s o s t r o n g l y d e p e n d e n t on t e m p e r a t u r e
(e.g. o t h e r c o b a l t - b a s e a l l o y s , F e - M n , c e r i u m ) .
In m o s t m a t e r i a l s h a v i n g fcc s t r u c t u r e at r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e the a phase is stable over a s o m e -
what b r o a d e r c o m p o s i t i o n r a n g e a t h i g h e r t e m p e r -
a t u r e s , s u g g e s t i n g that y m a y i n c r e a s e r e v e r s i b l y
with t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s on h e a t i n g s u c h m a t e r i a l s f a l l i n t o two
b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s - - l i t t l e c h a n g e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t
size is found in alloys m o r e dilute than a c r i t i c a l
c o m p o s i t i o n (which v a r i e s f r o m o n e a l l o y s y s t e m
to a n o t h e r ) , w h e r e a s in m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s
a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n in faulted defect size is
o b s e r v e d in m a n y c a s e s .
T h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p e a r s to be c o m -
p a t i b l e with the m a j o r i t y of the e x p e r i m e n t a l
findings.
1) T h e d e c r e a s e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e a n d in
on a n n e a l i n g s a m p l e s a r i s e s for t h e m o s t p a r t
f r o m the e l i m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e r m a l a c t i v a t i o n of
s o l u t e / d i s l o c a t i o n pinning f o r c e s (solute impedance
f o r c e s ) . T h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t s a r e o b s e r v e d in m a -
t e r i a l s with s u b s t a n t i a l l o c a l s t r a i n i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s
a n d a low r e s t o r i n g f o r c e b e t w e e n p a r t i a l s (low
t r u e 7) which h a v e b e e n d e f o r m e d to h i g h s t r e s s e s
at low t e m p e r a t u r e s .
2) T h e p i n n i n g f o r c e s t e n d to l e a d t o the p r e s e n c e
of i r r e g u l a r f a u l t e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s w h i c h a r e l a r g e r
t h a n w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be the c a s e , a n d in s o m e i n -
s t a n c e s to t h e c o m p l e t e d i s s o c i a t i o n of d i s l o c a t i o n s .
3) T h e a p p a r e n t (or e f f e c t i v e ) s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a s - d e f o r m e d s a m p l e s is thus
l i k e l y to be l o w e r t h a n the t r u e v a l u e of 7, a m e a s -
u r e of the d i f f e r e n c e f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t l y f r o m the
e x t e n t to w h i c h c h a n g e s o c c u r on a n n e a l i n g .
T h e e v i d e n c e l e a d i n g to t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s i s
briefly summarized.
E l e c t r o n m i c r o g r a p h s s h o w the c o n s i d e r a b l e i n -
f l u e n c e of l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
in c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s , cf. F i g s . 10, 21, 22, 23, a n d
25, l e s s e r e f f e c t s in m o r e d i l u t e a l l o y s , cf. F i g s .
2(c) to ( f ) , 11. a n d 27, a n d the a b s e n c e of i r r e g u -
l a r i t i e s on a n n e a l i n g - c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s , cf.
F i g s . 20, 21, 22, 23, a n d 25. Hot s t a g e s t u d i e s
r e v e a l t h a t the c h a n g e s in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e p r o -
c e e d only a f t e r a p a r t i c u l a r t e m p e r a t u r e i s
r e a c h e d , cf. F i g . 23, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the p r o c e s s
is t h e r m a l l y activated.
Faulting probability studies reveal that sub-
s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n s in d i s l o c a t i o n w i d t h s c a n o c c u r
a s a r e s u l t of a n n e a l s at m o d e r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
cf. T a b l e XIV, F i g . 29.
The friction stress determined from mechanical
t e s t i n g a n d the d e g r e e of i r r e g u l a r i t y i n f a u l t e d
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s both d e c r e a s e s t r o n g l y i n the s a m e
temperature regime, suggesting their common
origin through solute impedance forces. Further-
m o r e , SwannXl~ h a s s h o w n t h a t a n a c c u r a t e q u a n -
t i t a t i v e p r e d i c t i o n of the f r i c t i o n s t r e s s in C u - 1 5 a t .
pct A1 c a n b e m a d e s o l e l y f r o m t h e m a g n i t u d e of
M E T A L L U R G I C A L TRANSACTIONS
 the s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
defect annealing studies.
It i s p e r h a p s s u r p r i s i n g in v i e w of the a b o v e i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n s in s i z e c a n
o c c u r on a n n e a l i n g a p p a r e n t l y s y m m e t r i c a l n o d e s
in c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l i d s o l u t i o n s , e.g. in F i g . 21,
a n d at B in F i g . 22. P r e s u m a b l y the f r i c t i o n s t r e s s
on the p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s i s s u f f i c i e n t to p r e v e n t
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the e q u i l i b r i u m d e f e c t s i z e , b u t
the c o n s t r a i n t s p l a c e d on the c o n f i g u r a t i o n b y the
e m e r g e n t t o t a l d i s l o c a t i o n s , t o g e t h e r with the s t r e s s
f i e l d s of the p a r t i a l s , l e a d t o a p p r o x i m a t e c o n -
f o r m i t y to the e q u i l i b r i u m s h a p e s . T h e v a r i a b i l i t y
of the r e s u l t s of a n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s , T a b l e X, f o l -
l o w s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y on t h e a b o v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
a s a r e f l e c t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of s t r a i n
i n h o m o g e n e i t y p r o b a b l y p r e s e n t i n the a l l o y s s t u d i e d
b y d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s (depender/t u p o n h o m o g e n i z a t i o n
p r o c e d u r e , i m p u r i t y c o n t e n t , a n d so f o r t h ) . T h e
v a r i a b i l i t y m a y a l s o a r i s e p a r t l y f r o m the e m p l o y -
m e n t of d i f f e r e n t s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s of n o d e s
s u i t a b l e for m e a s u r e m e n t in d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s - -
i n a t y p i c a l C u - 1 6 at. pct A1 foil f o r i n s t a n c e , a
s a m p l e of t h i r t y s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s y m m e t r i c a l n o d e s
o b s e r v e d by the p r e s e n t a u t h o r h a d i n s c r i b e d
r a d i i v a r y i n g f r o m 235 to 520/~, w h i l e a v e r y m u c h
n a r r o w e r r a n g e of s i z e s w a s p r e s e n t on a n n e a l i n g .
