As of 2006, titanium dioxide has been regarded as "completely nontoxic".

[4] Widely-occurring minerals and even gemstones are composed of TiO2. All
natural titanium, comprising more than 0.5% of the Earth's crust, exists as oxides. Although no evidence points to acute toxicity, recurring concerns
have been expressed about nanophase forms of these materials. Studies of workers with high exposure to TiO2 particles indicate that even at high
exposure there is no adverse effect to human health.[81]

The European Union removed the authorization to use titanium dioxide (E 171) in foods, effective 7 February 2022, with a six months grace period.[82]

Titanium dioxide dust, when inhaled, has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as an IARC Group 2B
carcinogen, meaning it is possibly carcinogenic to humans.[83][84] The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends two separate
exposure limits. NIOSH recommends that fine TiO
2 particles be set at an exposure limit of 2.4 mg/m , while ultrafine TiO
3

2 be set at an exposure limit of 0.3 mg/m , as time-weighted average concentrations up to 10 hours a day for a 40-hour work week.
3 [85]

As of May 2023, following the European Union 2022 ban, the U.S. states California and New York were considering banning the use of titanium dioxide
in foods.[86]

Environmental waste introduction[edit]

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is mostly introduced into the environment as nanoparticles via wastewater treatment plants.[87] Cosmetic pigments including
titanium dioxide enter the wastewater when the product is washed off into sinks after cosmetic use. Once in the sewage treatment plants, pigments
separate into sewage sludge which can then be released into the soil when injected into the soil or distributed on its surface. 99% of these
nanoparticles wind up on land rather than in aquatic environments due to their retention in sewage sludge.[87] In the environment, titanium dioxide
nanoparticles have low to negligible solubility and have been shown to be stable once particle aggregates are formed in soil and water surroundings.
[87]
In the process of dissolution, water-soluble ions typically dissociate from the nanoparticle into solution when thermodynamically unstable.
TiO2 dissolution increases when there are higher levels of dissolved organic matter and clay in the soil. However, aggregation is promoted by pH at the
isoelectric point of TiO2 (pH= 5.8) which renders it neutral and solution ion concentrations above 4.5 mM.[88][89]

National policies on food additive use[edit]

TiO2 whitener in food was banned in France from 2020, due to uncertainty about safe quantities for human consumption.[90]

In 2021, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) ruled that as a consequence of new understandings of nanoparticles, titanium dioxide could "no
longer be considered safe as a food additive", and the EU health commissioner announced plans to ban its use across the EU, with discussions
beginning in June 2021. EFSA concluded that genotoxicity—which could lead to carcinogenic effects—could not be ruled out, and that a "safe level for
daily intake of the food additive could not be established".[91] In 2022, the UK Food Standards Agency and Food Standards Scotland announced their
disagreement with the EFSA ruling, and did not follow the EU in banning titanium dioxide as a food additive.[92] Health Canada similarly reviewed the
available evidence in 2022 and decided not to change their position on titanium dioxide as a food additive.[93]

As of 2024, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States permits titanium dioxide as a food additive. It is commonly used to increase
whiteness and opacity in dairy products (lowfat milk, cream, ice cream, yogurt, etc), candies, frostings, fillings, and many other foods. The FDA permits
the product's ingredients list to identify titanium dioxide as "color added" or "artificial colors" and does not require that titanium dioxide be explicitly
named.[94][95][96]

Research as an ingestible nanomaterial[edit]

Due to the potential that long-term ingestion of titanium dioxide may be toxic, particularly to cells and functions of the gastrointestinal tract, preliminary
research as of 2021 was assessing its possible role in disease development, such as inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer.[97]

Culture and society[edit]

Companies such as Dunkin' Donuts dropped titanium dioxide from their merchandise in 2015 after public pressure.[98] Andrew Maynard, director of Risk
Science Center at the University of Michigan, rejected the supposed danger from use of titanium dioxide in food. He says that the titanium dioxide used
by Dunkin' Brands and many other food producers is not a new material, and it is not a nanomaterial either. Nanoparticles are typically smaller than
100 nanometres in diameter, yet most of the particles in food grad