T h e a b s e n c e of m a r k e d c h a n g e s in f a u l t e d d e f e c t
s i z e in s i l v e r a n d i n r e l a t i v e l y d i l u t e s i l v e r - a n d
c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s s u g g e s t s t h a t the t r u e t e m p e r a -
t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of 7 (in t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , at l e a s t )
i s s l i g h t . F i g s . 24, 26, a n d 27 p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t
e v i d e n c e f o r the a b s e n c e of a n y i r r e v e r s i b l e
c h a n g e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e in p u r e s i l v e r o r
d i l u t e A g - S n a n d A g - Z n a l l o y s , w h i l e the r e s u l t s
i n F i g . 26, a n d F i g . 27, s u g g e s t t h a t ( 1 / 7 ) ( d T / d T )
i s of t h e s a m e o r d e r a n d i n the s a m e s e n s e a s
( l / G ) ( d G / d T ) in s i l v e r a n d d i l u t e A g - Z n a l l o y s .
R e p e a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e c y c l i n g of c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s
in e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e hot-stage s t u d i e s a l s o r e v e a l s
t h a t , a f t e r the i r r e v e r s i b l e d e c r e a s e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t
s i z e on t h e f i r s t c y c l e , s u b s e q u e n t h e a t i n g l e a d s to
l i t t l e c h a n g e in d e f e c t s i z e (an e x a m p l e of t h i s m a y be
s e e n in F i g . 22(d) a n d (e), f o r the f a u l t p a i r at C).
T h i s r e s u l t s u g g e s t s that in c o n c e n t r a t e d solid
s o l u t i o n s , too, the r e v e r s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e d e -
p e n d e n c e of ~ m a y be s m a l l a l t h o u g h the c o m p l i c a -
t i n g f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n III. 7. d) m u s t
be c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s c a n
be d r a w n .
III.7.c) I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Data Obtained After
A n n e a l i n g , A s s u m i n g no Dependence on Cooling
Rate
T h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the r a t e of c o o l i n g a f t e r
a n n e a l i n g d o e s not i n f l u e n c e the f a u l t e d d e f e c t
s i z e o b s e r v e d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a p p e a r s to
be f u l l y j u s t i f i e d in p u r e m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s s i l v e r
where neither partial dislocation pinning nor
S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n a r e l i k e l y to e x e r t a n y i n -
f l u e n c e , a n d c h a n g e s in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e a r i s e
s o l e l y f r o m the v a r i a t i o n of 7 with t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e a s s u m p t i o n a l s o a p p e a r s j u s t i f i e d in s o m e
d i l u t e a l l o y s ( A g - Z n , A g - S n ) , a l t h o u g h the a p p a r e n t
t e n d e n c y towards Suzuki s e g r e g a t i o n in dilute
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
A u - S n a l l o y s ~3' i n d i c a t e s t h a t it m a y n o t a p p l y
g e n e r a l l y . In m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s t h e r e is
probably a greater tendency for segregation,
o r d e r i n g , o r r e p i n n i n g to o c c u r d u r i n g c o o l i n g ,
b u t t h e r e i s a d e a r t h of i n f o r m a t i o n on the k i n e t i c s
of t h e s e p r o c e s s e s .
B y i n t e r p r e t i n g a l l the d a t a p r e s e n t e d on the
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e o b s e r v a t i o n s
a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of s a m p l e c o o l i n g r a t e a f t e r
a n n e a l i n g the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s m a y be a d d e d
to t h o s e d r a w n i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n ,
1) T h e t r u e m a g n i t u d e of 7 at r o o m t e m p e r a -
t u r e in a n a l l o y c a n be o b t a i n e d by a n n e a l i n g a
s a m p l e at a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f i t s m e l t i n g t e m -
p e r a t u r e a n d m e a s u r i n g f a u l t e d d e f e c t s at r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r c o o l i n g at a n y d e s i r e d r a t e .
2) F o r a l l o y s in which s u b s t a n t i a l s h r i n k a g e
of d e f e c t s o c c u r s on a n n e a l i n g the t r u e r o o m
t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e s of 7 c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y
g r e a t e r t h a n w o u l d be c o n c l u d e d f r o m the o b -
s e r v a t i o n of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s in an u n a n n e a l e d
s a m p l e (e.g. in C u - 1 5 at. pct A1, 7 = 10 to 15
r a t h e r t h a n ~ 5 e r g p e r sq c m ) .
3) T h e m a g n i t u d e of d T / d T c a n be d e t e r m i n e d
d i r e c t l y f r o m the o b s e r v e d v a r i a t i o n of d e f e c t
size u s i n g hot stage e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y after
f i r s t h e a t i n g the s a m p l e s u f f i c i e n t l y to e l i m i n a t e
s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e s . Such e x p e r i m e n t s , c.f.
T a b l e XI, i n d i c a t e that the r e v e r s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e
d e p e n d e n c e of 7 i s s l i g h t in c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l i d
s o l u t i o n s a s w e l l a s in p u r e m e t a l s a n d d i l u t e
alloys.
4) T h e t r u e v a l u e s of ), in c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s
a r e m o r e c l o s e l y n o r m a l i z e d when p l o t t e d
a g a i n s t e / a t h a n w e r e the v a l u e s o f )~ ( e f f e c t i v e )
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m f a u l t e d d e f e c t s in a s - d e f o r m e d
s a m p l e s . T h u s , at l e a s t p a r t of the s p r e a d in the
r e s u l t s of F i g . 9 a r i s e s f r o m the i n f l u e n c e of
s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e s of d i f f e r e n t m a g n i t u d e s
in the v a r i o u s a l l o y s y s t e m s .
III.7.d) I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Data Obtained A f t e r
A n n e a l i n g , Allowing for a Dependence on Cooling
Rate
In g e n e r a l , if the o p e r a t i o n of a t h e r m a l l y a c t i -
v a t e d p r o c e s s i s i n v o k e d in i n t e r p r e t i n g c h a n g e s
in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e on h e a t i n g t h e n the s a m e p r o -
c e s s c a n be e x p e c t e d to e x e r t a n i n f l u e n c e on
cooling. T h u s , in c o n c e n t r a t e d solid s o l u t i o n s
r e p i n n i n g of p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s by s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e
f o r c e s m a y be e x p e c t e d to l o c k f a u l t e d d e f e c t s at
a s i z e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a p a r t i c u l a r t e m p e r a t u r e
(Tc) in the a n n e a l i n g c y c l e , 82 a n d Tc w i l l d e p e n d upon
the b a r r i e r h e i g h t a r i s i n g f r o m the s t r a i n i n h o m o g e n e -
i t i e s a n d upon the r a t e of c o o l i n g . T h i s f a c t o r would
t h e r e f o r e m a s k the t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of y ,
u n l e s s a) o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to t e m p e r a t u r e s
g r e a t e r t h a n Tc, o r b) the t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e
of T l e a d s to no c h a n g e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e a n y w a y
[i.e. ( l / T ) (dT/dT) ~- ( l / G ) (dG/dT) ], o r c) h e a t i n g
l e a d s to the elimination of b a r r i e r s i n the v i c i n i t y
of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s ( r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y f r e e i n g the
p a r t i a l s f r o m l o c k i n g s i t e s ) , so t h a t the c a p a c i t y
for r e p i n n i n g d o e s not e x i s t d u r i n g c o o l i n g .
S i n c e , in g e n e r a l , t h e s e f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2455
 will not obtain, solute impedance forces can be
e x p e c t e d to i n f l u e n c e d a t a r e c o r d e d at r o o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e . If t h i s w e r e t h e o n l y t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d
p r o c e s s t o o c c u r , a n d if t h e m a g n i t u d e of the s o l u t e
i m p e d a n c e b a r r i e r h e i g h t w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t of
s a m p l e h e a t t r e a t m e n t , it w o u l d be a r e l a t i v e l y
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p r o c e d u r e to s e p a r a t e the e f f e c t s
d u e to a t r u e d e p e n d e n c e of y on t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
to the locking f o r c e s . Once again, h o w e v e r , in
g e n e r a l a r e a l s i t u a t i o n w i l l n o t be t h i s s i m p l e
since Suzuki segregation, clustering, or changes
i n t h e d e g r e e of s h o r t r a n g e o r d e r m a y w e l l o c c u r
during cooling. Besides any direct influence these
f a c t o r s m a y h a v e on ~, t h e r e i s a l s o the p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e of the s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e
will be a l t e r e d , leading to a f u r t h e r , s e c o n d a r y ,
i n f l u e n c e on the s i z e of f a u l t e d d e f e c t s . A s m u s t
b e c l e a r f r o m the p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s , n e i t h e r t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the b a s i c p r o c e s s e s w h i c h m a y
be i n v o l v e d n o r the t y p e s of e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o -
c e d u r e which have been e m p l o y e d a r e sufficient
to p e r m i t a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the l i m i t e d d a t a
available.
T h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e of the r e s u l t s a v a i l a b l e a t
the p r e s e n t t i m e w h i c h p r o h i b i t s the g e n e r a l a d o p -
t i o n of the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n s e c t i o n s III. 7. b a n d c),
i s t h a t in s o m e c a s e s a c o o l i n g r a t e d e p e n d e n t i n -
c r e a s e in f a u l t e d d e f e c t s i z e h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d
at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g . T h e f a u l t e d
defect size was larger at slow cooling rates,
s u g g e s t i n g one o r o t h e r of the f o l l o w i n g i n t e r p r e -
tations.
1) T h e d e f e c t s i n c r e a s e in s i z e due to a r e v e r s -
i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of ~ which i s m a s k e d
at f a s t e r c o o l i n g r a t e s b y the s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e
f o r c e p i n n i n g p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s 8z at a s e p a r a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a t e m p e r a t u r e (T c) r e a c h e d d u r i n g
the a n n e a l i n g t r e a t m e n t .
2) S u z u k i s e g r e g a t i o n o c c u r s d u r i n g the p r o -
longed cooling period.
3) T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s h o r t r a n g e o r d e r i n the
n e i g h b o r h o o d of a n existing d e f e c t c a u s e s it to i n -
c r e a s e in s i z e (this e f f e c t i s i n the o p p o s i t e s e n s e
to t h a t p o s t u l a t e d w h e n a d e f e c t i s i n t r o d u c e d t o
a n o r d e r e d c r y s t a l ) . 117
It w o u l d be a g r e a t a d v a n t a g e if O c c a m ' s R a z o r ~z
c o u l d b e a p p l i e d in i n t e r p r e t i n g the r e s u l t s , b u t
u n f o r t u n a t e l y i n the a l l o y s which h a v e b e e n m o s t
s t u d i e d it a p p e a r s e s s e n t i a l to c o n s i d e r the e f f e c t
of a t l e a s t t h r e e f a c t o r s , n a m e l y , dT/dT, s o l u t e
impedance forces, and ordering. Future experi-
m e n t s w o u l d be of g r e a t e r v a l u e if t h e y w e r e to
be p e r f o r m e d on a l l o y s i n w h i c h the p r o p e n s i t y f o r
o r d e r i n g , s e g r e g a t i o n , locking, and so forth is
k n o w n . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so if the m a t e r i a l s
c h o s e n f o r s t u d y , o r the d e s i g n of the e x p e r i m e n t
(e.g. t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e of the o b s e r v a t i o n s )
p e r m i t the e v a l u a t i o n of the v a r i o u s f a c t o r s
separately.
IV. T H E F U N C T I O N A L D E P E N D E N C E
O F ~ ON A L L O Y I N G
IV. 1) D i l u t e A l l o y s
I n a l l o y s of c o m m o n f c c s t r u c t u r e s o l v e n t s
(Ag, C u , Au, A1, N i ) a n d B - s u b g r o u p s o l u t e s a c o n -
2456-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970
s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e of s o l i d s o l u b i l i t y c a n u s u a l l y
o c c u r b e f o r e t h e fee s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s e n e r g e t i c -
a l l y u n f a v o r a b l e . T h e e/a r a t i o at t h e p h a s e b o u n -
d a r y i s g e n e r a l l y in the r a n g e 1.30 to 1.40. V i e w i n g
the a l l o y i n g p r o c e s s a s a g r a d u a l e x p a n s i o n of the
F e r m i s u r f a c e to m a k e c o n t a c t with the B r i l l o u i n
Zone leads to the expectation that s m a l l solute
a d d i t i o n s to a s o l v e n t w i l l c a u s e a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e
in the s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y . A l l s t u d i e s of ~ i n
d i l u t e a l l o y s u s i n g the n o d e t e c h n i q u e h a v e l e d to
r e s u l t s i n a c c o r d with t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n (data on
A g - I n , Is A g - S n , 18 A g - Z n , 23 a n d o t h e r s i l v e r -
b a s e 2z a l l o y s ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s
w h i c h s u g g e s t the p o s s i b i l i t y of e i t h e r a strong
d e c r e a s e or any i n c r e a s e in ~ for d i l u t e a l l o y s of
this type have a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by
f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n the m a g n i t u d e of the f a u l t e n e r g y .
S i n c e a n o m a l o u s r e s u l t s h a v e a r i s e n in s y s t e m s
w h i c h a r e n o t p r o n e to o r d e r i n g t h e i r c a u s e in m a n y
c a s e s w o u l d a p p e a r to be d i r e c t s o l u t e / d i s l o c a t i o n
i n t e r a c t i o n s ( s o l u t e in the f o r m of c l u s t e r s o r p r e -
c i p i t a t e s , o r p o s s i b l y e v e n the s t r a i n f i e l d s of i n -
d i v i d u a l a t o m s ) . S u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e s in the s h o r t
r a n g e flow s t r e s s a n d i n o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
of e x t r e m e l y d i l u t e s i l v e r - 1 3 a n d c o p p e r -1~9 b a s e
a l l o y s s u p p o r t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n . T h e low v a l u e s for
TAu d e t e r m i n e d by the l"s technique4, 8'3a s e e T a b l e III,
c o u l d a l s o be d u e to the m a r k e d a b s e n c e of s t r o n g
l o c k i n g e f f e c t s which m a y be e x p e c t e d in g o l d ,
s i n c e the p r e s e n c e of s o l u t e i m p e d a n c e f o r c e
a p p e a r s to b e c a p a b l e of e n h a n c i n g c r o s s s l i p a n d
l e a d i n g to t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of a h i g h v a l u e f o r
(effective).
I n a d d i t i o n to the a n o m a l i e s o b s e r v e d in the
m e a s u r a b l e p a r a m e t e r s of s i n g l e c r y s t a l s t r e s s
s t r a i n c u r v e s ( c i t e d in e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s ) u n u s u a l
r e s u l t s h a v e a l s o b e e n o b t a i n e d in s t u d i e s of the
texture developed after severe rolling reduction
on p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e s a m p l e s . T h e t e x t u r e d e v e l o p e d
in the a l l o y s C u - 0 . 2 at. pct G e , 57 C u - 0 . 1 2 at. pct
Sn, s7 a n d C u - l . 6 at. pct Si 8~ w a s i n a l l c a s e s s u g -
g e s t i v e of a h i g h e r f a u l t e n e r g y t h a n ~Cu- In a l l t h e s e
a l l o y s , h o w e v e r , the X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y w a s
f o u n d to b e g r e a t e r t h a n in p u r e c o p p e r s u g g e s t i n g
a d e c r e a s e i n ), on a l l o y i n g . A c c o r d i n g l y , the
a n o m a l y i n the t e x t u r e s t u d i e s m a y w e l l h a v e
a r i s e n f r o m the i n f l u e n c e of e n h a n c e d s o l u t e /
l o c k i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s at a s p e c i f i c s o l u t e c o n t e n t .
S h o u l d t h i s b e the c a s e it i s p e r h a p s s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t the m a g n i t u d e of ~ i s not a l s o a f f e c t e d , a n d
that a l a r g e r i r r e v e r s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e dependence
of n o d e s i z e i s not o b s e r v e d a t t h e s e s p e c i f i c
s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (for i n s t a n c e ~ i n the node
s t u d i e s of F i g . 26, s i n c e a m a x i m u m i n ~ In r ~ /
a In ~ w a s o b s e r v e d in a Ag=2.2 at. p c t Z n alloy75).
T h e m o s t r e a s o n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n a p p e a r s to be
that the d y n a m i c b e h a v i o r of d i s l o c a t i o n s i s
s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d , but that s t a t i c d i s l o c a t i o n c o n -
f i g u r a t i o n s a r e not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d .
E x a m p l e s of r e s u l t s w h i c h s u g g e s t a n e x t r e m e l y
strong decrease in T a s a r e s u l t of s l i g h t a l l o y i n g
a d d i t i o n s a r e s h o w n in F i g . 31. T h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i -
t u d e s of ~ i n the i n t e r n o b l e m e t a l a l l o y s w e r e d e -
t e r m i n e d b y V a s s a m i l l e t a n d M a s s a l s k i 77 f r o m X -
r a y faulting p r o b a b i l i t y data by a s s u m i n g ~ p r o p o r -
t i o n a l to 1/or. T h e m a g n i t u d e of c~ w a s f o u n d to
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
 i n c r e a s e by a f a c t o r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 f r o m i t s
v a l u e i n the p u r e s o l v e n t on a d d i n g 1 at. p c t of
Au o r Ag to c o p p e r , a n d 1 a t . pct of Ag o r Cu to
gold. It i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y , h o w e v e r , t h a t a
70 p c t r e d u c t i o n in 7Cu o r YAu c a n be a c h i e v e d b y
s u c h s l i g h t a l l o y i n g a d d i t i o n s . N o r i s it l i k e l y t h a t
the r e s u l t s c a n be e x p l a i n e d b y a m a r k e d i n c r e a s e
in d i s l o c a t i o n d e n s i t y on a l l o y i n g , s i n c e o n l y a
s m a l l c h a n g e i n ~ i s o b s e r v e d on a d d i n g the
s a m e a m o u n t of e i t h e r c o p p e r o r gold to s i l v e r .
A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t the l e v e l of o r d e r in
the a l l o y s r e s u l t s in the p r e s e n c e of d i s l o c a t i o n s
with p a r t i a l s l o c k e d in n o n e q u i l i b r i u m s p a c i n g s
w h i c h w i l l , o n a v e r a g e , be m o r e w i d e l y s p l i t t h a n
i n a m a t r i x with no l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d r e c o v e r y c a n be e x p e c t e d to
i n f l u e n c e ~ m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e at r o o m t e m p e r a -
t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the p u r e m e t a l f i l i n g s . T h e
r e a s o n f o r the s i m i l a r i t y i n the m a g n i t u d e of
i n a l l t h e d i l u t e a l l o y s c o u l d be t h a t ~ i s d e t e r -
m i n e d m o r e b y the d e g r e e of n o n e q u i l i b r i u m
s t r u c t u r e in the f i l i n g s t h a n b y the m a g n i t u d e of 7.
A l t h o u g h a d e t a i l e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the c o n -
t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s to a n o m a l o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l r e -
s u l t s i n d i l u t e a l l o y s i s l a c k i n g , the m o s t r e a s o n a b l e
u r e m e n t s at e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , and a r e thus
u n l i k e l y to h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d in a n y way by
dislocation locking forces. The extrapolated values
of ~ ~ 10 to 20 e r g p e r s q c m at the f c c / h c p b o u n -
d a r y i n the C o - N i s y s t e m a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r
t h a n t h o s e d e t e r m i n e d b y Ruff a n d I v e s in the Ag-
Sn s y s t e m . F a u l t e d d e f e c t s w e r e e x a m i n e d by
t h e s e a u t h o r s i n a l l o y s of both fcc a n d h c p s t r u c -
t u r e , a n d in both fcc ( A g - 1 0 . 3 at. p c t Sn) a n d hcp
( A g - l l . 6 at. p c t Sn) g r a i n s in a t w o - p h a s e a l l o y .
T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s on n o d e s a n d f a u l t p a i r s i n A g - 1 0 . 3
at. p c t Sn r e v e a l e d t h a t ~ ( e f f e c t i v e ) 5 1 e r g p e r sq
c m , w h i l e y effective --- 2 e r g p e r s'q c m w a s d e t e r -
, 1
0 '/ -t--'-, ". . . ".
Ag INCREASING C u ~ ~INCREASING Ag Cu
!

/
c o n c l u s i o n a t the p r e s e n t t i m e a p p e a r s to be t h a t ,.~'4
m a r k e d v a r i a t i o n s in y do n o t o c c u r a s a r e s u l t of
s m a l l s o l u t e a d d i t i o n s to p u r e m e t a l s . T h i s c o n -
c l u s i o n i s s u p p o r t e d on a f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l b y the
e l e c t r o n i c t h e o r y of a l l o y i n g a n d i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
the e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d i n g s o b t a i n e d b y the m o s t
direct techniques.
A INCREASING At* ~- ,.,,m-----INCREASING A(} Au
4
IV. 2) C o n c e n t r a t e d S o l i d S o l u t i o n s
It h a s b e e n k n o w n s i n c e the e a r l i e s t e l e c t r o n
/
_t,/
m i c r o s c o p e s t u d i e s w e r e m a d e on high s o l u t e c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n a l l o y s t h a t the s u b s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s
l a r g e l y of c o m p l e t e l y d i s s o c i a t e d d i s l o c a t i o n s , t h e
p a r t i a l d i s l o c a t i o n s b e i n g c o n n e c t e d b y b a n d s of
s t a c k i n g f a u l t . A n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s , of w h i c h F i g s .
0'\i0 2
l
4 4 2 0
22 a n d 25 a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , h a v e r e v e a l e d , h o w - Cu INCREASING Au ~ ~ INCREASING Cu Au
e v e r , that heat t r e a t m e n t at quite m o d e r a t e t e m - at. % SOLUTE
p e r a t u r e s l e a d s to a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n in the Fig. 31--The variation ofy (assumed proportional to 1/c~) in
n u m b e r of f a u l t s a n d t h e i r e x t e n s i o n . T h u s , in internoble metal alloys (after Vassamillet and Massalski77).
a d d i t i o n to the i n t e r e s t on t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d s it
i s a l s o of p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e to know the t r u e
m a g n i t u d e of y i n c o n c e n t r a t e d a l l o y s r a t h e r t h a n
m e r e l y the a p p a r e n t v a l u e w h i c h i s c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s on e x t e n d e d d e f e c t s a f t e r
room temperature deformation. The climb rate
of d i s l o c a t i o n s into s u b b o u n d a r i e s d u r i n g d e f o r -
m a t i o n at e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s i s a n e x a m p l e
of a f a c t o r of s o m e i m p o r t a n c e w h i c h is s t r o n g l y
d e p e n d e n t on the t r u e m a g n i t u d e of y. A s s h o w n
in F i g . 32 e x t e n s i v e s u b b o u n d a r i e s a r e f o r m e d
d u r i n g the d e f o r m a t i o n of a C u - 1 6 at. pct AI
s i n g l e c r y s t a l at 800 ~ C, in s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to
the s u b s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t a f t e r r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e
deformation.
T h e m a g n i t u d e of y at the p h a s e b o u n d a r y s e p a -
r a t i n g f c c a n d h c p c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e s i s of p a r -
ticular interest, and measurements have been
m a d e in t h r e e s y s t e m s , C o - N i , Ag-Sn, and C u - G e .
T h e r e s u l t s in the C o - N i s y s t e m s h o w n in F i g . Fig. 32--An extensive subboundary in a slip plane section of
28 h a v e the a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g b a s e d on node m e a s - Cu-16 at. pct A1 after tensile deformation at 800~C.

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2457

 m i n e d f o r the A g - l l . 6 a t . p c t Sn alloy. T h e s e v a l u e s -I
IO
for a l l o y s with the p h a s e b o u n d a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s h

a r e in good a c c o r d with t h e e x t r a p o l a t e d v a l u e s
b
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s t u d i e s i n both f c c a n d h c p
p h a s e s , u~ T h e a c t u a l , e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e of u
a t t h e p h a s e b o u n d a r y m a y be s o m e w h a t h i g h e r a s
s u g g e s t e d b y a n n e a l i n g s t u d i e s , F i g s . 24 a n d 25, j
j
but s t i l l l e s s t h a n ~ 3 e r g p e r sq c m .
O b s e r v a t i o n s on high s o l u t e c o n t e n t a l l o y s i n the
Cu-Ge system revealed that most dislocations *o
are completely dissociated--however, as listed
i n T a b l e XI, n o d e s w e r e o b s e r v e d in a C u - 9 . 2 at.
p c t Ge s a m p l e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g a n d i n d i c a t e d 7 ~ 4.3
e r g p e r sq c m . Q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e
n o t b e e n m a d e on a t w o - p h a s e C u - G e a l l o y , b u t a
c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d the p r e s e n c e of s o m e 162 _ _
:/"
9 0

u n d i s s o c i a t e d d i s l o c a t i o n s a s well as stacking
f a u l t s . T h u s , o b s e r v a t i o n s c l o s e t o the f c c / h c p
p h a s e b o u n d a r y in three s y s t e m s r e v e a l that
e x t r a p o l a t e s to f r o m ~ 3 to 20 e r g p e r sq c m ,
/
with the h i g h e s t e x t r a p o l a t e d v a l u e s o b s e r v e d i n
Ag-Sn Ag-ln
cobalt and Co-Ni alloys.
D 9 Adler and Wagner, 1962
R a t h e r h i g h v a l u e s of 7 h a v e a l s o b e e n d e t e r m i n e d
a f t e r a n n e a l i n g t r e a t m e n t s in c o n c e n t r a t e d solid A 9 Davis and Cahn, 1962
s o l u t i o n s of C u - Z n , C u - A 1 , a n d C u - S i . T h e r e s u l t s Newton and R u f f , 1966
a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r a n n e a l i n g in T a b l e XI
s u g g e s t t h a t ~ ~ 17 e r g p e r sq c m in C u - 3 0 a t .
p c t Z n (phase b o u n d a r y a t C u - 3 9 at. pct Zn), ~,
10 to 14 e r g p e r s q c m in Cu-16 at. pct A1 ( b o u n -
d a r y a t C u - 1 9 . 6 at. p c t A1), a n d ~ ~ 5.7 e r g p e r l0-3 I I I I I I
s q c m in C u - 8 . 6 at. pct Si ( b o u n d a r y at C u - 1 0 at. 0 0. I 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
p c t Si). T h u s , t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s f r o m s t u d i e s (C/I+C)
i n s e v e r a l a l l o y s y s t e m s t h a t the f a u l t e n e r g y c a n Fig. 33--Semi-log plot o f a v s c/(1 + c) in the Ag-Sn and Ag-
be g r e a t e r t h a n 10 e r g p e r s q c m c l o s e to the p h a s e In series {after Liu and GallagherilS).
boundary.

IV. 3) T h e F o r m of the V a r i a t i o n of
7 ( e f f e c t i v e ) a n d c~ with A l l o y i n g
T h e v a r i a t i o n of the X - r a y f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y
with fractional solute concentration was described
i n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s by the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
ot = a o exp kl & Z l x -- Oto e x p k ( e / a - 1) [1]
w h e r e a o i s the f a u l t p r o b a b i l i t y i n the s o l v e n t ,
&Z the v a l e n c e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s o l u t e a n d
s o l v e n t , a n d k i s a c o n s t a n t . By a l e a s t s q u a r e s
fit of p u b l i s h e d d a t a u s i n g a p o l y n o m i a l e x p a n s i o n
a m o r e e x a c t r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d ~s
which provides a straight line relationship between
a and alloying concentration,
Ina =Inao+k a (c/(1 + c ) ) [3]
I n t h i s e x p r e s s i o n c = x / x * , w h e r e x i s the a l l o y i n g
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , x* i s the s o l u b i l i t y l i m i t at h i g h t e m -
p e r a t u r e , a n d k a i s a c o n s t a n t for a g i v e n a l l o y
s e r i e s . W r i t i n g the e x p r e s s i o n in t e r m s of x / x *
p r o v i d e s a n o r m a l i z i n g e f f e c t s i m i l a r to t h a t
w h i c h a r i s e s b y u s i n g t h e e / a r a t i o , but with the
a d v a n t a g e t h a t the s o l u b i l i t y l i m i t i s in s o m e
s y s t e m s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y k n o w n t h a n i s the
e f f e c t i v e v a l e n c e of the s o l u t e . In a n u m b e r of
s i l v e r - b a s e s y s t e m s which have b e e n e x a m i n e d
k a i s g e n e r a l l y in the r a n g e 6.2 • 0.5, but i s
l o w e r in t h o s e b i n a r y s y s t e m s f o r m e d with t h e
divalent solutes magnesium, zinc, or cadmium.
F i g . 33 i s a s e m i l o g plot of c~ v s c / ( 1 + c ) in t h e
A g - S n a n d A g - I n s e r i e s , the e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a
having been derived from several different
s t u d i e s . E v a l u a t i o n of the r e s u l t s of a l l a v a i l a b l e
s t u d i e s y i e l d s a n e x t r a p o l a t e d v a l u e of a = 3.02
• 0.14 9 10 -3 for p u r e s i l v e r .
An e x p r e s s i o n has also been d e r i v e d r e l a t i n g
(effective) and alloying c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
In V/To = k 3, (c/(1 + c)) 2 [4]
w h e r e ~'o i s the f a u l t e n e r g y of the s o l v e n t m e t a l .
T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d on the p r e m i s e
t h a t both ~, a n d a d e p e n d on the s a m e f o r m of
c o m p o s i t i o n p a r a m e t e r , a n d a n a l y s i s of the e x -
p r e s s i o n I n V/Vo = f (c/(1 + c)) f o r d a t a i n the A g - I n
and A g - S n s e r i e s r e v e a l e d that the function
f (c/(1 + c)) h a d a n e g l i g i b l e f i r s t o r d e r t e r m b u t a
p r e d o m i n a n t s e c o n d o r d e r t e r m . F i g . 34 i s a s e m i -
log plot of ~, v s (c/(1 + c)) 2 w h i c h s h o w s the d e g r e e of
fit to the A g - I n a n d A g - S n d a t a . T h e v a r i a t i o n of
the f a u l t i n g p r o b a b i l i t y with s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
in c o p p e r - b a s e alloys is also d e s c r i b e d well by
Eq. [3] d e s p i t e the r e l a t i o n s h i p h a v i n g b e e n f o r m u -
l a t e d f r o m d a t a on s i l v e r - b a s e a l l o y s . T h u s , it i s
n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t the v a r i a t i o n of 7
with s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in c o p p e r - b a s e a l l o y s
m a y be d e s c r i b e d b y Eq.[4] e n a b l i n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e
e x t r a p o l a t i o n to be m a d e b e y o n d the r a n g e c o v e r e d
b y the node t e c h n i q u e . E x t r a p o l a t i o n s of t h i s n a -
t u r e f r o m d a t a in C u - Z n , C u - A I , C u - G e , a n d C u - S i

2458-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970 METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS


0.1
Ag-ln" o Gollagher and Washburn, 1966
Ag-Sn 9 Ruff and Ives,1967
o.o~ I I
O 0.1 0.2
( C / l + C }z
Fig. 34--Semi-log plot ofy vs [ c / ( 1 + c)] 2 in the Ag-Sn and
Ag-In series (after Liu and Gallagher135).
a l l o y s s u g g e s t t h a t YCu = 48 + 10 e r g p e r s q c m a s
l i s t e d in T a b l e II. As an e x a m p l e t h e plot f o r t h e
C u - S i s e r i e s i s s h o w n in F i g . 35, t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
s e t of d a t a l e a d i n g to an e x t r a p o l a t e d v a l u e of )~Cu
55 e r g p e r s q c m . A p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s a m e p r o -
c e d u r e t o l e s s c o m p l e t e d a t a in t h e A u - S n s e r i e s
l e d to ~Au ~ 42 e r g p e r s q c m .
S i n c e t h e v a l u e s of the f a u l t e n e r g y u s e d to d a t e
in the a n a l y s i s a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s
m a d e a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e E q . [4] c a n o n l y be
c o n s i d e r e d a s a d e s c r i p t i o n of the f u n c t i o n a l d e -
p e n d e n c e of the e f f e c t i v e f a u l t e n e r g y . N e v e r t h e -
l e s s , it i s of u s e in l e a d i n g to m o r e a c c u r a t e e x -
t r a p o l a t i o n of d a t a b e y o n d th e r a n g e of a p p l i c a b i l i t y
of the n o d e and f a u l t p a i r t e c h n i q u e s .
V) S U M M A R Y
V. 1) T h e S t a c k i n g F a u l t E n e r g y in F c c E l e m e n t s
R e c e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e r a t e of l o o p a n n e a l i n g ,
of t h e s t a b i l i t y of t e t r a h e d r a i n t r o d u c e d by d e f o r m a -
t i o n , o f f a u l t e d d i p o l e s , a n d of t h e t e x t u r e d e v e l o p e d
by r o l l i n g h a v e l e d to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of m u c h m o r e
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the m a g n i t u d e of T f o r m a -
t e r i a l s in w h i c h e x t e n d e d n o d e s o r e x t r i n s i c - i n t r i n -
s i c f a u l t p a i r s c a n n o t be o b s e r v e d . T h u s , it is no
l o n g e r e s s e n t i a l to e s t i m a t e t h e f a u l t e n e r g y of C u ,
A u , AI, a n d N i b y e x t r a p o l a t i n g n o d e d a t a o r n o r -
malized X-ray faulting probability results, although
the e x t r a p o l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , too, have been i m p r o v e d
a nd n o w l e a d to m o r e r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s . R e a s o n a b l e
e s t i m a t e s of ),, p r o b a b l y a c c u r a t e to ~20 p c t , a r e :
TAg = 21.6 e r g p e r sq c m , Vpb = 30 e r g p e r s q c m ,
~Au = 50 e r g p e r s q c m , ~Cu = 55 e r g p e r s q c m .
TA1 = 200 e r g p e r s q c m a n d )'Ni = 2 5 0 e r g p e r s q c m .
E s t i m a t e s of y in o t h e r e l e m e n t s f r o m s c a l e d
r o l l i n g t e x t u r e d a t a m a y be s u b j e c t to r a t h e r l a r g e r
e r r o r s , but a r e the b e s t v a l u e s a v a i l a b l e at the
p r e s e n t t i m e : YC- < 5 e r g p e r s q c m , ~Yb < 10 e r g
p e r s q a m , ~Th = ~ 0 e r g p e r s q c m , )~Pt = "/5 e r g p e r
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
I00
D
m
m
5o \
-\
\
\
2O
?" 2
(ergs/crn)
I0
5 -
Cu-Si
o Nordstrom and B a r r e t t , 1969
2 - 9 Gollogher (unpublished)
t I 1
0 0.1 0.2
2
(C/l+C)
Fig. 35--Semi-log plot of3~ vs [c/(1 + c)] 2 in the Cu-Si series
(after Liu and Gallagher13~).
s q c m , ) ' p d = 130 e r g p e r s q c m , a n d YRh = 330 e r g
p e r sq c m . A d v a n c e s h a v e b e e n m a d e in t h e o r e t i c a l
e s t i m a t e s of n 8 f o r p u r e m a t e r i a l s , but d i f f i -
c u l t i e s a r e s t i l l e x p e r i e n c e d in a p p l y i n g t h e t r e a t -
m e n t s to n o b l e m e t a l s on a c c o u n t of t h e i r c o m p l e x
electronic structure.
V. 2) T h e S t a c k i n g F a u l t E n e r g y in A l l o y s
M u c h n e w d a t a , a n d the a p p l i c a t i o n of c o r r e c t i o n s
to e a r l i e r r e s u l t s , h a v e l e d to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of a
s a t i s f a c t o r y a m o u n t of n u m e r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e i n f o r -
m a t i o n f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n of ~ ( e f f e c t i v e ) with a l l o y i n g ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in s y s t e m s w i t h c o p p e r , s i l v e r , a nd
n i c k e l a s s o l v e n t s . T h e f o r m of the v a r i a t i o n with
B - g r o u p s o l u t e s in a l l c a s e s f o l l o w s t h e p a t t e r n
e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e e a r l i e s t s t u d i e s in t h a t ), d e -
c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a nd
c o n s i d e r a b l e n o r m a l i z a t i o n of t h e d a t a i s a c h i e v e d
in p l o t s with t h e e l e c t r o n - a t o m r a t i o a s a b s c i s s a .
R e c e n t s t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t that in a l l o y s of t w o
fcc elements having complete mutual solubility,
a l l c o m p o s i t i o n s h a v e y i n t e r m e d i a t e in v a l u e b e -
t w e e n t h e f a u l t e n e r g i e s of the c o m p o n e n t m e t a l s .
Such n o b l e m e t a l - t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l a l l o y s a s h a v e
b e e n s t u d i e d h a v e y of t h e s a m e o r d e r a s in t he
p u r e n o b l e m e t a l . C o n t r a r y to e a r l y s t u d i e s , c o n -
siderable extrinsic-intrinsic faulting has recently
b e e n o b s e r v e d in c o p p e r - , s i l v e r - , an d g o l d - b a s e
a l l o y s , a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s on f a u l t p a i r s h a v e r e -
v e a l e d t h a t t h e e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c f a u l t e n e r g i e s
are approximately equal. There is good evidence
VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970-2459
for the fault energy in several alloy systems having ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
a magnitude markedly greater than zero close to
I am grateful to many colleagues for stimulating
phase boundaries (even fcc/hcp boundaries), in
discussions, p a r t i c u l a r l y L . M . B r o w n , Y. C . L i u ,
s o m e c a s e s i n e x c e s s o f 10 e r g p e r s q c m . A d -
a n d C. L. M a g e e . S e v e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h A. W.
vances have been made in establishing the varia-
R u f f , J r . , P . H a a s e n , T . C. T i s o n e , G. F. B o l l i n g ,
t i o n w i t h a l l o y i n g o f ~, ( e f f e c t i v e ) a n d o f t h e
a n d J. A. E a d e s h a v e b e e n m o s t v a l u a b l e . T h a n k s
faulting probability through curve fitting. Accord-
a r e e x t e n d e d t o W . G. T r u c k n e r , D . E . M i k k o l a ,
ingly, more accurate extrapolation of node results
A . W . R u f f , J r . , a n d L . K. I v e s f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o
b e y o n d the r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e c h n i q u e
use photographs and unpublished results.
and a better procedure for the normalization of
X - r a y d a t a to a s i n g l e v a l u e of 7 a r e p o s s i b l e . T h e
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2460-VOLUME 1,SEPTEMBER 1970 METAI.LURGI('AL TRANSACTIONS

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VOLUME 1 , S E P T E M B E R 1 9 7 0 - 2 4 6 1